MOVEMENT AND POSITION

Speed:
 Speed (measured in meters per second) is the distance moved by an object each second.
 The average speed of an object is given by the equation:

You can rearrange the equation with the help of the formula triangle:

Independent variable: what you change.

Dependent variable: what you measure.
Control variable: what you keep the same.

Distance-time Graphs:

 A horizontal line means stationary. (A)

 A straight line means constant speed. (B)
 If the gradient increases the object is speeding up (accelerating). (C)
 If the gradient decreases the object is slowing down (decelerating). (D)
 If the line is going down, the object is moving backwards. (E)

The speed of an object is given by the gradient of the line.

 
Velocity:
Speed of an object in a particular direction.

velocity = displacement / time taken

Units:
 M/s (S.I unit)
 Km/h

Velocity-Time Graph:
A Velocity-time graph shows how the velocity (or speed) of an object changes over time.

The acceleration of an object is given by the gradient of the graph:

 If the line is horizontal, the velocity is constant (no acceleration).

 If the line slopes upwards, then the object is accelerating (speeding up).
 If the line goes down, then the object is decelerating (slowing down).

The distance travelled by an object can be found by determining the area beneath the graph.

If the area beneath the graph forms a triangle (the object is accelerating or decelerating) then the area
can be determined using the formula:

area = ½ × base × height

If the area beneath the graph is a rectangle (constant velocity) then the area can be determined using
the formula:

area = base × height

 Remember to include units when giving your answers:

o The units of acceleration, for example, are m/s 2
 When asked to find the distance, start by stating
distance = area beneath graph
 A common mistake is to try and find distance using the distance-speed-time equation. This
equation will not work if the speed of the object is changing.
 Lines that slope downwards have negative gradients and so can be said to have negative
accelerations: This is the same thing as a deceleration. Don’t worry about this, though – you
can use either term to describe it.

Acceleration:
 Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity: In other words, how much the velocity of an
object changes by every second.
 Acceleration is given by the equation (where u is the initial velocity of an object and v is its final
velocity):

You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:

 The units of acceleration are m/s2, which mean the same thing as m/s/s – the change in velocity
(in m/s) every second.
Equations of uniformly accelerated motion:
You must remember the equation:

If the acceleration of an object is known, you can determine how its speed changes over time, using the
equation:

final speed = initial speed + acceleration time

v=u+a×t
Where:
o u = initial speed
o v = final speed
o a = acceleration
o t = time
If you don’t know how long the object accelerates for but you do know how far it travels, a different
equation can be used:

(final speed)2 = (initial speed)2 + (2 × acceleration × distance moved)

v2 = u2 + (2 × a × s)
Where:
o s = distance travelled
o u = initial speed
o v = final speed
o a = acceleration
Example:
cylinder containing a vaccine is dropped from a helicopter hovering at a height of 200 m above the
ground. The acceleration due to gravity is 10m/s2. Calculate the speed at which the cylinder will hit the
ground.
You are given the acceleration,
a= 10 mls2, and the distance, s = 200 m,
through which the cylinder moves. The initial velocity, u, is not stated, but you assume it is 0 m/s as the
helicopter is hovering (staying in one place in the air). Substitute these values in the given equation:
v2 = u2 + 2as
= 0 m/s2 + (2 x 10 m/s2 x 200 m)
= 4000 m2/s2
therefore, v = (4000 m2/s2)
= 63.25 m/s
Distance:
Actual length of the path
Displacement:
The distance between the initial and final point in a particular direction.
B C

A D

Distance = AB+BC+CD
Displacement = AD in a particular direction

In physics the quantities are divided into 2 groups:

1-Scalar:
The quantities that have magnitude with the unit. They don’t have direction
2-Vectors:
Quantities that are described by its magnitude as well as the direction.
 FORCES AND SHAPES

What is a force?
Force is a push or a pull
Forces can affect bodies in several different ways:
 They can change their speed
 They can change their direction
 They can change their shape

Different Forces:
Forces you should be aware of include:
 Weight – the name given to the force of gravity on a mass.
 Electrostatic force – the force between two charges
 Thrust – a force pushing an object forward (such as the force from a car engine)
 Air resistance (or drag) – the friction of the air on a moving object.
 Up thrust – the force of a fluid (such as water) pushing an object upwards (making it float)
 Compression – forces that are squashing an object
 Tension – forces that are stretching an object.
 Reaction force – a force due to contact between two objects
 Friction -- force that opposes the motion of an object
 Magnetic – force caused by magnetic attraction
 Lift – upward force on an airplane
 Gravity -- the force that attracts a body toward the center of the earth

Contact force
A force that can cause or change motion of an object by touching it. Motors and gears operate through
contact forces.
Examples:
Friction – air resistance – applied force
Reaction force Tension
An object at rest on a surface experiences An object that is being stretched experiences a
reaction force. For example, a book on a table. tension force. For example, a cable holding a
. ceiling lamp
Friction Air resistance

Non-contact force
Force that results when the two objects are not in physical contact with each other yet are able to exert
a push or pull
Examples:
Gravitational – electrical -- magnetic
Magnetic force Electrostatic force

Gravitational force
How can forces be represented?
 The forces acting on any object can be shown using force diagram.
 A force diagram uses labelled arrows to show all the forces acting on the object.
 The direction of each arrow shows the direction of each force
 The length of each arrow is proportional to the size of the force
 Forces are measured in newton’s (N)

Balanced forces
When two forces are the same size and pull in opposite directions.

If the forces on an object are balanced:

 An object that is not moving stays still
 An object that is moving continues to move at the same speed and in the same direction.

Unbalanced forces
When forces push against each other and one force is bigger than the other.

If the forces on an object are unbalanced:

 An object that is not moving starts to move
 An object that is already moving changes speed or direction.
Unbalanced forced can also change shape where balanced don’t.

Resultant Force
The resultant force is the dffrence between the two forces acting in opposite directions on an object.
The resultant force is zero if both forces are equal. The object is accelerating if the resulting force is not
zero.
When several forces act on a body, the resultant (overall) force on the body can be found by adding
together forces which act in the same direction and subtracting forces which act in opposite directions:

When the forces acting on a body are balanced (i.e. there is no resultant force), the body will either
remain at rest or continue to move in a straight line at a constant speed.
How does the resultant force effect the motion of an object?
Equals zero = remains still, or constant speed.
Does not equal zero = acceleration, deceleration or change direction.

The motion of the object will depend on the resultant force. This is calculated by adding all the forces
together, taking their direction into account.

Force of friction:
What is friction?
Friction is the resistance to motion of one object moving relative to another
Why is force important?
It is necessary in many applications where you might hold items or do anything and prevent slipping or
sliding.

Friction always acts on the opposite direction to which an object is moving or trying to move.

Some importance of friction:

 Walking or running will be impossible without friction.
 Brakes of vehicles will not work without friction.
 A bottle cover wont close properly without friction.
What causes friction?
 Friction occurs between two objects because the surfaces of those objects are rough and
contain bumps and hollows.
 The roughness means that a force is needed to move the two objects over each other.

Different types of friction:

1. Friction caused by an object moving through the air is called air resistance.
2. Friction caused by an object moving through a liquid is called drag.

Problems with friction:

 Friction causes the production of heat
 Friction causes wear and tear

Reducing the problem of friction:

 Lubricants
 Bearing and rollers
 Make the shape of the object more streamlined

Newtons laws:
Newtons 1st law:
A body will remain at rest or continue to move with constant velocity as long as the forces acting on it
are balanced, and an unbalanced backwards force will make me slow down. An unbalanced forwards
force will make me accelerate.

Newtons 2nd law:

The acceleration of a body is proportional to the resultant force causing its acceleration and is in the
same direction.

 Resultant force is measured in newtons (N).

 Mass is measured in kilograms (kg).
 Acceleration is measured in meters per second per second (m/s2).

The greater the force, the greater the acceleration (for a given mass).
For a given force, the smaller the mass the greater the acceleration.
Newtons 3rd law:
To every action force there is a reaction force that is same n magnitude but opposite in direction.

Mass vs weight:
Mass:
 Amount of matter in an object
 Mass of an object does not change
 Mass is measured is kg or grams
 A balance/scale is used to measure mass
 Scalar
Weight:
 Wight changes if you go away from the gravitational force
 Pull force of gravity acting on the object
 Weight is measured in newtons (N)
 To measure weight, we use newton-meter
 Vector

Weight and mass equation:

weight     =     mass  x   gravitational field strength

W     =     m  x   g

 Weight is measured in newtons (N)

 Mass is measured in kilograms (kg)
 The gravitational field strength is measured in N/kg

 The value of g (the gravitational field strength) varies from planet to planet.
 On Earth:
g      ≈      10  N / kg

Terminal velocity
 In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with the same acceleration, regardless of their
mass.
 This acceleration is equal to the gravitational field strength and is approximately 10 m/s 2 near
the Earth’s surface.
 So long as air resistance remains insignificant, the speed of a falling object will increase at a
steady rate, getting larger the longer it falls for.
What is terminal velocity?
The constant speed that a freely falling object eventually reaches when the resistance of the medium
through which it is falling prevents further acceleration.

Skydivers terminal velocity

When a parachutist jumps out of an aeroplane, two main forces act:
 Weight (the force of gravity)
 Air resistance

 Initially the air resistance is very small. There is a downwards unbalanced force and the skydiver
accelerates.
 As the skydiver speeds up, the air resistance increases.
 Eventually the air resistance balances the weight and so the skydiver travels at a constant speed
– terminal velocity.
 When the parachute is opened the increased air resistance on the parachute creates an
upwards unbalanced force, making the parachute slow down.

Graph showing how the velocity of a skydiver changes during descent

Terminal velocity through a liquid
The falling object has two forces acting on it which are weight and water resistance .
So as gravity is pulling the object down the speed increases and it starts to
accelerate. As time goes by eventually the water resistance force will balance the
weight force, the resultant force becomes zero and the speed becomes constant.

Hooke’s Law
 Hooke’s law states that:
o The extension of a spring is proportional to the applied force.
 Many other materials (such as metal wires) also obey Hooke’s law.
 Hooke’s law is associated with the initial linear (straight) part of a force-extension graph.

Graph of Load vs. Extension

 Objects that obey Hooke’s law will return to their original length after being stretched.
 If an object continues to be stretched it can be taken past its elastic limit. At this point the object
will no longer obey Hooke’s law and will not return to its original length.
What is a deformation?
It’s the change in shape and size
There are 2 types of deformation:
 Plastic deformation:
Deformation that permanently change shape of the body
 Elastic deformation:
Deformation where the body regains its original shape when deforming force is removed

Practices: Investigate how extension varies with applied force for helical springs, metal wires and
rubber bands
 You could be asked to describe, comment on or analyse an experiment involving the stretching
of a spring, a metal wire or a rubber band
 Usually this will involve hanging masses from the bottom of the above in order to stretch it and
then measuring its new length against a ruler.
 The accuracy of such an experiment can be improved with the use of a pointer (a fiducial
marker), as can taking the measurements at eye level.

Top Tips for describing experiments:

 State what your independent variable is (the mass, in this case).

If appropriate, you should also suggest some realistic values for your independent variable.
 State what your dependent variable is (the length, in this example), and describe how you
will measure it (what equipment will you use? How can you make it as accurate as
possible?)
 List any variables that you need to control and explain briefly how you will do so.
 Finally, state that you will repeat the experiment several times and take an average.

1- Springs
  Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
 A single mass (0.1 kg, 100g) is attached to the spring, with a pointer attached to the bottom, and
the position of the spring is measured against the ruler.
 The mass ( in kg) and position (in cm) are recorded in a table.
 A further mass is added and the new position measured.
 The above process continues until a total of 7 masses have been added.
 The masses are then removed and the entire process repeated again,until it has been carried
out a total of three times, and averages can then be taken.
 Once measurements have been taken:
o The force on the spring can be found by multiplying the mass of the spring (in kg) by 10
N/kg (the gravitational field strength).
o The extension of the spring can be found by subtracting the original position of the
spring from each of the subsequent positions.

Wires

 A wire stretches by much less than a spring. In order to measure its extension a long length of
wire is usually needed.
 The apparatus should be set up as shown in the diagram.
 A single mass (0.1 kg) should be attached to the end of the wire and then the initial length of the
wire measured using a small pointer attached midway along the wire.
 Masses are then added, one at a time, to the end of the wire and the new length measured and
recorded.
 This is continued until the wire breaks.
 The experiment can then be repeated and averages taken.

Hooke's law also applies to wires. If you stretch a wire, you will find that the extension is proportional
to the load up to a certain load then it may behave as the spring. Wires made of different metals will
behave in different ways - some will obey Hooke's law until the wire breaks; other types of metal will
stretch elastically and then plastically before breaking.
Rubber bands

This experiment is essentially the same as the spring experiment, the sole difference being that once all
of the masses have been added, they should then be removed one at a time, and the positions recorded
as this is done.
(Rubber bands remain slightly extended after stretching, and so the readings taken whilst unloading the
band will be slightly longer than those taken whilst loading it).

Elastic bands are usually made of rubber. You can use the same apparatus shown in to investigate
how an elastic band stretches under load. If you stretch an elastic band with increasing load forces,
you get a graph like that . The graph is not a straight line, showing that elastic bands do not obey
Hooke's law. You may also find that the extension produced by a given load force is different when
you are increasing the load force to when you decrease the load force.

Exam tip
 Experiments such as the above will usually require you to plot a graph of force against
extension.
 The force can be calculated by multiplying the mass (in kg) by 10 N/kg (the gravitational field
strength).
 The extension measures how much the object has stretched by and can be found by subtracting
the original length from each of the subsequent lengths.
 A common mistake is to calculate the increase in length by each time instead of the total
extension – if each of your extensions is roughly the same then you might have made this
mistake.

Stopping distance
 The stopping distance of a car is the distance it travels in the time it takes to stop in response
to some emergency.
 The stopping distance consists of two parts:
o The thinking distance – the distance travelled in the time it takes the driver to react.
o The braking distance – the distance travelled by the car whilst it’s braking.

stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance

Factors Affecting Stopping Distances
 The main factor affecting the stopping distance of a car is its speed.
 There are a number of other things, however, that can affect the stopping distance, by either
increasing the thinking distance or the braking distance.

Velocity-Time graph of a stopping Object

 The driver is moving at a constant speed while thinking and hence the straight line. It would not
be wise to accelerate while thinking.
 The driver slows down and decelerates while braking

Calculating Stopping distance from the graph

 Like we have done before, we can calculate the distance by finding the area of the shape under
the graph.
 Stopping distance = (Area of rectangle + Area of Triangle)
 Area of rectangle = Thinking distance
 Area of Triangle = Braking distance
 Note: We could also be asked to calculate the deceleration of the object while braking)
 MOMENTUM

Momentum: Basics
 Momentum is defined by the equation:
 (in kgm/s) (in kg) (in m/s)

(where p stands for momentum)

 The units of momentum are kg m/s (the units of mass multiplied by the units of velocity).
 Momentum is a vector quantity – it has direction as well as magnitude.
 This means that momentum can be negative as well as positive:
If an object travelling to the right has positive momentum, an object travelling in the opposite
direction (to the left) will have negative momentum

Safety
 Momentum is a way of measuring how difficult it is to stop a moving object:
o The greater the momentum of an object, the harder it is to stop it.
 Stopping an object suddenly requires a large force 
 In order to keep people safe, the forces acting on people need to be kept to a minimum.
 This can be achieved by bringing them to a rest slowly.
 Safety devices such as seat belts and car airbags achieve this by cushioning an impact, causing a
person’s momentum to change more slowly.

Conservation of Momentum
 In the absence of external forces (such as friction), the total momentum of a system remains
the same.
 This means that in a collision, the sum of the momentums before the collision will be the same
as the sum of momentums after the collision.
  In the above diagram the total momentum before and the total momentum after must be equal:

 Notes that because the red ball is travelling to the left after the collision, its momentum will be
negative – hence the minus sign in the above equation.

Force & Momentum

 When an unbalanced force acts on an object, the object will accelerate. This will cause its
momentum to change.
 The change in momentum is related to the force by the equation below:

 Note that if the time taken for an object to change its momentum is small, a big force must have
acted on it.
 This can help us to understand safety in more detail:
o In any collision or impact, the force acting on a person (or object) can be reduced by
increasing the amount of time it takes for its momentum to change.

Newton’s third law

 Newton’s third law of motion states that:
o When one object exerts a force on another object, that second object will exert an
equal force on the first object in the opposite direction.

When object A exerts a force on object B, object B will exert an equal force on object A in the opposite
direction

 These equal and opposite forces help us to understand why momentum is conserved:

o Each object will gain an equal amount of momentum (because the forces are equal) but
in opposite directions. These two changes in momentum are equal and opposite – they
cancel out.
Momentum, acceleration and force
Consider a body of mass m changing velocity from u to v in time t.
acceleration = velocity change ÷ time taken
a = (v – u) / t
Multiply both sides of this equation by the mass, m gives:
ma = m (v – u) / t
ma = (mv – mu) / t
ma is equal to the force, F causing the acceleration.
and (mv – mu) is equal to the momentum change
And so:

 force is measured in newtons (N)

 change in momentum is measured in: kilogram metres per second (kg m/s)
 time is measured in seconds (s)

Car safety features

Crumple zones, air bags and a collapsible steering wheel are designed to increase the time taken for a
driver or passenger to change momentum to zero during a crash.
The equation: force = momentum change ÷ time taken
shows that if the time taken is increased for the same momentum change the force exerted is decreased
so is the injury to the driver or passenger.
 THE TURNING EFFECT OF FORCES

Moments: The basics

 A moment is the turning effect of a force.
 The moment of a force is given by the equation

 Moments have the units newton meters (N m),

Centre of Gravity
 The center of gravity of an object (sometimes called the center of mass) is the point through
which the weight of that object acts.
 For a symmetrical object of uniform density (such as a symmetrical cardboard shape) the center
of gravity is located at the point of symmetry:

 When an object is suspended from a point, the object will always settle so that it’s center of
gravity comes to rest below the pivoting point.
 This can be used to find the center of gravity of an irregular shape:

 The irregular shape is suspended from a pivot and allowed to settle.

 A plumb line (lead weight) is then held next to the pivot and used to draw a vertical from the
pivot (the centre of gravity must be somewhere on this line).
 The process is then repeated, suspending the shape from two different points.
 The centre of gravity is located at the point where all three lines cross.
The Principle of Moments
 The principle of moments states that:
o For a system to be balanced, the sum of clockwise moments must be equal to the sum
of anticlockwise moments.

 In the above diagram:

o Force F2 is supplying a clockwise moment;
o Forces F1 and F3 are supplying anticlockwise moments.
 Hence:
F2 x d2 = F1 x d1 + F3 x d3

Supporting a Beam
 A light beam is one that can be treated as though it has no mass.
 The supports, therefore, must supply upwards forces that balance the weight of any object
placed on the beam.

 As the mass in the above diagram is moved from the left hand side to the right hand side of the
beam, force F1 will decrease and force F2 will increase.
 Consider what would happen to the beam if the right hand support was removed:
o The weight of the object would supply a moment about the left hand support, causing
the beam to pivot in a clockwise direction.
o Force F2 must therefore supply an anticlockwise moment about the left hand support,
which balances the moment supplied by the object.

MAINS ELECTRICITY

How does electricity reach our homes?

 Electrical energy usually enters our homes through an underground cable.
  The cable is connected to an electricity meter, which measures the amount of electrical energy
used.
 From here, the cable is connected to a consumer unit or a fuse box, which contains fuses or
circuit breakers for the various circuits in your home.
 Fuses and circuit breakers are safety devices which shut off the electricity in a circuit if the
current in them becomes too large

Plugs
Ring main circuits usually consist of three wires - the live wire, the neutral wire and the earth wire.
The live wire :
 Provides the path along which the electrical energy from the power station travels.
The neutral wire :
 Completes the circuit.
The earth wire :
 Usually has no current in it. It is there to protect you if an appliance develops a fault. It provides
a path for current to escape without passing through the user.

The mains electricity supplied to homes in the UK, China, India and many other countries is between 220
V and 240 V. If you come into direct contact with mains electricity you could receive a severe electric
shock, which might even be fatal.
To prevent this the outer part of a plug, called the casing, is made from plastic, which is a good
insulator. Connections to the circuits are made via three brass pins, as the metal brass is an excellent
conductor of electricity.

Fuses
 A fuse is a safety device designed to cut off the flow of electricity to an appliance if the current
becomes too large (due to a fault or a surge).

The circuit symbol for a fuse

 Fuses usually consist of a glass cylinder containing a thin metal wire.
 If the current in the wire become too large:
o  The wire heats up and melts
o This causes the wire to break, breaking the circuit and stopping the current.
There are several sizes of fuses. The most common for domestic appliances in the UK are 3 A, 5 A and 13
A. The correct fuse for a circuit is the one that allows the correct current but blows if the current is a
little larger. If the correct current in a circuit is 2 A then it should be protected with a 3 A fuse.

The Earth Wire

 Many electrical appliances have metal cases.
 This poses a potential safety hazard:
o If a live wire (inside the appliance) came into contact with the case, the case would
become electrified and anyone who touched in would risk electrocution.
 The earth wire is an additional safety wire that can reduce this risk

If this happens:
 The earth wire provides a low resistance path to the earth.
 This causes a surge of current in the earth wire and hence also in the live wire.
 The high current through the fuse causes it to melt and break.
 This cuts off the supply of electricity to the appliance, making it safe.

Double Insulation
 Some appliances do not have metal cases and so there is no risk of them becoming electrofied.
 Such appliances are said to be double insulated, as they have two layers of insulation:
o Insulation around the wires themselves
o The non-metallic case acts as a second layer of insulation
 Double insulated appliances do not require an earth wire, and are usually marked with the
following symbol:

Double insulated appliances do not require earth wires

Switches
Switches in mains circuits should always be placed in the live wire so that when the switch is open no
electrical energy can reach an appliance. If the switch is placed in the neutral wire, electrical energy can
still enter a faulty appliance, and could possibly cause an electric shock.
The heating effect of current
The wiring in a house is designed to let current pass through it easily. As a result, the wires do not
become warm when appliances are being used. We say that the wires have a low resistance.
However, in some appliances, for example, kettles or toasters, we want wires (more usually called
heating elements) to become warm. The wires of a heating element are designed to have a high
resistance so that as the current passes through them energy is transferred and the element heats up.

Electrical Power: The basics

 Power is the rate of energy transfer (the amount of energy transferred per second).
 The power of an electrical component (or appliance) is given by the equation:

Power = Current  x voltage

P=IxV
 You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:

The unit of power is the watt (W), which is the same as a joule per second (J/s). Devices that transfer
lots of energy very quickly have their power rating expressed in kilo watts (kW). 1 kW= 1000W

Selecting fuses
 A fuse is a safety device designed to cut off the supply of electricity to an appliance if the
current becomes too large.
 Fuses come in a variety of sizes (typically 3A, 5A and 13A) – in order to select the right fuse for
the job, you need to know how much current an appliance needs.
 If you know the power of the appliance (along with mains voltage), the current can be
calculated using the equation:
current =  power /  voltage
 The fuse should always have a current rating that is higher than the current needed by the
appliance, without being too high – always choose the next size up.

Example:
 Suppose an appliance uses 3.1 amps.
o A 3 amp use would be too small – the fuse would blow as soon as the appliance was
switched on.
o A 13 amp fuse would be too large – it would allow an extra 10 amps to pass through the
appliance before it finally blew.
o A 5 amp fuse would be an appropriate choice, as it is the next size up.

Energy Transferred, Current, Voltage, Time

 The amount of electrical energy used by a component or appliance depends upon three things:
o The current
o The voltage
o The amount of time the device is used for. (seconds)
 The energy transferred can be calculated from the equation:
energy transferred = current x voltage x time
E=IxVxt
energy, E (joules)= power, P (watts) x time, t (seconds)
E=P x t
 Where the unit of energy is the joule (J).
 Note that this equation is related to the equation for power:
power = current x voltage
 Power is the energy transferred per second and so:
energy transferred = power x time = current x voltage x time

Alternating current and direct current

 An alternating current (a.c.) is one that continuously changes its direction, going back and
forth around a circuit.
  A direct current (d.c.) is one that is steady, constantly going the same way around a circuit,
from positive to negative.
.

 Electric cells (batteries) produce direct current (d.c.)

 Mains electricity is an alternating current (a.c.).

Units
 Ampere (A) as the unit of current
 Coulomb (C) as the unit of charge
 Joule (J) as the unit of energy
 Ohm (0) as the unit of resistance
 Second (s) as the unit of time
 Volt (V) as the unit of voltage
 Watt (W) as the unit of power.

CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN CIRCUITS

Conductors, insulators and electric current

  A conductor is a material that allows charge (usually electrons) to flow through it.
 An insulator is a material that has no free charges are hence does not allow the flow of charge
through it. In insulators, all the electrons are held tightly in position and are unable to move
from atom to atom. Charges are therefore unable to move through insulators.
 An electric current is a flow of charge. In metal wires the charges are carried by very small
particles called electrons.
In metals, some electrons are free to move between the atoms. Under normal circumstances this
movement is random - that is, the number of electrons flowing in any one direction is roughly equal to
the number flowing in the opposite direction. There is therefore no overall flow of charge.

If, however, a cell or battery is connected across the conductor, more of the electrons now flow in the
direction away from the negative terminal and towards the positive terminal than in the opposite
direction. We say 'there is now a net flow of charge'. This flow of charge is what we call an electric
current.

Measuring current
We measure the size of the current in a circuit using an ammeter.
 Current (measured in amps, A) is a flow of charge (measured in
coulombs, C).
 By definition, current always goes from positive to negative, even though
the charged particles (usually electrons) sometimes go the other way.
The current is the charge passing a point in a circuit every second.
(It is helpful to think of current as the charge per second).
Charge, current and time are related by the following equation:
Charge = Current x time
Q = I x t
Where the symbols:
 Q stands for charge (measured in coulombs, C)
 I stands for current (measured in amps, A)
 T stand for time (measured in seconds)
You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:
Voltage
 In a series circuit the voltage of the power supply is shared between the components.
 In a parallel circuit the voltage across each component is the same.
 As charge flows around a circuit, energy is transferred to or from the charge.
 The voltage is the amount of energy transferred by each unit of charge passing between two
points in that circuit.
 The unit of voltage, the volt (V), is the same as a joule per coulomb (J/C).
 For example:
o If a power supply has a voltage of 6 V, every coulomb of charge passing through the
power supply will gain 6 J of energy.
o If a bulb has a voltage of 3 V, every coulomb of charge passing through the bulb will lose
3 J of energy.
 As charge passes around a circuit, the total amount of energy it loses is the same as the energy it
gains when it passes through the power supply
 As mentioned above, the voltage between two points in a circuit is equal to the energy
transferred by coulomb of charge passing between those two points.
 Therefore if a charge Q passes between those two points the total energy transferred will be:
Energy transferred = charge x voltage
E=QxV
 You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:
 The above equation is equivalent to the following equation:
Energy transferred = current x voltage x time
Since:
charge = current x time

Measuring voltages
We measure voltages using a voltmeter. A voltmeter connected across a cell or battery
will measure the energy given to each coulomb of charge that passes through it. A
voltmeter connected across a component will measure the electrical energy transferred
when each coulomb of charge passes through it.

Electrical circuits

Series and parallel circuits

Series circuit
There are those circuits where there are no branches or junctions and there is only one path the
current can follow. These simple 'single loop' circuits are called series circuits.
In a series circuit containing bulbs:
 One switch placed anywhere in the circuit can turn all the bulbs on
and off.
 If any one of the bulbs breaks, it causes a gap in the circuit and all
of the other bulbs will 'stop working'.
 The energy supplied by the cell is 'shared' between all the bulbs,
so, the more bulbs you add to a series circuit the less bright they all
become.

Parallel circuit
Circuits that have branches or junctions and more than one path that the current can follow are called
parallel circuits.
In a parallel circuit containing bulbs:
 Switches can be placed in different parts of the circuit to switch each
bulb on and off individually, or all together.
 If one bulb breaks, only the bulbs on the same branch of the circuit
will be affected.
 Each branch of the circuit receives the same voltage, so if more
bulbs are added to a circuit in parallel they all keep the same
brightness.

Current in circuits
Series circuit
In a series circuit the current is the same in all parts; current is not used up. The size of the current in a
series circuit depends on the voltage supplied to it, and the number and type of the components in the
circuit. If a second cell is added in series the voltage will double and so the current will also double.
Parallel circuit
In a parallel circuit the currents will not be the same in different parts of the circuit. In a parallel circuit
the number of electrons that flow into a junction each second must be equal to the number that leave
each second. This means that the currents entering a junction must always be equal to those that leave.
The current that enters junction P is 0.6 A. The current that leaves is 0.4 A+ 0.2 A = 0.6 A.
.

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

Resistance
All components in a circuit offer some resistance to the flow of charge. Some allow charges to pass
through very easily losing very little of their energy they have very low resistance. The flow of charge
through some components is not so easy and a large amount of energy may be used to move the
charges through them. This energy is transferred, usually as heat they have high resistance.
 Resistance is the opposition to current.
 Voltage, current and resistance are related by the following equation:
voltage, V (volts) = current, I (amps) x resistance, R (ohms)
V = I x  R
The unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).

Experiment to investigate how current varies with voltage for different components
 Set up the circuit
 Turn the variable resistor to its maximum value.
 Close the switch and take the readings from the ammeter and the voltmeter.
 Alter the value of the variable resistor again and take a new pair of readings
from the meters.
 Repeat the whole process at least six times.
 Place the results in a table (see the table below) and draw a graph of current
against voltage (V)

The graph in is a straight line graph passing through the origin. The slope of the graph tells us about
the resistance of the wire. The steeper the slope the smaller the resistance of the wire.

Current / voltage graph for a wire or a resistor

The graph is a straight line. It has a constant slope. So the
resistance of this component does not change.

Current / voltage graph for a filament bulb

This graph is not a straight line. The resistance of the bulb changes.
At higher currents and voltages the slope of the graph shows us that the
resistance of the filament bulb increases - that is, as the temperature of
the filament increases the current decreases.

Current / voltage graph for a diode

This strangely shaped graph shows that diodes have a high resistance
when the current is in one direction and a low resistance when it is in
the opposite direction

Using resistance
Fixed resistors
They are included in circuits in order to control the sizes of currents and voltages. Without the resistor
the voltage across the bulb may cause too large a current and the bulb may 'blow' or break.

Variable resistors
They are called variable resistors as it is possible to alter their resistance. Variable resistor is being used
to control the size of the current in a bulb. If the resistance is decreased there will be a larger current
and the bulb shines more brightly. If the resistance is increased the current will be smaller and the bulb
will glow less brightly or not at all.

Thermistors
A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance changes quite a lot even with small changes in
temperature. Thermistors are used in temperature-sensitive circuits. They are also used in devices
where it is important to make sure there is no change in temperature.

Light dependent resistors

A light-dependent resistor (LDR) has a resistance that changes when light
is shone on it. In the dark its resistance is high but when light is shone on
it its resistance decreases. LDRs are often used in light-sensitive circuits.

Diodes
Diodes are very special resistors that allow charges to flow through them easily but only in one
direction. The diode offers little resistance to the charges flowing through it. But if the diode is
connected the opposite way round, the diode has a very high resistance and the rate at which the
charges can flow through the diode is much less - that is, the current is very small. Diodes are often used
in circuits where it is important that electrons flow only in one direction.

Resistors in Series and Parallel

Resistors in Series
 When two or more components are connected in series:
o The combined resistance of the components is equal to the sum of individual
resistances
 

Resistors in Parallel
 When resistors are connected in parallel, the combined resistance decreases and is less than the
resistance of any of the individual components
 If two resistors of equal resistance are connected in parallel, then the combined resistance will
halve

ELECTRICAL CHARGE

Charge within the atom

All atoms contain small particles called protons, neutrons and electrons.
 The protons are found in the centre or nucleus of the atom and carry a relative charge of + 1.
 The neutrons are also in the nucleus of the atom but carry no charge.
 The electrons travel around the nucleus in orbits. The electrons carry a relative charge of -1 .

 if, however, an object gains extra electrons, it will gain an overall negative charge.
 If it loses some of its electrons it will be left with a positive charge.
o Negative charges are the result of gaining electrons.
o Positive charges are the result of losing electrons.

When two charged objects are brought close together, there will be a force between those objects.

 Remember:
o Opposite charges attract.
o Like charges repel.

Charging materials by friction

 Objects can be given a charge by rubbing them with another object. This is called charging by
friction.
 If the object is an insulator, it will keep its charge afterwards.
When two objects are rubbed together:
 One of them will gain electrons and hence gain a negative charge.
 The other will lose electrons and hence gain a positive charge.

Practical: investigating how insulators can become electrically charges by friction

We can show how insulating materials can be charged by friction using an uncharged plastic rod and an
uncharged cloth.

Explanation
When the uncharged plastic rod is rubbed with an uncharged cloth, electrons from the atoms of the rod
move onto the cloth. There is now an unequal number of positive and negative charges on each. The rod
has lost electrons and so is positively charged. The cloth has gained electrons and so is negatively
charged.

Forces between charges

Charged objects can exert forces on other charged objects without being in contact with them. If the
charges are similar, the objects repel each other. If the objects are oppositely charged, they attract
each other.

Forces between charged and uncharged objects

It is possible for a charged object to attract something that is uncharged. The balloon experiment
demonstrates this.

Explanation
After the balloon has been charged with static electricity, but before it is brought close to the wall, the
charges will be distributed. The balloon is charged (we have assumed negatively charged) and the wall is
uncharged - that is, it has equal numbers of positive and negative charges. As the negatively charged
balloon is brought closer to the wall some of the negative electrons are repelled from the surface of the
wall. This gives the surface of the wall a slight positive charge that attracts the negatively charged
balloon.

Uses of static electricity

1. Electrostatic paint spraying
Painting an awkwardly shaped object, such as a bicycle
frame, with a spray gun can take a long time and use a lot
of paint. Using electrostatic spraying can make the process
much more efficient.
 As the drops of paint emerge from the spray gun,
they are charged.
 As the drops all carry the same charge they repel and spread out forming a thin spray.
 The metal bicycle frame has a wire attached to an electrical supply giving the frame the opposite
charge.
 The paint drops are therefore attracted to the surface of the frame.
 There is the added benefit that paint is attracted into places, such as corners, that would
normally be hard to reach.

2. Inject printers
Many modern inkjet printers use inkjets to direct a fine jet
(stream) of ink drops onto paper. They do this by using
electrostatic forces.
 Each spot of ink is given a charge so that as it falls
between a pair of deflecting plates, electrostatic
forces direct it to the correct position.
 The charges on the plates change hundreds of times
each second so that each drop falls in a different position,
forming pictures and words on the paper as required.

3. Photocopiers
Inside a photocopier the following steps take place:
 A special plate is given an electric charge.
 An image of the document being copied is projected onto the plate.
 The plate loses its charge in the light areas and keeps it in the dark areas.
 A dark powder (toner) is applied to the plate. It sticks to the parts that still have charge.
 The powder is now transferred onto a sheet of paper, which is heated to make the powder stick.

4. Electrostatic precipitators
Many heavy industrial plants, such as steel-making furnaces
and coal-fired power stations, produce large quantities of
smoke. One way of removing these pollutants from the
smoke is to use electrostatic precipitators.
 As the smoke initially rises up the chimney, it passes
through a mesh of wires that are highly charged.
 As they pass through the mesh, the ash and dust
particles become negatively charged.
 Higher up the chimney, these charged particles are
attracted by and stick to, large metal earthed plates.
The cleaner smoke is then released into the
atmosphere.
 When the earthed plates are completely covered
with dust and ash, they are tapped hard.
 The dust and ash fall into collection boxes, which are later emptied.

Problems with static electricity

 There are various situations where static electricity can pose a hazard, for example:
o The risk of electrocution (from lightning)
o The risk of a fire or explosion (due to a spark close to a flammable gas or liquid).
 One common example concerns the refuelling of planes.:
o When a plane is refuelled, the fuel has to be pumped at a fast rate.
o Friction between the fuel (a liquid insulator) and the pipe causes the fuel to gain a
charge.
o If this charge were to cause a spark the fuel could ignite.
 To prevent this, planes are connected to the earth with a copper wire (the bonding line) whilst
they are being refuelled.
 This wire removes charge from the plane by carrying it to the earth, which removes the risk of
any sparks.

PROPERTIES OF WAVES
What are waves
 Waves are a way of transferring energy from place to place.

What are wave fronts

 Wave fronts are created by overlapping lots of different waves. A wave front is a line where all
the vibrations are in phase and the same distance from the source.

Waves can exist as one of two main types:

 Transverse
 Longitudinal

Transverse Waves
For a transverse wave, the points along the wave vibrate at 90 degrees to the direction in which the
wave is moving (the direction of energy transfer).

Longitudinal Waves
For a longitudinal wave, the points along the wave vibrate in the same direction that the wave is moving
in.

Describing waves
  The wavelength of a wave is the distance from a point on one wave to the same point on the
next wave. Usually this is measured from the top of one wave to the top of the next wave.
Wavelength is usually measured in metres (a distance).
 The amplitude of a wave is its height, measured from the middle of the wave to its top (or from
the middle to its bottom).

 The frequency of a wave is the number of waves passing a point (or being created or received)
every second – it is helpful to think of it as being the waves per second.
 The units of frequency are hertz (Hz).
 The time period of a wave is the time taken for a single wave to pass a point (or for a single
wave to be created).
 Time period is usually measured in seconds.

The wave equation

There is a relationship between the wavelength ( λ), the frequency (f) and the wave speed (v) that is true
for all waves:
wave speed, v (m/s) = frequency, f (Hz) x wavelength, λ (m)

You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:
The ripple tank
 We can study the behavior of water waves using a ripple tank.
 When the motor is turned on, the wooden bar vibrates creating
a series of ripples or wavefronts on the surface of the water.
 A light placed above the tank creates patterns of the water
waves on the floor.
 By observing the patterns we can see how the water
waves are behaving.

Wavelength and frequency

 The motor can be adjusted to produce a small number of waves each second.
 The frequency of the waves is small and the pattern shows that the waves have a long
wavelength.
 At higher frequencies, the water waves have shorter wavelengths. The speed of the waves
does not change.

Reflection
All waves can be reflected. If they hit a straight or flat barrier, the angle at which they leave the barrier
surface is equal to the angle at which they meet the surface - that is, the waves are reflected from the
barrier at the same angle as they strike it. This is described by the 'Law of Reflection' which states that:
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

Refraction
 When waves enter a different medium, their speed can change.
 This effect is called refraction, and it can have two other effects:
o The wavelength of the waves can increase or decrease.
o The waves can change direction.
 If the waves slow down the waves will bunch together, causing the wavelength to decrease. The
waves will also start to travel closer to the normal
 If the waves speed up then they will spread out, causing the wavelength to increase. The waves
will also turn slightly away from the normal.

The doppler effect

 When a car is not moving the sound waves we receive from its engine or from its horn arrive as
a series of equally (evenly) spaced wavefronts. People in front of and behind the car hear sound
of the same frequency and wavelength.
 Usually, when an object emits waves, the wavefronts spread out symmetrically.
 If the wave source moves, though, the waves can get squashed together or stretched out
 This causes the wavelength (and frequency) of the waves to change:
o The wavelength of the waves in front of the source decreases and the frequency
increases.
o The wavelength behind the source increases and the frequency decreases.
(Think about the sound made by a racing car as it first moves towards you and then
moves away from you.)
  This effect is known as the doppler effect.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Electromagnetic spectrum
  Light is a transverse wave.
 The different colours of waves correspond to different wavelengths:
o Red has the longest wavelength (and the lowest frequency)
o Violet has the shortest (and the highest frequency).

All the waves have the following properties:

 They all transfer energy.
 They are all transverse waves.
 They all travel at 300 000 000 mis, the speed of light in a vacuum (free space).
 They can all be reflected and refracted.

Groups of waves

 Visible light, however, is just one small part of a much bigger spectrum: The electromagnetic
spectrum.
 The different parts of the spectrum have different names (and some different properties).
 These parts are shown in order below, going from the longest wavelength (and lowest
frequency) to the shortest wavelength (and highest frequency).
Uses of Electromagnetic Waves
 Electromagnetic waves have a large number of uses. The main ones are summarized in the table
below.

 Radio waves and microwaves

o These two parts of the spectrum share a lot of similarities and uses. Their main uses
concern wireless communication – in fact many things that people often assume use
radio waves actually use microwaves (e.g. WiFi, radar, mobile phones, satellite
communications…)
o At very high intensities microwaves can also be used to heat things: This is what
happens in a microwave oven.

 Infra red
o Infrared is emitted by warm objects and can be detected using special cameras (thermal
imaging cameras). These can be used in industry, in research and also in medicine.
 o Many security cameras are capable of seeing slightly into the infrared part of the
spectrum and this can be used to allow them to see in the dark: Infrared lights are used
to illuminate an area without being seen, which is then detected using the camera.
o Remote controls also have small infrared LEDs that can send invisible signals to an
infrared receiver on a device such as a TV.
o Infrared travels down fibre optic cables more efficiently than visible light, and so most
fibre optic communication systems use infrared.
 Ultraviolet
o Ultraviolet is responsible for giving you a sun tan, which is your body’s way of protecting
itself against the ultraviolet.
o When certain substances are exposed to ultraviolet, they absorb it and re-emit it as
visible light (making them glow). This process is known as fluorescence.
Fluorescence can be used to secretly mark things using special ink – in fact most bank
notes have invisible fluorescent markings on them.
o Fluorescent light bulbs also use this principle to emit visible light.
 X-rays
o The most obvious use of x-rays is in medicine. X-rays are able to pass through most body
tissues, but are absorbed by the denser parts of the body, such as bones. When exposed
to x-rays the bones can a shadow which can be seen using a special x-ray detector or
using photographic film.
 Gamma rays
o Gamma rays are very dangerous and can be used to kill cells and living tissue.
If the gamma rays are carefully aimed at cancerous tissue they can be very effective at
killing it.
Gamma rays can also be used to sterilise things by killing off the bacteria.

Dangers of Electromagnetic Waves

 In general, electromagnetic waves get more and more dangerous the shorter their wavelength:
Radio waves have no known harmful effects whilst gamma rays can cause cancer and are
regarded as extremely dangerous.
 The main risks associated with electromagnetic waves are summarised below:

 Microwaves:
 o Although there is a risk of internal heating from microwaves, most sources of
microwaves (which includes mobile phones) emit small amounts of energy which are
not known to cause any harm.
o Although microwave ovens emit very large amounts of energy, that energy is prevented
from getting out of the oven by the metal walls and metal grid in the glass door.
 Infrared
o Infrared is usually associated with heat (thermal radiation). It is this heat that poses its
biggest danger – a danger of burns.
 Ultraviolet
o Ultraviolet is similar to light but invisible and has a much higher energy. If eyes are
exposed to high levels it can cause serious eye damage.
Good quality sunglasses will absorb ultraviolet, preventing it from entering the eyes.
o Ultraviolet is also ionising (it can strip the outer electrons from atoms). This can cause
chemical changes to cells that can kill them or cause them to malfunction, resulting in
diseases such as cancer.
Sunscreen absorbs ultraviolet, preventing it from damaging the skin.
 X-rays and Gamma rays
o Short wavelength electromagnetic waves have enough energy to strip the outer
electrons from atoms (ionisation). The shorter the wavelength, the more ionising the
radiation.
X-rays and Gamma rays are able to penetrate the body and cause internal damage.
Fortunately the level of x-rays used in medicine is kept to minimum levels at which the
risk is negligible. Doctors, however, will leave the room when taking x-rays in order to
avoid unnecessary exposure to them.
People working with Gamma rays have to take steps to minimise their exposure and are
routinely tested to check their exposure.