1

1. INTRODUCTION

The ordinary representation of experimental data is usually the first step in finding

an empirical equation to represent the data. Any representation of experimental data on a

graph in which same variables appears in both ordinate and abscissa should be avoided.

The data can be plotted in such a way as to give a straight line. The linear form leads to an

expression relating to variables. These graphical representation is applicable in

representation of two straight lines and representation of triangles to calculate the number

of theoretical stages obtained in fractionating column by MC-Cabe thiele method.

Graphical integration is the ``process to evaluation of definite integral in several petroleum

industries, where the algebraic form is difficult to evaluate. In general the function f(x) is

integrated with in the limits, graphical integration is applicable in petroleum process such

as differential distillation. In distillation the material balance equation named as Rayleigh

equation, an important term is evaluated by graphical integration. Numerical integration is

the another way to evaluate definite integral by taking numerical values without graph.

The graphical integration is very difficult when the data does not gives the smooth curve.

In such cases in numerical integration the trapezoidal rule and Simpsons 1/3 rules

considered to evaluate definite integral. In this procedure the smooth curve is replaced by

a series of straight lines connecting successive points and between n equally spaced

points.

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2. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
The ordinary representation of experimental data is usually the first step in finding

an empirical equation to represent the data. Any representation of experimental data on a

graph in which same variables appears in both ordinate and abscissa should be avoided.

The data can be plotted in such a way as to give a straight line. The linear form leads to an

expression relating to variables. A useful summary of the simpler form with suggested

method of plotting to give straight line is

y = mx + b

In the above equation plot Y against X along ordinary rectangular coordinates. The

slope gives the value of M and the intercept on y-axis at X=0 gives the value of “b’’.

2.1 Graphical Representation of Straight Line:

The following graph shows the graphical representation of a single straight line.

Figure 2.1

2.2 Graphical Representation of Triangle:

We can represent a triangle on the above straight line equation in Figure 2.1. If we

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consider a point "A" on the line and draw a horizontal along with vertex at point "B". Drop

a vertical line from B to meet the straight line at point "C".

Figure 2.2

2.3 Application on Mc CABE-THIELE Method:

Graphical representation of straight lines and triangles are applicable to Mc-Cabe

thiele method used for calculate theoretical plates / ideal stages required for a given degree

of separation in fractionating column.

Fractionating Column: The designing and theoretical stages of a fractionating column as

shows the following diagram below. Simply a fractionating column is classified into two

sections there are one is rectifying section and another is stripping section.

Figure 2.3 Fractionating column

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In MC Cabe-thiele method, considered mainly two straight lines named as operating

lines for rectifying section (eq.1) and operating line for stripping section (eq.2) are written

as below ,

L D
Y XD   (1)
XD 
LD LD

L
where, L  D indicates slope and DX D indicates intercept.
LD

L' WX
Y '
 ( 2)
XW  ' W 
L W L W

L'
' WX
where, L  W indicates slope and  ' W indicates intercept.
L W

The Step Wise Procedure for Calculating Number of Theoretical Stages by Graphical
Representation:
1. First draw the equilibrium curve and 45 degrees diagonal with the help of X-Y data.

2. Draw operating line for rectifying section passing through the point
X D, XD
on
L
DX D
45 degrees diagonal with slope is equal to L  D and intercepts to as
LD
shown below.

Figure 2.4

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3. Draw operating line for stripping section passing through the point
X W, XW 
on 45

L'
degrees diagonal with slope is equal to '
L W and intercept equal to WX W

L'  W

Figure 2.5

4. Starting from ( X D , X D ) point on the diagonal draw a horizontal line to meet the
equilibrium curve at point A. Drop a vertical from point A which meets the
operating line for rectifying section.

5. Proceed in this way, i.e., constructing the triangles between equilibrium curve and
two straight lines operating line for rectifying section and operating line for
stripping section till we reach the point  X W , X W  .

6. Count the number of triangles between  X D , X D  and  X W , X W  points. Each

triangle on x-y diagram represents a theoretical stage.

7. If the number of triangles “n”, then” n” represents the theoretical number of plates
which are arranged in distillation (or) fractionating column.

8. In the following diagram the six triangles in between equilibrium curve and two
operating lines indicates the five theoretical stages are required for followed data.

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Figure 2.6 Calculating the Theoritical plates (or) ideal stages required for a given degree of
separation in fractionating column by Mc Cabe - Thiele method.

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3. GRAPHICAL INTEGRATION
3.1 Introduction:
The graphical evaluation of definite integral is of great utility in several cases where

the algebraic form is difficult to evaluate. In general, the problem is to evaluate an integral

of the form is

x2

 f x dx
x1

where f(X) is a function of x. The procedure is to plot f(x) values taking on Y- axis and x

values taking on X-axis and measure the area under the curve between the vertical lines at

x= X 2 and x= X 3 under the curve.

X-axis and Y-axis scale values are very important for, measure the area under the

curve .

Figure 3.1

From the above graph we know the value of x 2 and some area under the curve then

we can note the unknown values x 1

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3.2 Application on Differential Distillation using Rayleigh Equation

Graphical integration is applicable to Rayleigh equation. Rayleigh equation is

indicated as material balance equation for differential (or) simple distillation of a binary
x2

 f x dx
liquid mixture. In this equation the main important term (or) function x1
evaluated by

graphically. This term indicates the amount of mass transformed.

Differential Distillation: In differential distillation a known quantity of liquid mixture is

charged into a jacketed kettle or still. The charge is boiled slowly with steam and the

vapours formed are withdrawn and fed into a condenser, where they are liquefied and

collected in the receiver as a distillate.

The distillation process is as shown in the following diagram.

Figure 3.2 Differential Distillation Process

Material balance equation for differential distillation of a binary liquid mixture is

XF
F dx
ln
W
   y  x   (1)
XW
where F=kilo

moles of liquid mixture (A+B) containing X F mole fraction A,

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W= kilo moles of residual liquid is obtained which containing X W mole fraction of A,

Y =mole fraction of distillate in vapour phase and

X=mole fraction of distillate in liquid phase

The above equation (1) is known as Rayleigh equation. It is used for determine F, W,

X F
XW , values, when three values of these Quantities are known. R.H.S of the equation

1
(1) is evaluated graphically by plotting  y  x  ,on ordinate and X on abscissa.

The graph that will be obtained is shown in the following figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3

Solved Problem:

n- heptane and 65 mole n-octane   2.16

0
A liquid mixture containing 35mole 0

0
is subjected to differential distillation at atmospheric pressure with 65 mole 0 of the liquid

distilled. Compute the composited distillate and the residue.

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Solution: We know that, n-heptane is more volatile component

Basis: 100kilo moles of feed

0
Given 65 0 of feed is distilled, i.e.,

D=65 k.mole,

If F= D+W, then W=F-D

This implies that W=100-65=35 K.mole, where

X F = mole fraction of n-heptane in feed = 0.35,

XW
= mole fraction of n-heptane in residual=?,

y D = mole fraction of n-heptane in distillate=?

According to Rayleigh equation,

XF
F dx
ln
W
 
XW
y  x
 (1)


F
ln
L. H.S = W = ln(100) - ln(35)=1.05.

To find out R.H.S value we have to generate X-Y data with the help of given

  2.16 and by using following know equation

x 2.16 x
y 
1     1 1  1.16 x

As X F = 0.35, generate data up to X = 0.5, i.e., take X= 0.05, 0.10, 0.20, 0.30, 0.40 and

X=0.50 and evaluate the corresponding values of y. Then the following data be obtained.

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x 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50

Y 0.10 0.19 0.35 0.48 0.59 0.68

Y-X 0.05 0.09 0.15 0.18 0.19 0.18

1/Y-X 20 11.11 6.67 5.55 5.26 5.55

R.H.S. of Rayleigh equation is to be evaluated graphically by plotting 1/y-x against x.

Figure 3.4

XF
F dx
ln
W
 
XW
y  x
 (1)

By taking equation (1),

1 .05 =(area) (X-axis scale) (Y-axis scale)

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 2cm 2   1cm 2 
Area  1.05       
 0.1units   2units 

 10.5cm2

So, measure area under the above curve from X F =0.35 through Y-axis till

2
area 10.5cm and read the value of X that will have the values of
X W as follows.

Figure 3.5

From the graph, X w  0.18

Material balance of heptane is,

X F .F  X W .W  YD .D
0 .35  100  0 .18  35  YD  65
YD  0 .44

Composition of composited distillate = 0.44mole fraction of n-heptane

0
= 44 mole 0 n- heptane

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Composition of residual=0.18 mole fraction

0
=18 mole 0 of n- heptane.

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4. NUMERICAL INTEGRATION
4.1 Introduction
Numerical integration is an another way to evaluate definite integral by taking

numerical values without a graph. The graphical integration is very difficult when the data

does not gives the smooth curve. In such cases in numerical integration, the trapezoidal

rule and Simpsons 1/3 rules considered to evaluate definite integral. In this procedure the

smooth curve is replaced by a series of straight lines connecting successive points and

between n equally spaced points.

1. Derivation of Trapezoidal Rule:

Consider the general quadrature principle for numerical integration is

xn
  n  n2n  3 2
f  x dx  nh  y0  y0   

n n 2  4n  1 3  
 y0  .......... ......  1

x0  2 12
 y0 
24 

Put n=1 in eq (1) and eliminate the differences higher than first, we get

x1
 1  h h
 f x dx  h  y 0  y0   2 y0  y1  y0    y0  y1 
x0
2  2 2

x1

x0 , x1 ,  f x dx  h  y0  y1 
2
This shows that for the interval x0
then similarly, for the

next intervals x1 , x2 , x2 , x3 .......... , xn 1 , xn are

x2 x2 x
h h n
h
 f  x dx   y1  y2 ,  f  x dx   y2  y3 ,......... ...  f ( x)dx   yn 1  yn 
x1
2 x1
2 x
2
n 1

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Combining the above all expressions are obtain , we get

x1 x2 xn
h
 f  x dx   f  x dx  .....   f ( x)dx   y0  y1   h  y1  y2   ......  h  yn1  yn 
x0 x1 xn1
2 2 2

xn
h
 f ( x)dx  2  y
x0
0  2 y1  y2  ......  yn 1   yn   (2)

Equation (2) is known as expressions for the trapezoidal rule.

2. Derivation of Simpsons 1/3 rd Rule: Consider the general principle For numerical

integration is

xn
  n  n2n  1 2 n n 2  4n  4 3   

x0
f ( x)dx  nh  y0  y0   
 2 12
 y0 
24
 y0  .....  (1)


Put n=2 in eq(1) and

Eliminate the difference higher then second order,we get

22(2)  1 2 
x2
 2
 f ( x)dx  2h  y
x0
0  y 0 
2 12
 y0 


2h
  y0   y1  y0 6  y1  y0 
6
2h
 6 y1   y2  y1    y1  y0 
6
h
  y0  4 y1  y2 
3

Similarly, for the next interval

x x , x x ,......... .x
2, 4 4, 6 x
n  2, n 

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x4 x
h 6
h
 f ( x)dx   y2  4 y3  y4 ,  f ( x)dx   y4  4 y5  y6   ............
x2
3 x4
3
xn
h
 f ( x)dx   yn2  yn1  yn 
xn2
3

Containing the above all expressions are obtain ,

x2 x4 xn
h h
 f  x dx   f  x dx  ......   f x dx  3  y 0  4 y1  y2    y1  4 y2  y3   ....  h  yn2  yn1  yn 
x0 x2 xn2
3 3
xn
h
 f ( x)dx  3  y
x0
0  4 y1  y2    y1  4 y2  y3   .......   yn  2  yn 1  yn 

xn
h
 f x dx  3  y
x0
0  4 y1  y2  y3  ......  yn 1   2 y2  y4  .... yn  2   (3)

The above equation is known as the expression for Simpsons 1/3rd rule

4.2 Application on Average Velocity of Fluids

Numerical integration is applicable in petroleum industries to calculate the average

velocity of the fluids which passing through a pipe lines having different radius's and

thickness.

Consider a fluid element is passing through a co-axial annual ring with radius ‘r’ and

thickness ‘dr’, then the volumetric flow rate through this fluid element is

dA  2rdr

Then, the average velocity of the fluid is

R R

 dq  u  2  rdr  u  r  dr 2
R
u   0
 0
  ur .dr
 dA
R R
R2
 2  rdr
0
 ur .dr
0
0

R
2
u 
R2  ur .dr
0

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If we taking the values of local velocities at different areas of pipe lines we can

 ur.dr
calculate the average velocity of fluids. The value of 0 by using the expressions of

trapezoidal rule and Simpson`s 1/3 rule.

Solved Problem:

A fluid is flowing through a pipe line having 6 cm in diameter, their local velocities

at various radical positions are given below

U cm/s 2.00 1.94 1.78 1.50 1.11 0.61 0

r cm 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Estimate the average velocity u by Trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s 1/3 rule.

Solution:

The average velocity of the fluid is given by

R
2
u 
R 2  ur
0
. dr

Calculated the values of “ur” for different values of ‘’r’’ are tabulated below

r 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

ur 0.0 0.97 1.78 2.25 2.22 1.52 0.0

By trapezoidal rule, for n=6

xn
h
 f ( x)dx  2  y
x0
0  2 y1  y2  ......  yn 1   yn   (2)

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h
 x2  x1   3.0  0.0   0.5
where, n 6

3
0 .5
 ur .dr  0  0   20.97  1.78  2.25  2.22  1.52 
2
From equation(2,) 0

0 .5
 28.74   4.37
2

Average velocity by trapezoidal rule,

R
2
u 2
R  ur .dr
0

2
  4.37
9
 0.97cm / s

1. Average velocity by Simpsons 1/3rd rule, for n=6

h
 x2  x1   3.0  0.0   0.5
where n 6

xn
h
 f x dx  3  y
x0
0  yn   4 y1  y3  .......  yn 1   2 y2  y4  .....  yn  2 

3
0 .5
 ur.dr  0  040.97  2.25  1.52  21.78  2.22
0
3

= 4.49 .

Average velocity by Simpson one third rule,

R
2
u 2
R  ur .dr
0

2
  4.49
9
 1.0cm / s

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CONCLUSION

In this project, we study ,using graphical representation in Mc CABE-THEILE method

calculate number of theoritical steges obtained in fractionating column.Graphical

integration is used to evaluate the function in Rayleigh equation in differential

distillation.Numerical integration is used to calculate the average velocity of fluids which

passing through the pipe lines.

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REFERENCES

1. Mc Cabe, W. L., & Smith, J. C., Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering (3rd ed.),
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. 2 .Beychok, Milton "Algebraic Solution of McCabe-Thiele Diagram". Chemical

Engineering Progress. (may 1956).

3. King, C. Judson . Separation Processes. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-034610-0,(1971).

4. Trefethen, Lloyd N.; Bau, III, David. Numerical Linear Algebra. SIAM.
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5. Mathieu Ossendrijver . "Ancient Babylonian astronomers calculated Jupiter's position

from the area under a time-velocity graph". Science. 351 (6272): 482–
484. Bibcode:2016Sci...351..482O. doi:10.1126/science.aad8085. PMID 26823423.

6. Leader, Jeffery J. ,. Numerical Analysis and Scientific Computation. Addison

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7. Briol, François-Xavier; Oates, Chris J.; Girolami, Mark; Osborne, Michael A.

"Frank-Wolfe Bayesian Quadrature: Probabilistic Integration with
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