Fuel 78 (1999) 215–223

Characterization of fly ash from Israel with reference to its possible

utilization
Henry A. Foner*, Thomas L. Robl, James C. Hower, Uschi M. Graham
University of Kentucky, Center for Applied Energy Research, 2540 Research Park Drive, Lexington, KY 40511-8410, USA
Received 27 October 1997; received in revised form 30 April 1998

Abstract
The demand for electricity in Israel is growing exponentially and is increasingly based on power generated from coal. Current means of ash
disposal are both inadequate and wasteful and have reached their maximum potential, thus future ash disposal presents considerable
economic and environmental problems. Two representative samples of coal fly ash from Israeli power plants were examined for their
mineralogical, chemical, physical and technical properties. Both samples are good-quality type F fly ashes (ASTM nomenclature) with
excellent pozzolanic characteristics. On the basis of strength index data, the South African fly ash was found to be a better pozzolan than the
Colombian. A simple beneficiation process is suggested to produce a high-quality, reproducible and valuable raw material. Some specific
uses for fly ash in the Israel context are suggested. 䉷 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fly ash utilization; Characterization; Israel

1. Introduction 600 000 tonnes can be utilized by the cement industry

Traditionally, electric power was produced in Israel from
heavy fuel oil. Following the oil crisis in the 1970s, the
Israel Government decided to diversify its fuel supplies.
This led to the commissioning of the first coal-fired power
station at Hadera in 1982. Since then, all new power-gener-
ating facilities have been fueled by coal, and this will be the
predominant source for electricity production in the foresee-
able future. All major power plants in Israel are situated on
the Mediterranean coast because of the need for cooling
water. Fig. 1 shows the location of the power stations,
along with the coal-burning plants at Hadera and Ashkelon.
Fig. 2 shows the trends for electricity supplied to consumers
and fuel use from 1950 until about the present [1].
The ash produced by the power stations has presented
problems from the start. Until now it has been handled in
three main ways: added to cement as a pozzolanic admix-
ture; dumped at sea; and stockpiled in embankments around
the power stations. All these solutions have now reached
their maximum utilization or are forbidden by law, and
the problem of ash disposal has become increasingly
acute. By the year 2001 Israel will produce about 1.3 million
tonnes of coal ash per annum and, of this, only about
* Corresponding author. Permanent address: Geological Survey of
Israel, 30 Malkhei Yisrael Street, Jerusalem 95501, Israel. Tel.: ⫹ 972-
2-641-3738; Fax: ⫹ 972-2-538-0688; e-mail: hfoner@shani.net.
0016-2361/98/$ - see front matter 䉷 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0016-236 1(98)00140-9
under the present regulations.
The use of coal ash as landfill or road bed material is
forbidden by the Ministry of the Environment because of
fears about the leaching of heavy metals into aquifers [2].
Table 1 shows the total amounts of ash produced, utilized
and disposed of in Israel from 1982 to 1995, as well as
figures for some recent years [2].
This paper describes a comprehensive study of some
samples of Israel fly ash, with the intention of elucidating
their chemical, physical, mineralogical and technical prop-
erties as an incentive to their utilization. By good fortune,
two representative samples of coal fly ash from Israel were
available. The samples were prepared by The Coal Ash
Administration, a body set up by various government minis-
tries and other interested bodies in Israel to regulate and
study the disposal of coal ash. These fly ashes are suppo-
sedly representative of the vast bulk of the fly ash produced.
The results on these samples, called ‘South African’ (SA)
and ‘Colombian’ (CO), show that the materials are of good
quality (especially SA) and have considerable economic
potential.
Fly ash can be either an industrial waste material and
ecological nuisance, or a valuable raw material. For the
latter purpose, its properties need to be defined precisely
and controlled so that a uniform and reproducible material
can be supplied. Some methods of achieving this and some
potential uses are discussed below. In this paper, ash
216 H.A. Foner et al. / Fuel 78 (1999) 215–223

Table 1
Amounts of ash produced, utilized and disposed of in Israel: total and recent
years (thousands of tonnes)

1993 1994 1995 1982–95

Total production 640 650 735 6060

Utilization/disposal
Cement production 420 440 630 3910
Embankments 150 160 20 1120
Disposal at sea 70 50 85 1030

properties are related to the US standards (i.e., ASTM

specifications); other countries have very similar standards
[3].

1.1. Coal imports

Table 2 shows the sources of coal imported into Israel [4].

2. Fly ash characterization

2.1. Morphology

Examination under the scanning electron microscope

showed that the samples had the usual fly ash morphology
and were composed mostly of small, spherical aluminosi-
licate particles interspersed with larger irregular carbon
particles.

2.2. Chemical composition

Fig. 1. Location of power stations in Israel.

The major element composition of the representative ash
samples, as determined in these laboratories, is shown in
Table 3; the trace element composition is listed in Table 4
[5].

Fig. 2. Electricity supply and fuel usage from 1950.

 H.A. Foner et al. / Fuel 78 (1999) 215–223 217

Table 2 petrographic compositions. The Colombian ash has a

Sources of coal imported into Israel in 1997 greater abundance of anisotropic coke versus isotropic
Country No. of mines % coke compared with the South African. This is particularly
evident in the whole ash, ⫹ 100 mesh and 100 to 200 mesh
South Africa 8 50–52 fractions. Overall, the Colombian ash has a greater percen-
USA 3–4 15
tage of carbons. The South African ash does, however,
Colombia 2–3 17
Australia 4–5 11 have a greater percentage of inertinite. The Colombian
Indonesia 1 5–7 ash has a greater percentage of iron-rich spinel, suggesting
that the iron content of this material is higher than that of
the South African coal ash — as is shown in Table 3. The
2.3. Leaching behavior results from the two microscopic methods are fairly consis-
tent and the correlation of the microscopically determined
The leaching properties of these samples have been forms of carbon with the chemically determined carbon is
studied extensively [5]. Aqueous extracts of the fly ash noteworthy.
samples are strongly alkaline (approximately pH 12 to
12.5). The free lime content of the samples as determined
by the ‘rapid sugar method’ [6] was SA ˆ 1.9% and CO ˆ 2.4.2. X-ray diffraction (XRD)
0.95%. The original samples and the various size fractions were
The only potentially toxic element leached out of the examined by XRD using a Philips model 3710 spectrometer
ashes was chromium, the hexavalent form of which was and copper Ka radiation. Although the samples are princi-
leached out at pH values greater than 5.5. pally composed of glassy material, several distinct peaks
were observed and the following minerals identified: quartz,
2.4. Mineralogy mullite with traces of lime, calcite and possibly anhydrite.
The distribution of these minerals in the various size frac-
2.4.1. Optical microscopy tions corresponded to that obtained by microscopy (Table
Thin sections with cover slips were prepared from 5).
polished pellets of the whole ashes and the various fractions Some additional peaks on the diffractograms were attrib-
prepared by dry sieving as shown in Table 5. The uted to graphite. Fig. 3 shows XRD patterns of the two
⫺325 mesh fly ash is mostly finer than the standard thin whole samples before and after they were oxidized by
section thickness, therefore no sections of the ⫺325 mesh being heated in a furnace at 500⬚C overnight. The curves
fly ash were prepared. Polished pellets of the size fractions are offset by 50 intensity units for the sake of clarity. Fig.
were also prepared and examined by reflected light using an 3(b) shows that the (shaded) peak due to graphite at
oil-immersion objective. The mineralogical composition of 3.360 AU has completely disappeared and the peak imme-
the samples obtained by counting under the microscope is diately to the right of it at 3.350 AU (also presumably due to
shown in Table 5; for the sake of clarity, only the amount graphite) has much diminished in intensity. In contrast, the
obtained by the optimum method for each mineral is shown. Colombian sample (Fig. 3(a)) shows no sign of the presence
The table also shows total carbon ( ˆ isotropic coke ⫹
anisotropic coke ⫹ inertinite) and this is compared with Table 4
the chemical carbon determined by a Leco Carbon Trace element composition of representative fly ash samples (all results in
mg g ⫺1)
Determinator (note: the inertinite is essentially the unburned
fraction of the coal). Element CO SA
The two fly ashes have distinctively different
Co 40 60
Table 3 Cu 60 70
Analyses (major components) of ignited reference samples of Colombian B 240 240
and South African fly ash V 200 160
Ba 1300 2500
CO (%) SA (%) Cd ⬍ 0.5 ⬍ 0.5
Cr 130 260
SiO2 53.9 41.5 Mo ⬍ 20 ⬍ 20
Al2O3 28.0 37.2 Ni 80 70
Fe2O3 6.53 2.45 Zn 110 110
TiO2 1.92 2.65 Mn 340 340
CaO 4.73 9.95 Ag ⬍ 0.5 ⬍ 0.5
MgO 1.47 2.27 As 12 7
Na2O 0.66 0.53 Be 11 6
K2O 1.72 0.83 Hg 0.15 0.32
P2O5 0.76 1.35 Pb 55 110
SO3 0.4 0.5 Se 17 5
 218

Table 5
Mineralogical composition of representative fly ash samples determined by optical microscopy. All results in %

Sample Size Glass Mullite Spinel Quartz a Isotropic coke Anisotropic coke Inertinite Total C Chemical carbon Carbonate a Crystalline non-quartz Lime a

SA Whole 94.0 0.0 0.8 1.5 2.0 1.6 1.4 5.0 3.9
⫹ 100 56.0 0.0 0.0 12.5 12.0 9.0 4.5 25.5 24.6 2.5 2.0 3.5
100 to 200 81.4 0.0 1.6 1.5 8.8 4.6 3.4 16.8 13.7 0.5
200 to 325 97.2 0.0 1.2 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.4 1.6 4.2
⫺ 325 97.8 0.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.4 1.4 1.6

CO Whole 90.0 0.4 1.4 1.0 1.2 5.6 0.6 7.4 6.7
⫹ 100 46.5 0.0 2.5 9.0 11.0 31.0 3.5 45.5 46.8
100 to 200 68.0 0.0 2.0 5.0 11.0 13.6 2.0 26.6 16.2
200 to 325 92.8 0.0 2.0 1.5 1.2 2.4 0.6 4.2 4.1
⫺ 325 92.6 0.0 1.2 1.0 1.8 0.8 4.6 2.8
H.A. Foner et al. / Fuel 78 (1999) 215–223

a
Thin section, transmitted light.
 H.A. Foner et al. / Fuel 78 (1999) 215–223 219

Fig. 3. XRD patterns for SA and CO before and after heating.

of graphite although this sample contains significantly more
carbon than the South African. The use of carbon from fly
ash as an adsorbent has been suggested [7]. Differences in
the types of carbon present should be considered in any plan
to utilize them for other than their fuel value.
2.5. Particle size and carbon content
The particle-size distribution of fly ashes is very impor-
tant factor for their use as pozzolans. ASTM 618C [8] speci-
fies that ⬍ 34% of the ash must remain on a 45 mm sieve on
wet sieving. Table 6 shows both the particle-size distribu-
tion of the ashes and the amount of carbon in each size
fraction. From the point of view of particle size, these
samples easily pass the standard specification.
The maximum carbon content of the Israel ashes deter-
mined in these experiments is CO ˆ 7.1% and SA ˆ 4.2%.
The ASTM standard has an upper carbon (or more accu-
rately, loss on ignition) limit of 6%, although up to 12% may
be allowable in certain circumstances [8]. National and
international standards for fly ash specify loss on ignition
values of from 4 to 12% [3]. In general, low-carbon ashes
are required because carbon may interfere with air entrain-
ment by adsorbing entrainment additives [9], although the
carbon content does not always have this effect [10]. Table 6
shows that the large size fractions have much higher carbon
contents than the small. Thus a relatively simple fractiona-
tion at ⫺ 100 or ⫺ 200 mesh would produce a greatly
Table 6
Size fractions of the ash components and the percentage of carbon in each
Size SA CO
improved material with a lower carbon content and fewer
non-reactive large particles as shown in Table 7. With the
gradual introduction of low-NOx burners, the amount of
residual carbon in fly ash is expected to increase [10,11]
and so carbon removal will become a more important factor
in ash beneficiation. Possible uses for the separated carbon
are discussed later.
The particle size of the ashes was also measured with a
Quantachrome model 1064 granulometer using ultrasonic
mixing to disperse the materials in water. The ashes were
passed through a 10 mesh sieve to remove large stray pieces
of debris before the experiment. The SA sample is of much
finer particle size than the CO. Table 8 summarizes some of
the statistical data produced by the granulometer. These
results are consistent with those obtained by sieving.
2.6. Technical properties
The principal technical test of the suitability of a fly ash
for use as a pozzolan is the strength activity index (SAI).
This is an accelerated test [12] which compares the
compressive strengths of two cement/sand mortars: one
made with an ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and the
other made with the same OPC but with 20% of the cement
substituted by fly ash. Table 9 shows the results obtained on
the original Israel ash samples and on various size fractions
obtained from them by careful dry sieving.
Both raw ash samples give SAI values greater than the
minimum required by the ASTM standard, with the SAI
Table 7
Carbon content (%) of classified ash samples

Fraction mm % Carbon (%) % Carbon (%) Fraction Size (mm) SA CO

a
⬎ 100 mesh ⬎ 150 1.9 24.6 4.5 46.8 Whole sample 3.3–4.2 6.2–7.1 a
100–200 150–75 8.2 13.7 10.0 16.2 ⬍ 100 mesh ⬍ 150 2.90 4.30
200–325 75–45 10.6 4.16 9.2 4.11 ⬍ 200 mesh ⬍ 75 1.93 2.91
⬍ 325 ⬍ 45 79.2 1.63 76.3 2.76 a
Depending on the sample.
220 H.A. Foner et al. / Fuel 78 (1999) 215–223

Table 8 problem for some years to come. Further possibilities

Some particle size statistics on fly ash samples exist in the use of fly ash as sand or aggregate.
CO SA
3.2. Carbon
Median size (mm) 26.0 19.4
Diameter at 10% of 2.88 1.71 Removal of the coarse fraction of the fly ash produces a
distribution (mm)
better and more consistent pozzolan (see Table 9). The
Diameter at 90% of 79.1 65.2
distribution (mm) bigger size fractions contain a large proportion of carbon.
Percentage ⱕ 100.0 mm 95.2 98.3 As a fuel this would be worth about $200 000 to $500 000
per year. This is not a large sum in terms of energy imports,
but could be significant in terms of reducing the cost of the
increasing as the coarse fraction is removed. The South beneficiation process. With the introduction of low-NOx-
African sample is particularly good. Table 10 lists a number producing power stations there will be a tendency for fly
of other chemical and technical parameters referred to in ashes to contain more unburned carbon [9–11]. Hence the
various ASTM standards, and the results obtained in tests on proposed separation process might be both more necessary
the representative ash samples and their various size frac- and more economical. The possibility of using the porous
tions. The maximum or minimum values allowed in the carbon separated from these fly ashes as an adsorbent should
standards are also shown. not be overlooked [7].

3. Economic and ecological aspects
Building and construction materials in Israel are expen-
sive. They are all either imported or dependent in some way
on imported fuel. This should make the possibility of using
coal ash in construction particularly attractive. Fly ash with
improved properties should make its increased use in
construction particularly attractive. Also, power stations in
Israel are near the areas of maximum population density,
building activity and the cement plants.
3.1. Cement and concrete
Fly ash is already added to cement at the 10% level. Thus,
the value of this ash has been increased from effectively
zero to $80 per tonne (the current price of cement). This
illustrates what a potentially valuable material fly ash can
be. A further addition to the 20% level (which would be
facilitated by beneficiation), either at the factory or in the
concrete mix, would effectively solve the excess ash
3.3. Environmental
The mining of calcium carbonate and clay for cement
production causes many problems. In particular, the mining
of clay (in fact, often agricultural soil) makes large demands
on available resources. In addition, the use of fly ash as a
pozzolan represents a considerable saving in fuel use for
cement production and the consequent pollution from both
fuel oxidation products and CO2 from the calcination of
limestone. The possibility of using fly ash as an artificial
aggregate would also reduce the need for unsightly quarry-
ing operations.
There is a serious shortage of sea sand for construction
purposes in the central and northern parts of Israel, and
removal of sand has seriously affected the stabilizing
dunes along the shore line. Thus replacement of sand as a
construction material has environmental and economic
advantages.
The use of fly ash as landfill in Israel is forbidden by the
Ministry of the Environment. The main reason for this is the
fear of contaminating groundwater aquifers, which are very
near the surface in many areas. The use of fly ash in

Table 9
Compressive strengths and SAI at 7, 34 and 56 days for various ash fractions passing different sieve sizes. Note: ASTM requirement for SAI ˆ 75% at 7 or
28 days

Sample 7 days 34 days 56 days

Compressive strength (psi) SAI (%) Compressive strength (psi) SAI (%) Compressive strength (psi) SAI (%)

Cement 4310 100 6220 100 6900 100

CO ⬍ 10 mesh 3540 82 5340 86 6100 88

CO ⬍ 100 mesh 3330 77 5440 88 6240 90
CO ⬍ 200 mesh 3670 85 5800 93 6500 94

SA ⬍ 10 mesh 3770 88 6020 97 6710 97

SA ⬍ 100 mesh 4070 95 6170 99 7150 104
SA ⬍ 200 mesh 4150 96 6500 105 7460 108
Table 10
Various chemical and technical parameters based on ASTM specifications (note: fineness limit is for Portland cement)

Sample Blaine fineness (m 2/kg) Water requirement (%) Retained on wet 45 mm sieve (%) SiO2 ⫹ Al2O3 ⫹ Fe2O3 (%) SO3 (%) LOI (%) Moisture (%) Multiple factor

ASTM C150-89 C618-89 C618-89 C618-89 C618-89 C618-89 C618-89 C618-89

Limit 280 min. 105 max. 34 max. 70 min. 10 max. 3 max. 255 max.

CO 328 101 25.7 88.4 0.4 6.8 0.20 175

CO ⬍ 100 319 99 23.0
CO ⬍ 200 322 97 16.4

SA 363 97 20.7 81.2 0.5 4.0 0.23 83

SA ⬍ 100 370 96 19
H.A. Foner et al. / Fuel 78 (1999) 215–223

SA ⬍ 200 375 95 11.9

221
222 H.A. Foner et al. / Fuel 78 (1999) 215–223
construction materials would remove this danger almost
completely. This is because the most useful portion of the
ash for use as a pozzolan is the fine fraction, and this
contains most of the potentially harmful trace elements
[11,13–15]. The inorganic part of the coarse fraction from
the separation process to be developed (see below) could be
used as sand for road fill or other purposes without fear of
environmental contamination.
4. Possible uses of fly ash in Israel
The following are some suggested uses for fly ash in
Israel. Although some of these simply replace existing
materials with fly ash, others could be the basis of comple-
tely new industries. Because of the desirability of supplying
a high-quality reproducible material, it is suggested that the
coarse fraction be removed from the ash by a simple bene-
ficiation technique such as air classification. This would
have the added advantage of supplying products which
could easily be blended to give particular desirable
properties.
• A pozzolan for cement in addition to the amounts already
used. In large-scale projects such as dams, ports, etc., the
proportion of ash that can be used is considerably more
than the approximately 20% which is routinely be added
to OPC in the USA [16–20]. This has special importance
in reference to the current ‘Peace Process’ in the Middle
East as many large-scale construction projects are
planned, especially in the Gaza area. The use of fly ash
in these projects would represent a considerable saving
of money to all the parties involved. It should be noted
that the Ashkelon power station is situated very close to
the Gaza strip.
• As a replacement for the fine aggregate (sea sand or
machine-ground sand) in concretes and mortars. The
shortage of sea sand in Israel has been mentioned
previously.
• As a raw material for lightweight aggregate production.
Some commercial systems are available for this purpose
[21,22].
• As a constituent of lightweight aerated concrete, espe-
cially for the construction of insulating building blocks
[22–24]. These could replace many of the low-fines
concrete blocks used at present.
• As a constituent of ‘flowable fill’ for filling trenches and
surrounding insulation in building basements, shelters,
foundations, etc. [22,25].
• Export of fly ash. Good-quality fly ash can be sold for up
to $20 per tonne. This is similar to the price obtained for
some good-quality phosphates ores. In fact, low-quality
(but beneficiated) phosphates are currently sold in Israel
at $8 per tonne at the factory gate.
5. Summary
The physical, chemical, mineralogical and technical
properties of some typical fly ash samples produced in Israel
have been examined. The ashes are of ASTM type F and
have excellent pozzolanic properties. The materials can be
further beneficiated to give an even higher quality raw mate-
rial. Possible industrial uses for these fly ashes in the Israel
context are suggested. These uses would have economic
advantages and also eliminate the dumping of fly ash with
its associated environmental hazards and disadvantages.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Dr Samuel Grossman of the
National Coal Supply Company, Israel, for his generous
help with both the supply of samples and information. We
also wish to thank the staff of the Geochemistry Division of
the GSI and our colleagues at CAER, G.A. Thomas, M.B.
Grider and W.H. Schram, for carrying out analyses.
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