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Infrared Drying of Food Materials: Recent Advances

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Infrared Drying of Food Materials: Recent
Advances

Priyanka Sakare, Niranjan Prasad,

Nandkishore Thombare, Ranjit Singh &
Satish Chandra Sharma

Food Engineering Reviews

ISSN 1866-7910
Volume 12
Number 3

Food Eng Rev (2020) 12:381-398

DOI 10.1007/s12393-020-09237-w

1 23
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 Author's personal copy
Food Engineering Reviews (2020) 12:381–398
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12393-020-09237-w

Infrared Drying of Food Materials: Recent Advances

Priyanka Sakare 1 & Niranjan Prasad 1 & Nandkishore Thombare 1 & Ranjit Singh 1 & Satish Chandra Sharma 1

Received: 4 March 2020 / Accepted: 25 June 2020 / Published online: 6 July 2020
# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2020

Abstract
Infrared (IR) radiations are an important source of energy used in the food industry for a wide range of applications such as
drying, roasting, pasteurization, blanching, peeling, and removal of antinutrients from legumes. IR drying can be combined with
other drying methods such as hot air, vacuum, microwave, and freeze drying to augment the speed of the process and also to get
better results. The review puts forward a critical discussion on the principle, applications, and comparative performance of IR
energy for drying a range of food materials including grains, fruits, vegetables, and sea food in the recent past. The effects of
process variables on energy consumption, drying time, rate of drying, and quality of the dried product are explained in detail.
Model calculations for penetration depth of IR in food materials and for heat and mass transfer are also explained. Thin layer
drying models to govern kinetics of drying under different configuration of infrared drying systems are also reviewed. The
insights presented by this review would help in better understanding and proper selection of process variables for design of
advanced IR drying systems.

Keywords Infrared drying . Energy consumption . Process variables . Mathematical modeling

Introduction hot air. Limitation of convective drying encouraged the crea-

Drying is a vital unit operation in food processing and preser-
vation. It is used to improve the stability of food products, by
decreasing the water activity. Lowering water activity of the
product successively reduces microbial activity and curtails
physicochemical alterations during storage [54]. It is the
highest energy-intensive unit operation in the food processing
industry [17].
Convection is the most common mode of heat transfer in
drying. Convective drying employs transfer of heat from hot
air to the targeted product by convection, and evaporation of
water back to the air also by convection. There are many
drawbacks associated with convective drying of agricultural
products such as longer drying time, uneven product quality,
low efficiency, and high energy consumption. Higher energy
consumption in convective drying is associated with the
heating of air and then indirect heating of the product with
* Priyanka Sakare
priyankaicar@gmail.com
1
Processing and Product Development Division, ICAR–Indian
Institute of Natural Resins and Gums, Ranchi - 834010, Jharkhand,
India
tion of many new drying technologies such as fluidized bed
drying, microwave drying, osmotic drying, infrared (IR) dry-
ing, and various combined hybrid drying methods [70].
IR drying has several advantages over conventional drying
system. These advantages include short process time, im-
proved energy efficiency, uniform or even product tempera-
ture, superior quality of final products, high degree of process
control parameters, high heat transfer coefficient, space sav-
ing, and eco-friendliness [45, 58, 68]. IR heating has been
identified as a promising method to obtain high-quality dried
food products, including fruits, vegetables, grains, and other
high-value products [18, 22, 64, 87, 96, 97]. Other non-food
applications of IR drying include drying of paints, coatings,
adhesive, paper, board, and textile.
Application of IR heating for food material is a robust
technique and gaining popularity among various industries.
Although earlier reviews on IR drying [3, 47, 63, 68, 71] have
reviewed applications of IR heating, much detailed appraisal
giving insight of basics and advancements in application of IR
drying in a comprehensive way is not yet reported. The pres-
ent review aims for critical analysis of recent developments in
application of IR radiations in drying of food materials, in-
cluding discussions on the effects of various process variables
involved in the IR and IR-assisted drying methods, limitations
of IR drying, and challenges to overcome these limitations.
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382
Fundamentals of IR Heating
Wavelength Distribution and Heating Mechanism
IR radiation encompasses the portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum, which falls between the region of visible light and
microwaves. Figure 1 and Table 1 depict commonly accepted
classification of IR radiation wavelength as per Sandu [81]
and Sakai and Hanzawa [75].
When electromagnetic radiation impinges on food surface,
it causes changes in the electronic, rotational, and vibrational
states of atoms and molecules [75]. The type of mechanism of
energy absorption depends on the wavelength of incident en-
ergy which is depicted in Fig. 2. Changes in electronic and
rotational state correspond to wavelength in the range of 0.2–
0.7 μm (ultraviolet and visible rays) and above 1000 μm (mi-
crowaves), respectively. IR radiation causes changes in the
vibrational state of the molecule. After penetration in food
materials, IR rays vibrate the constituent molecules at a fre-
quency of 60,000–150,000 MHz, which results in intermolec-
ular friction and brings about rapid internal heating [32]. IR
radiation does not require any medium for its propagation. It is
transferred from the heating element to the product surface
without heating the surrounding air [12].
IR Radiation Sources
Electrically heated or gas-fired generators are used for gener-
ating IR energy. In electrically heated radiators, IR energy is
generated by passing an electric current through an element
[39]. Reflector-type IR incandescent lamps (incandescent vac-
uum lamp, gas-filled lamp, tungsten halogen lamp), quartz
tube IR emitters, ceramic IR emitters, tubular metal-sheathed
elements, and radiant panels are the most common examples
of electrically heated IR source [24]. Gas-fired generators con-
sist of perforated plate (metal or refractory) that is heated by
gas flames in one of the surfaces, thereby causing the plate to
rise in temperature and emits IR energy [70]. Common gas-
Fig. 1 Electromagnetic wave
spectrum highlighting infrared
radiation range
Food Eng Rev (2020) 12:381–398
Table 1 Classification of infrared radiation
IR classification based on wavelength (μm) Reference
Near IR Mid IR Far IR
0.75–3.00 3.00–25 25–100 Sandu [81]
0.78 to 1.4 1.4 to 3.0 3.0 to 1000 Sakai and Hanzawa [75]
fired IR emitters are catalytic gas-fired emitter, ceramic burn-
er, direct flame IR radiator, metal fiber burner, and high-
intensity porous burner [24]. Conversion efficiency of electri-
cally heated IR emitters is higher (78–85%) than that of gas-
fired radiators (40–46%) [67].
Radiation Properties of Material and its Applications
Absorptivity, transmissivity, and reflectivity of IR radiation
should be considered while selecting the components for con-
struction of equipment for IR drying. The material of the re-
flector for radiator lamp should be opaque with high reflectiv-
ity. The material subjected to IR drying should possess low
reflectivity to minimize the power required to heat. High ab-
sorptivity of the material is usually better for drying of thin
layer of materials such as paints and coatings, while for drying
of thick moist materials such as foodstuffs, material with high
transmissivity is preferred to avoid extreme heating and ther-
mal damage of the surface [70].
Three basic radiation laws determine the distribution and
quantity of IR energy. Stefan–Boltzmann’s law and Planck’s
law (Eqs. 1 and 2, respectively) provide the means for deter-
mining the intensity and spectral distribution of the emission
from the radiator. Wien’s displacement law (Eq. 3) states that
the wavelength at which the maximum emission occurs is
determined by the temperature of the IR heating source.
E ¼ ƐσT4ab Stefan−Boltzmann law ð1Þ
2Πhc2 λ−5
Eb;λ ðT; λÞ ¼ Planck0 s law ð2Þ
expðhc=λkTÞ−1
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Food Eng Rev (2020) 12:381–398 383

Fig. 2 Mechanism of energy Ultraviolet and visible rays Infrared radiation Microwaves
absorption of electromagnetic
waves

Molecule dissociates Molecule vibrates Molecule rotates

2897:6
λmax ¼ Wien0 s Displacement law
Tab
where E, radiant energy flux (W/m2); Ɛ, emmisivity; σ,
5.670 × 10−8 W/m2K4 (Stefan–Boltzmann constant); Tab, ab-
solute temperature of surface (K), Eb, λ, spectral radiance; λ,
wavelength (μm); c, 3 × 108 m/s (speed of light); T, tempera-
ture (K); h, 6.6256 × 10−34 J (Planck’s constant); k, 1.3805 ×
10−23 J/K (Boltzmann’s constant); and λmax, peak wavelength
(μm).
Absorption Spectrum of Different Food Constituents
ð3Þ intensity falls to 1/100 was reported as penetration depth.
Figure 3 represents the schematic view of vegetable model.
In the model, irradiation power from lamp is qir, and part of the
radiation reflected back from the surface is rλ·qir. Radiation
incident on the surface of vegetable will be (1 − rλ)·qir. This
energy will be further transmitted in the material. Transmitted
energy decay exponentially with penetration [76] and at a
distance x from the irradiated surface it can be expressed as
(1 − rλ)·qir exp(−αλ·x).
Damping of radiation at distance x from the surface may be
evaluated by modifying the damping function (Eqs. 4 and 5)
[41].

Water and organic compounds such as proteins and starches are

the main constituents of foodstuff, and each of the components ðTransmitted power at the depth x from irradiated surface of vegetableÞ
∅ðxÞ ¼
ðThe power absorbed by the vegetablesÞ
of food absorb specific wavelength range. Water in liquid state
has four principal absorption bands at 3, 4.7, 6, and 15.3 μm ð4Þ
[101]. Amino acids, nucleic acids, and proteins show two
strong absorption bands centered at 3–4 μm and 6–9 μm [16,
46]. Sugars give two strong absorption bands over the IR radi- λ2

∫λ1 ð1−rλ Þqir;λ exp −αab;λ :x dλ
ation spectrum situated at 3 μm and 7–10 μm [53]. Lipids ∅ðxÞ ¼ λ2
ð5Þ
reveal three strong absorption bands localized at 3–4 μm, ∫λ1 ð1−rλ Þqir;λ dλ
6 μm, and 9–10 μm [35, 84]. Broad IR absorption spectrum
Here, qir,λ is irradiation power, rλ is the apparent reflectance
of water makes it a suitable method for drying of food materials.
at the vegetable surface, αab,λ is the apparent absorption coef-
ficient, and λ1 and λ2 are the shortest and longest wavelength
Penetration of IR in Food Materials of IR radiation, respectively.

The penetration depth (PD) is the distance or depth at which

the radiation intensity inside the material falls to approximate-
ly 37% of its original value at the surface or by one log cycle
[31, 63]. Larger PD implies slower decay of flux. PD of IR
radiation is a complex function of the chemical composition of
food, physicochemical state of the irradiated medium, i.e.,
solid, liquid, or gas, and properties such as density, porosity,
and water content [81]. PD of electromagnetic wave in a food
material varies according to wavelength of incident radiation
[26].
Hashimoto and Kameoka [40] determined the PD of IR
(near IR and far IR) in vegetable model. Vegetables were
prepared as wet porous foodstuffs and a vegetable model com-
posed of dry solid (dry vegetable material), liquid, and gas in
the voids was constructed. The distance at which radiation Fig. 3 Vegetable model irradiated by infrared radiation [40]
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384 Food Eng Rev (2020) 12:381–398

rλ may be calculated as Heat and Mass Transfer Modeling

ðnλ −1Þ2 þ k2λ Mass balance equation in IR drying remains same as that of
rλ ¼ 2
ð6Þ
ð nλ þ 1Þ þ k2λ conventional drying (Eq. 12)

∂M ∂2 M
nλ and kλ are refraction and extinction coefficients of water, ¼ Deff ð12Þ
∂t ∂Z2
respectively.
Apparent absorption coefficient Initial conditions:
t = 0, M = M0
αab;λ ¼ f d :αd;λ þ f w :αw;λ þ f v :αv;λ ð7Þ Boundary conditions:
∂M
t > 0; z ¼ 0; ¼0
α and f are the absorption coefficient and the volumetric ∂Z
fraction, respectively. The subscripts d, w, and v mean the dry ∂M
vegetable material, water, and the void, respectively. Since the t > 0; z ¼ z; −Deff ¼ hm ðMs −Me Þ
∂Z
path length of IR energy in voids is small and IR is not
absorbed by air, therefore, Eq. 7 can be simplified as Two types of heat transfer models are suggested for IR
drying. Figure 4 represents the schematic view of the models:
αab;λ ¼ f d :αd;λ þ f w :αw;λ ð8Þ
ρ 1. Opaque model: In opaque model, it is considered that IR
f w ¼ ww : b ð9Þ
ρw energy is absorbed in a narrow region close to the surface
Ww ρb of the material (subjected to drying) rather than attenuat-
fd ¼ : ð10Þ ing within its volume. One-dimensional variation in heat
Wd ρd
transfer along the sample thickness is given as Eq. 13
Here, Ww and Wd are the water contents on wet and dry [70]:
basis, respectively. ρw and ρd are the densities of the water and
dry vegetable material, and ρb is the bulk density of the veg-
etable.
 
Iλ ∂T ∂2 T
ln ¼ −αd;λ :l ð11Þ ¼ αeff 2 ð13Þ
I0λ ∂t ∂Z
Initial and boundary condition for the models are:
Iλ/I0λ is the monochromatic transmittance through a layer Initial condition:
of the dry vegetable material with a thickness of l. Equation 11 t = 0, T = T0
is also known as Beer–Lambert law. Boundary condition:
Hashimoto and Kameoka observed that the PD of IR t > 0, z = 0 (center)
radiation into vegetable model was 0.21 to 0.64 mm under
FIR radiation and 0.38 to 2.54 mm under NIR radiation ∂T
¼0
[40]. The results indicate that FIR radiation is suitable for ∂z
drying of thin layers, while NIR radiation is suitable for
t > 0, z = z(surface)
drying of thicker bodies. The depth of penetration was
dependent on moisture content and voids in the sample. ∂T ∂M
kp A p ¼ hc Ap ðTa −Ts Þ−ρp Vp hv þ Qr ð14Þ
The PD of NIR radiation in spices (paprika powder, black ∂z ∂t
pepper seeds, and oregano leaves) at different water activ-
ity levels was studied by Erdogdu and co-workers [31].
The results revealed that the depth of penetration had a
positive correlation with water activity for paprika powder 2. Semi-transparent/penetration model: For materials par-
and black pepper seeds while no significant change in tially transparent to IR, the application of the opaque mod-
depth of penetration was observed for oregano leaves. el may be intrinsically incorrect. In semi-transparent mod-
The penetration depth of NIR radiation in paprika powder el, it is assumed that IR energy will penetrate through
and black pepper seeds ranged from 0.20 to 0.37 cm and material up to a certain depth. One-dimensional variation
0.24 to 0.37 cm in the water activity range of 0.53 to 0.88 in heat transfer along the sample thickness can be
and 0.36 to 0.88, respectively. expressed as Eq. 15 [70]:
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Food Eng Rev (2020) 12:381–398 385

Fig. 4 Schematic diagram of

opaque and penetration model

Opaque model Semi-transparent/ penetration model

∂T ∂2 T ∂q IR Drying
¼ αeff 2 þ a ð15Þ
∂t ∂z ∂z
Studies have reported that when the food material is dried
h z i under IR alone, temperature or intensity of IR, distance be-
qa ¼ Qr exp −∫0 K dz ð16Þ tween product surface and IR heating element, thickness of
the product, and exposure time are the major operating param-
Initial and boundary condition for the models are: eters required to be optimized for efficient drying. Figure 5
Initial condition: t = 0, T = T0 illustrates the schematic diagram of IR drying. The effect of
Boundary condition: t = t, z = 0 (center) these parameters or variables on drying time, energy con-
sumption, and quality of dried material is explained in the
∂T section that follows.
¼0
∂z
t = t, z = 0 (surface) Effect of IR Temperature and Exposure Time

The effect of IR drying temperature on quality of orange peel

∂T ∂M
kp A p ¼ hc Ap ðTa −Ts Þ−ρp Vp hv ð17Þ
∂z ∂t
where M is moisture content (kg/kg); Deff, effective moisture
diffusivity (m2/s); αeff, effective thermal diffusivity; z, slab
thickness (m); kp, thermal conductivity of grain or slab
(W/m °C); Ap, surface area of grain or slab (m2); hc, heat
transfer coefficient (W/m2°C); hv, latent heat of vaporization
(J/kg); Ta, temperature of air (°C); Ts, surface temperature
(°C); Vp, volume of grain or slab (m3); qa, heat absorbed; Qr,
heat exchange between bodies; K, average extinction coeffi-
cient; hm, mass transfer coefficient (m/s); Ms, surface moisture
content (kg/kg); and M e , equilibrium moisture content
(kg/kg).
Applications of IR and IR-Assisted Drying
Due to its unique characteristics and advantages over conven-
tional drying methods, IR drying has become one of the pop-
ular methods of drying. Combining IR with other drying
methods (i.e., hot air, vacuum, microwave, and freeze drying)
can give a synergistic effect [59, 65, 92, 93]. In this section,
application of IR and combination drying (IR-assisted drying
methods) for drying of different food materials are discussed
in detail. Effect of various process variables involved in IR
and combination drying and comparative evaluation of IR
drying with other methods of drying are also explained. The
summary of the same is given in Tables 2 and 3.
and orange leaves was reported by Bejar and co-workers [14].
The results demonstrated that exposure of product at high
temperature (70 °C) for a short time preserved the color and
total phenolic content, whereas drying at lower IR temperature
(40–60 °C) required larger drying time leading to modification
of color in peel and leaves due to destruction of pigments
(flavonoids and carotenoids in peel and chlorophyll in leaves).
The negative effect of higher IR temperature (80 °C) was
observed by Wang et al. [88] during drying of wet mushroom
chewing tablets. At the suggested optimum temperature
(70 °C), the dried product retained the quality and possessed
the highest sensory score. Rahmawati et al. [66] studied the
effect of IR temperature (200, 300, and 400 °C) and exposure
time (50 and 60 s) on duku (Lansium domesticum). The aim of
the investigation was to produce skin hardening of the fruit
while keeping the flesh fresh. The results revealed that duku
exposed to higher temperature (400 °C) for longer exposure
time (60 s) had hard skin texture and suffered from withered
dry skin. This was attributed to damage of cell wall and mid-
lamella, evaporation of water, and breakdown of pectin and
polysaccharide. In the aforementioned works [14, 66, 88], the
range of the temperature selected for the study was different.
At the optimum temperature, dried product retained its quali-
ty, whereas temperature lower or higher than optimum tem-
perature resulted in adverse effects on quality. This implies
that selection of temperature is a crucial factor in IR drying for
obtaining the high-quality dried product.
Baptestini et al. [13] studied the effect of different IR tem-
peratures (65–95 °C) on heat and mass transfer coefficients
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386 Food Eng Rev (2020) 12:381–398

Table 2 Effect of process parameters of infrared and infrared-assisted drying methods

Drying method Process parameters Effect of process parameters Reference

IR drying IR power or intensity, thickness of • Increase in IR power increases the drying rate, Bejar et al. [14]; Wang et al. [88];
product, exposure time, distance increases effective moisture diffusivity, and Abano et al. [1]; Li et al. [50];
between IR source and product reduces drying time Ismail and Kocabay [42]
surface • Increase in the distance and sample thickness
increases drying time
IR-assisted hot IR power or intensity, air • Increase in the drying air temperature resulted Zare et al. [97] Adak et al. [4]
air drying temperature, air velocity in a corresponding increase in the drying rate, Onwude et al. [59]
energy consumption, effective moisture
diffusivity, and decreased drying time
• Energy consumption increases with an
increase in air temperature and air velocity
while it decreases with the increase in IR
power
• Drying time is inversely proportional to IR
power and directly proportional to air
velocity
• Effective moisture diffusivity increases with
increase in radiation intensity
IR-assisted vacuum IR power or intensity, vacuum • Drying rate increases and drying time reduces Salehi and Kashaninejad [78];
drying pressure with increase in IR power and decrease in Ghaboos et al. [36]
vacuum pressure
IR in combination Microwave power, IR power • Drying time decreases with increase in IR and Aydogdu et al. [11]; Qu et al. [65]
with microwave microwave power
• Under combined microwave and IR drying,
microwave heating is dominant mechanism
IR in combination IR power or IR intensity • Increase in IR power increases the drying rate Antal et al. [10]; Khampakool et al.
with freeze drying and reduces the drying time [44]

and effective diffusion coefficient for different ripening stages
of banana. Results revealed that heat and mass transfer and
diffusion coefficients increased with the increase in tempera-
ture at all ripening stages. Heat and mass transfer coefficients
showed a linear behavior with temperature. Lewis number
was between 1.11 and 1.17 in all ripening states at all temper-
atures, indicating that IR drying is driven by both heat and
mass transfer. Similar results were reported by Correa et al.
[23] during IR drying of ginger.
Effect of Product Thickness and Distance between Product
Surface and IR Source
The effect of two independent variables, i.e., distance between
the far infrared (FIR) emitter and the product surface (X1) and
slice thickness (X2), on drying time and quality of tomato slice
was studied by Abano et al. [1]. The results revealed that the
increase in distance and sample thickness increased drying
time. Second-order polynomial model (Eq. 18, considering
only significant terms) developed in the study suggested that
the effect of sample thickness on drying time was more pro-
nounced than the effect of the distance from the FIR heater. As
distance and sample thickness increase, long-time exposure of
the samples to FIR is required. Because of this, drying time
increased and ascorbic acid content decreased. The increase in
distance and sample thickness decreased the color values and
browning index.
Drying time ¼ 111:03 þ 6:67X 1 þ 20:0 X 2 þ 11:38X 22 ð18Þ
In another study, Aboltins et al. [2] dried strawberry and
pumpkin under an IR dryer. The dryer consisted of multiple
shelves with IR heating element at the top and bottom.
Adjustable variable cross-section holes were given at the bot-
tom of the shelf level for air supply, and an exhaust fan (outlet
air) was provided on top of the sidewall. The sample trays
were kept in drying chamber shelves at different distance from
IR heating element and air inlet. The results showed that mois-
ture removal from the product depends on the distance be-
tween IR source and sample, and location of sample at air inlet
or outlet. Strawberry samples at top and bottom shelf showed
15–20% higher moisture removal rate than samples at middle
shelf, and pumpkin sample at middle shelf showed 30%
slower moisture removal rate. Faster drying of samples at
top and bottom shelves is due to direct impact of IR on the
samples. Top IR heating element showed a greater effect on
moisture removal as compared with bottom IR heating ele-
ment because the base of the sample tray was creating hin-
drance for IR radiation, while in case of top heating element
IR rays were directly impacting on top sample tray.
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Food Eng Rev (2020) 12:381–398 387

Table 3 Comparison of infrared with other drying methods

Material Comparison of drying methods Results References

Mushroom chewing tablet Intermediate-wave IR drying (IWIR) and IWIR required 54% less drying time Wang et al. [88]
hot air drying compared with hot air while maintaining
the quality of the product
Komatsuna leaves Far-IR drying (FIR) and hot air drying FIR drying consumed 17% less energy Orikasa et al. [60]
compared with hot air drying
Tangerine peels Hot air drying, sun drying, vacuum drying, IR drying was the fastest and most efficient Xu et al. [94]
freeze drying, and short- and in retaining main compositions,
medium-wave IR drying antioxidant activity, and nutraceutical
compositions
Rainbow trout IR and microwave drying Microwave drying was much faster than IR Ismail and Kocabay [42]
Beef jerky Mid and far IR radiation (MFIR) with hot MFIR drying was faster Li et al. [50]
air drying
Lemon peel Natural air, hot air, and IR drying IR drying was easier to lead to decrease in Zhang et al. [98]
yield, antioxidant and antibacterial
activity of essential oil as compared with
hot air drying at the same temperature
while natural drying had the least effect
on these parameters
Bitter gourd slice Hot air drying, freeze drying, and IR Based on color, appearance, rehydration Yan et al. [96]
radiation ratio, and microstructure, freeze drying
provided best results, but considering
bioactivities and physicochemical
characteristics, IR drying gave best
results
Jujube slice Hot air and short- and medium-wave IR ra- SMIR required less drying time (33–83% of Chen et al. [22]
diation (SMIR) the hot air) and doubled the effective
moisture diffusivity as compared with hot
air drying
Apple (Golden Delicious) IR–hot air, IR–cold air and hot air IR in combination with hot air was 57.5 and El-Mesery and Mwithiga [29]
39.1% faster than IR in combination with
cold air and hot air, respectively
Apple cube IR-assisted freeze drying and hot IR-assisted freeze drying had higher Antal [9]
air–assisted freeze drying rehydration rate, desirable color, and
lower firmness than dried by hot
air–assisted freeze drying
Pear Mid-IR–freeze drying (mIR-FD) and freeze MIR-FD decreased the drying time by Antal et al. [10]
drying 14.3–42.9% compared with freeze drying
Banana snacks IR-assisted freeze drying and freeze drying IR-assisted freeze drying resulted in more Khampakool et al. [44]
than 70% time saving
Cordyceps militaris IR-assisted freeze drying and freeze drying IR-assisted freeze drying could reduce Wu et al. [92]
7.21–17.78% of the drying time and
11.88–18.37% of the energy
consumption as compared with
traditional freeze drying
Black tea Microwave, halogen lamp, far IR, halogen Microwave drying and halogen Qu et al. [65]
lamp–microwave combination and hot lamp–microwave drying were suitable
air drying for drying of black tea

Comparison of IR Drying with Other Drying Methods
Studies have reported that IR drying is faster (requires less
drying time) than natural drying, sun drying, vacuum drying,
freeze drying, and hot-air drying [94, 96, 98], but slower than
microwave drying [42]. Under identical drying conditions,
Wang et al. [88] reported that the time required to dry wet
mushroom chewing tablets was between 100 and 420 min
and 330–660 min for IR drying and hot air (HA) drying,
respectively. The drying rate under IR drying was about
1.90 times higher than HA drying. Similar results of re-
duced drying time under combined mid and far infrared
radiation (MFIR) were observed by Li et al. [50]. MFIR
drying required only 25 min to reach the target temperature
(70 °C), while hot air drying required 350 min. The effec-
tive moisture diffusivity of MFIR was 158.1% higher than
that of hot air, while activation energy of MFIR drying was
lower than that of HA drying.
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388
Fig. 5 Schematic diagram of infrared drying
A comparison of IR and microwave drying of rainbow
trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) was done by Ismail and
Kocabay [42]. An increase in drying rate and a decrease in
drying time with increased radiation intensity were observed
for both drying methods. Microwave drying was found much
faster than IR drying with 12, 8, 5, and 3 min at 90, 180, 270,
and 360 W, respectively, while IR drying required 420, 240,
and 150 min at 83, 104, and 125 W, respectively. Effective
moisture diffusivity and activation energy under microwave
drying was higher than that for IR drying.
IR drying was also found efficient in retaining the antiox-
idant activity and nutraceutical composition of the dried prod-
uct [94]. A study conducted by Zhang and co-workers [98]
investigated the effect of hot air drying and IR drying on
bioactivity and chemical composition of essential oil from
lemon peel. The results revealed that at higher drying temper-
ature, a lot of volatile components of essential oil with low
boiling point had been lost during hot air and IR drying, but
some new ingredients appeared. Rapid drying under high tem-
perature caused complex and physical degradative changes
and losses of volatile compounds such as flavor and aroma
in plant materials.
IR-Assisted Hot Air Drying
Application of electromagnetic radiation together with hot air
is considered to be more effective as compared with hot air or
radiation heating alone, as it gives a synergistic effect. The
materials exposed to IR radiation absorb the radiation and
results in increased molecular vibration, which develops heat
in the material at the surface as well as in the internal layers at
the same time [75]. IR heating enhances the rate of moisture
movement toward the surface and the airflow removes the
moisture from the surface, lowers the surface temperature,
and increases mass transfer. Figure 6 illustrates the schematic
diagram of IR-assisted hot air drying.
Temperature or intensity of radiation, air velocity, and air
temperature were observed as major process variables in IR-
Food Eng Rev (2020) 12:381–398
assisted hot air drying. The effect of these process variables
and comparison of IR-assisted hot air drying with convention-
al drying are explained in the next section.
Effect of IR Intensity, Air Temperature, and Air Velocity
In IR–hot air combination drying, drying time is affected by
all the three process variables mentioned previously. The dry-
ing time was reduced with the increase in IR power and air
temperature, while it increased with the increase in air velocity
[4, 97]. This implies that drying time is inversely proportional
to IR power and directly proportional to air velocity. As air
flowing over the surface of food material cools it down, the
effect of air velocity on kinetics of IR drying is reverse to that
observed during convective drying [58].
During drying of paddy, Zare and co-workers [97] reported
that the increase in IR intensity and air temperature reduced
the drying time, but it has increased the percentage of cracked
kernels. This may be due to high differential stress inside
kernels caused by moisture content gradients at higher tem-
peratures, whereas an increase in air velocity resulted in in-
creased drying time but lower percentage of cracked kernels.
In this case, more uniform temperature distribution inside the
kernels is achieved due to reduction in the surface temperature
of paddy kernels.
The effect of air temperature under combination drying
strategy was studied for fruits and vegetables [29]. The mate-
rial was dried at two air temperature settings—cold air (CA,
30 °C) and hot air (HA, 60 °C)—keeping IR intensity
(2000 W/m2) and air velocity (0.6 m/s) constant. IR in com-
bination with cold air (IR-CA) and hot air (IR-HA) was also
compared with hot air drying (60 °C, 0.6 m/s). It was found
that IR-HA setting was 57.5 and 39.1% faster than IR-CA and
HA, respectively. The specific energy consumption for IR-CA
and the HA dryer combinations was 12 and 488% higher,
respectively, than that of the IR-HA setting. Highest drying
efficiency, highest rehydration ratio, least shrinkage ratio, and
least total color difference were observed for IR-HA setting.
Adak et al. [4] studied the effect of IR power, drying air
temperature, and velocity on the quality of strawberry
(Fragaria × ananassa Duch). The effects of parameters were
studied by keeping two parameters constant and varying one
parameter at a time. The result revealed that at a constant
drying air temperature and velocity, increasing the IR power
caused an increase in antioxidant activity, total phenol, and
anthocyanin contents, whereas increasing drying air tempera-
ture (at constant IR power and air velocity) caused a decline in
total anthocyanin and phenolic contents, and antioxidant ac-
tivity. This may be due to higher power settings favoring the
formation of degradation products of phenolic compounds. At
the same time, elevated temperatures diminished the amounts
of original antioxidants in the fruits. Increasing air velocity (at
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Food Eng Rev (2020) 12:381–398
Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of
infrared-assisted convective
drying
constant IR power and air temperature) also reduced the
amounts of total anthocyanin and phenolic contents.
Sansak and Jongyingcharoen [82] studied the effect of IR
intensity and air temperature at constant air velocity for drying
of rice bran pallet. The result revealed that higher IR intensity
and air temperature shortened the drying time, increased dry-
ing rate, and increased effective moisture diffusivity. Effect of
varying IR intensity was found more crucial than air
temperature.
Comparison of IR-Assisted Hot Air Drying with Convective
Drying
Comparison of IR-assisted hot air drying with conventional
hot air drying under similar drying conditions was also studied
[22, 60, 91]. Studies indicated that IR assisted hot air drying
required less drying time and energy compared with hot air
drying. Drying of mulberry (Morus alba L.) tea leaf under far
IR-hot air (FIR-HA) required only 50 min, while hot air dry-
ing took 6 h [91]. Drying of jujube (Zizyphus jujuba Mill.)
slice under short- and medium-wave IR required 33–83% of
drying time as compared with hot air [22]. Orikasa et al. [60]
reported that during drying of Komatsuna leaves (Brassica
rapa var. perviridis), far infrared (FIR) drying consumed
17% less energy consumption compared with hot air drying.
Studies also reported that combination drying preserves the
color of dried material. During drying of mulberry tea leaves
[91], combined drying provided higher values of DPPH rad-
ical scavenging, ferric reducing/antioxidant power assay, and
total phenolic content than hot air drying. This indicates that
FIR may have the capability to cleave covalent bonds and
liberate antioxidants such as flavonoids, carotene, tannin,
ascorbate, flavoprotein, or polyphenols from repeating poly-
mers, hence increases antioxidant activities. IR drying was
also reported to retain more cyclic adenosine monophosphate
(cAMP) content in Komatsuna leaves compared with hot air
drying [60].
Sequential IR–Hot Air Drying
In the previous section, the effect of simultaneous IR–hot air
drying was discussed. This section explains the effect of
389
sequential IR–hot air drying. Onwude et al. [59] dried sweet
potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) under different combinations of
IR and hot air. They used simultaneous IR and hot air drying
(IR-HAD), two-stage sequential hot air and infrared drying
(HAD + IR), two-stage sequential IR and hot air drying
(IR + HAD), and intermittent IR and hot air drying (IIR +
HAD). The drying air velocity (1.2 m/s), IR intensity
(1100 W/m2), and distance between the sweet potato sample
surface and the IR-emitting bulb (28 cm) were kept constant.
IR-HAD was carried out until the sample moisture content
reached equilibrium (0.02 kg/kg). In HAD + IR drying, sam-
ples were exposed to 90 min of HAD followed by infrared
drying (IRD), while in IR + HAD drying samples were ex-
posed to IR radiation for 90 min followed by HAD, until the
equilibrium moisture content was attained. The intermittent IR
and hot air drying (IIR + HAD) was done by exposing the
sweet potato samples for 2 min of IR radiation after which
HAD was done for 4 min until the equilibrium moisture con-
tent was attained. Total drying time when using IR + HAD
and IIR + HAD was reduced by 13–25% and 8–6%, respec-
tively, as compared with IR-HAD. Lowest specific energy
consumption was found for IR + HAD, while highest specific
energy consumption was observed for IR-HAD. Lowest total
color change was observed in IIR + HAD, while the highest
total color change of sweet potato slices was observed during
IR + HAD. The microstructure of the samples dried by IIR +
HAD was similar to that of fresh sample because the interval
between IR and hot air treatments permits the structure to gain
water consequently, and there was no significant modification
on the initial structure. Due to high sample temperature during
drying, most disrupted microstructure was observed for IR-
HAD compared with fresh sample. Overall, considering the
drying characteristics, drying time, specific energy consump-
tion, and color of sweet potato, the intermittent combined IR
and hot air drying (IIR + HAD) was found to be the most
suitable for the drying of sweet potato.
IR-Assisted Vacuum Drying
Limited contact between oxygen and sample is a valuable
advantage of vacuum drying. Owing to low pressure, even
at low temperature, higher performance drying can be
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390
achieved in vacuum drying [36, 57]. The combined IR vacu-
um drying gives the benefits of both IR heating and vacuum
condition. When vacuum drying is combined with IR heating,
it results in very rapid drying at low temperature and thus IR-
assisted vacuum drying has potential to improve energy effi-
ciency and product quality [37]. Recently, IR-assisted vacuum
drying was used to dry a wide range of food products with
high quality. Figure 7 illustrates the schematic diagram of IR-
assisted vacuum drying.
IR power/intensity/temperature and vacuum pressure were
observed as the major process variables in IR-assisted vacuum
drying. The effects of process variables are discussed in the
next section.
Effect of IR Power/Intensity/Temperature and Vacuum
Pressure
Studies on IR vacuum drying of nectarine (Prunus persica)
slices [7], pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) arils [8], and
Flos Lonicerae (Chinese medicine herb) [51] were conducted.
The authors concluded that drying rate and effective moisture
diffusivity were increased with the decrease of vacuum pres-
sure (because of lower pressure, water saturates and evapo-
rates at a lower temperature) and increase of drying tempera-
ture (due to application of more energy). The effect of drying
temperature on effective moisture diffusivity was more prom-
inent than vacuum pressure. Activation energy was found to
decrease with a decrease in absolute pressure due to the high
level of free water and mass transfer to the product surface
under vacuum condition. Shrinkage and total color difference
under IR vacuum drying decreased with decrease in drying
temperature and vacuum pressure. Total energy consumption
increased with decreasing air temperature, as working time of
IR lamp and vacuum pump were increased.
Also, with the increase in IR power or decrease in vacuum
pressure, decrease in drying time was reported for button
mushroom [79], lemon slice [77], and grapefruit slice [78].
Salehi et al. [79] also verified that the rise in power had a
Fig. 7 Schematic diagram of
infrared-assisted vacuum drying
Food Eng Rev (2020) 12:381–398
negative effect on color of button mushrooms, whereas during
drying of lemon slice, no burning of sample was observed
even at the highest IR power [77].
IR-Assisted Pulsed Vacuum Drying
Xie et al. [93] studied the effect of three independent variables,
ambient pressure duration, vacuum pressure duration, and
drying temperature, on drying kinetics of wolfberry (Lycium
barbarum L.) in a pulsed vacuum dryer using FIR heating
(FIR-PVD). The FIR-PVD processing involved alternating
change of pressure (vacuum in drying chamber for
predetermined time and then the pressure is returned to ambi-
ent pressure and held there for a certain time) in the drying
chamber during the whole drying operation. The results re-
vealed that at constant vacuum pressure duration and drying
temperature, drying time increased with the increase in ambi-
ent pressure duration. Results also confirmed that higher vac-
uum pressure duration (20 min) was not desirable for reducing
the drying time and increasing the drying temperature speeds
up the drying kinetics. Total color difference (ΔE) was found
to increase with the increase in ambient pressure duration and
drying temperature or decrease in vacuum pressure duration.
Vacuum condition contributed in greater internal stresses and
creation of more micro-fissure pores during drying due to
which rehydration ratio of dried wolfberry increased with
the increase in vacuum pressure duration. Ambient pressure
duration did not have any significant effect on rehydration
ratio as it was applied for a very short time compared with
vacuum.
IR in Combination with Freeze Drying
High-quality dehydrated fruits and vegetables can be obtained
using freeze drying [69], but it is an energy- and time-
consuming process [19]. Electric heating plates with low heat
conductivity are used to provide the heat required for ice sub-
limation. Therefore, it is very important to improve the freeze
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Food Eng Rev (2020) 12:381–398
drying method that can reduce drying time and energy con-
sumption. Replacement of electric heating plate with IR
heating is a promising method to overcome the problem
[92]. Infrared freeze drying (IRFD) can give the advantages
of both freeze drying and IR heating. In IRFD, the energy
required for ice sublimation is provided by IR radiation in-
stead of electric heating plate, which increases the rate of heat
transfer while maintaining the quality of the product by freeze
drying process. Figure 8 illustrates the schematic diagram of
IR-assisted freeze drying.
The effect of application time of IR (before or after freeze
drying) and comparison of IR-assisted freeze drying with oth-
er drying methods are discussed in the next section.
Effect of Time of Application of IR
Wang et al. [89] studied the effect of mid infrared radiation
(MIRD) application before freeze drying (MIRD-FD) and af-
ter freeze drying (FD-MIRD) on drying time and quality of
shiitake mushroom. In the study, MIRD after FD replaced the
desorption process of FD. Depending upon the duration of
MIRD application, MIRD-FD required 445–550 min for dry-
ing, but for higher exposure duration, total color difference of
the samples was high. In case of FD-MIRD, drying time re-
quirement was 320–520 min. FD-MIRD dried samples have a
more porous structure, whereas MIRD-FD dried samples have
a dense surface layer or crust with collapsed cells but a porous
internal structure. Samples dried under FD-MIRD have better
rehydration characteristics and lower apparent density.
Comparison of IR-Assisted Freeze Drying with Other Drying
Methods
Antal [9] compared the effect of IR-assisted freeze drying (IR-
FD) and hot air–assisted freeze drying (HA-FD) with single-
stage freeze drying (FD) for drying of apple cubes. It was
reported that drying time was reduced by 45.5 and 27.3%
and energy consumption by 45.1 and 34.5% under IR-FD
and HA-FD drying, respectively, as compared with FD. The
Fig. 8 Schematic diagram of
infrared-assisted freeze drying
391
HA-FD dried product had a greater color change (ΔE) than
IR-FD and least color change was found in FD samples.
Firmness of the samples dried under FD and IR-FD was better
than HAD-FD. The higher rehydration ratio of IR-FD dried
samples indicated an improved product structure as compared
with FD dried samples. The rapid heating with IR and quicker
diffusion of water vapor within the sample might be facilitat-
ing the material to retain its porous structure, thereby increas-
ing its ability to absorb a higher amount of water during
rehydration.
Antal et al. [10] compared the effect of freeze drying, mid IR-
assisted freeze drying (MIR-FD), and mid IR drying (MIR) on
drying of pear cubes. For MIR-FD, samples were pre-dried for
5 min (40–70 °C), then dried by freeze drying. MIR drying was
performed at different temperatures (40–70 °C). The highest
drying time (1260 min) and specific energy consumption were
observed for freeze drying. Drying time under MIR-FD was
between 1080 and 720 min, and for MIR, it was between 20
and 14 min. It was also observed that the MIR-FD products had
softer texture (except of MIR70°C-FD) and better rehydration
capacity than the FD and MIR samples. The higher rehydration
ratio of pear cubes dried by MIR-FD was a result of fewer
physical and chemical changes in the MIR-FD process due to
shorter drying time and uniform heating compared with FD.
Khampakool et al. [44] produced banana snacks using IR-
assisted freeze drying and reported that continuous IR-assisted
freeze drying could significantly reduce the drying time up to
213 min compared with freeze drying (696 min), resulting in
more than 70% time saving. Wu et al. [92] dried Cordyceps
militaris (a species of fungus) under IR-assisted freeze dryer
(IRFD) and compared it with traditional freeze drying (TFD).
It was reported that at constant temperature, IR-assisted freeze
drying could reduce 7.21–17.78% drying time and 11.88–
18.37% energy consumption as compared with traditional
freeze drying while maintaining similar quality. The extension
of drying time or high drying temperature was detrimental to
the retention of nutritional properties, antioxidant activities,
and main volatile compounds of C. militaris except adenosine,
reducing sugar and 1-octen-3-ol.
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392
IR in Combination with Microwave
Moisture accumulation at the surface of food is a noted prob-
lem associated with microwave heating, which results in sog-
gy surface instead of crispy. This phenomenon happens be-
cause of the inability of the surrounding air to remove the
moisture with a rate at which it is coming from the interior
to the surface. Microwave-infrared (MIR) drying integrates
the time-saving advantages of microwaves with surface mois-
ture removal advantages of IR heating. In a microwave–IR
oven, the radiation is focused at the surface of the food which
can help to remove moisture from the surface and to prevent
sogginess of the dried product [85]. Figure 9 illustrates the
schematic diagram of IR-assisted microwave drying. Effect
of process variables (i.e., IR power/intensity/temperature and
microwave power) and comparative evaluation of IR-assisted
microwave drying with other drying is presented in the next
section.
Effect of IR Power and Microwave Power
Aydogdu et al. [11] dried osmotically pretreated and untreated
eggplant slices using a microwave–IR combination oven at
different IR and microwave power. The study revealed that
higher IR and microwave power reduced drying time.
Eggplants treated with osmotic solution had shorter drying
time due to higher dielectric properties of osmotically
dehydrated eggplants, compared with control dried eggplants.
Comparison of IR-Assisted Microwave Drying with Other
Drying Methods
Sae-Khow et al. [73] compared single-stage hot air drying,
single-stage infrared (IR) drying, two-stage drying with mi-
crowave and hot air sources, and two-stage drying with
Fig. 9 Schematic diagram of
infrared-assisted microwave
drying
Food Eng Rev (2020) 12:381–398
microwave and IR sources for drying of black pepper. It was
concluded that the pepper dried with IR source had the highest
drying rate and highest effective moisture diffusivity com-
pared with the other drying processes at the same drying tem-
perature. Qu et al. [65] investigated the effect of different
drying (microwave, halogen lamp, far IR, halogen lamp mi-
crowave combination, and hot air drying) on chemical and
sensory quality of black tea. IR, microwave, and combination
drying was better than hot air drying in retention of volatile
compounds. Overall, microwave drying and halogen lamp–
microwave drying were found suitable for drying of black tea.
IR Drying in Combination with Ultrasound
Pretreatment
In recent years, use of ultrasound pretreatment with different
drying methods is gaining popularity to produce dehydrated
fruits and vegetables. Ultrasonic wave (20 kHz to 100 MHz)
propagates through materials and causes a series of alternative
compressions and expansions. This effect is referred as
sponge effect, which results in generation of multiple micro-
scopic channels and cavitation [100]. De La Fuente-Blanco
et al. [27] and Fernandes et al. [33] found that microscopic
cavitation and channels formed in the porous structure, as a
result of ultrasound pretreatment, increased the water diffusiv-
ity during the later drying step.
Increase in the drying rate and reduction in drying time by
application of ultrasound treatment prior to IR drying of pear
slice was reported by Dujmic et al. [28]. Rojas and Augusto
[72] studied the effect of ultrasound and ethanol pretreatment
on IR drying of potato slice. It was found that when ethanol
was used for giving ultrasound treatment instead of water, the
effects of the ultrasound on the sample structure were intensi-
fied and pretreated samples required less drying time. Zhao
et al. [99] also reported that ultrasound pretreatment led to
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Food Eng Rev (2020) 12:381–398
formation of superior porous microstructure and showed
highest drying rate and highest rehydration ratio.
IR Vacuum Drying in Combination with Ultrasound
Pretreatment
Samani et al. [80] compared the effects of the ultrasound–IR
radiation–vacuum method with conventional drying methods
(sun drying, shade drying, oven drying, and IR-assisted hot air
drying) for drying of Kelussia odoratissima (medicinal plant).
Temperature during sun and shade drying was between 19 and
26 °C, and for other controlled drying methods it was 40, 60,
and 80 °C. It was found that with temperature increase in both
hot air and IR drying methods from 40 to 60 °C, total flavo-
noid content (TFC) and total phenol content (TPC) increased;
however, when the temperature reached 80 °C, both contents
were reduced in hot air and IR drying methods. In the ultra-
sound–IR–vacuum combination method, when the tempera-
ture increased from 40 to 80 °C, the TFC and TPC increased.
Higher-than-optimal temperature may have caused a decrease
of TFC and TPC. In the ultrasound–IR–vacuum combination
method, when the temperature increased from 40 to 80 °C, the
TFC increased by 35%. The highest antioxidant capacity was
obtained for shade drying. In all three methods (hot air, IR-
assisted hot air, and ultrasound–IR–vacuum), with increasing
temperature, antioxidant capacity increased.
IR-Assisted Microwave Vacuum Drying
Kantrong et al. [43] and Saengrayap et al. [74] dried shiitake
mushrooms and red chili, respectively, using microwave vac-
uum drying (MVD) and microwave vacuum drying in com-
bination with infrared (MVD + IR). Both studies reported that
increased microwave and IR power, and decreased absolute
pressure resulted in a decrease in drying time and specific
energy consumption. MVD + IR enabled quicker diffusion
of water vapor from the samples and retained the microstruc-
ture of the samples. Therefore, higher rehydration ratio was
observed for samples dried by MVD + IR, compared with that
dried by MVD. Color and texture (rehydrated samples) of the
samples dried by MVD + IR was superior compared with
MVD. Chayjan et al. [20] also observed similar results of
MVD + IR drying during drying of zucchini (Cucurbita pepo
L.) slices.
Vacuum IR Radiation Drying in Combination with
Pulse Spouted Microwave Vacuum Drying
Liu et al. [52] compared drying of asparagus cookies under
pulse spouted microwave vacuum drying (PSMVD), vacuum
infrared drying (VIRD), vacuum IR radiation drying together
with pulse spouted microwave vacuum drying (VIRD-
PSMVD). PSMVD involved spatial motion of the samples
393
in the vertical drying cavity to ensure uniform microwave
heating.
VIRD-PSMVD involved firstly drying of samples by
VIRD for certain duration followed by PSMVD. However,
the least drying time and specific energy consumption was
observed for PSMVD; VIRD-PSMVD dried products have a
higher expansion ratio, better crispness and no scorching sur-
face, and highest overall acceptability.
Thin-Layer Modeling of IR Drying Process
Mathematical modeling of the drying kinetics is a vital
aspect of drying technology. The drying kinetics models
are important in identifying the ideal drying conditions,
equipment design, process optimization, and product qual-
ity improvement [37]. The drying behavior of the food
material is generally described by thin-layer drying
models. In thin-layer drying, food material is dried in a
single layer [6]. These thin-layer drying models can be
categorized as theoretical, semi-theoretical, and empirical
models [30]. The theoretical models are derived from
Fick’s second law of diffusion and takes into consideration
internal resistance to moisture transfer. However, theoreti-
cal model gives a better explanation of drying behavior of
the product at all process conditions; they cause significant
errors, as they are based on many assumptions. The semi-
theoretical models are derived from Newton’s law of
cooling or Fick’s second law of diffusion. These models
take external resistance to mass transfer into account. They
are simple, need fewer assumptions, and are valid only
within the process conditions applied. The empirical
models have similar characteristics as the semi-theoretical
model. These models also take only external resistance to
mass transfer into account and depend primarily on exper-
imental conditions and provide limited information about
the drying behaviors of the product [25].
The models fitted for modeling of various configurations of
IR drying systems are mostly semi-theoretical (such as Page
model, Exponential model, Logarithmic model, Two-term ex-
ponential model, Midilli model, Henderson–Pebis model, and
Modified Page model) and empirical model (such as
Aghbashlo model, Weibull model, and Quadratic model).
The moisture content data at different dry air temperatures
and relative humidity were converted into moisture ratio ex-
pressions using Eq. 19, and then the drying model proposed
by various researchers was subjected to curve fitting calcula-
tion with drying time. The drying data were fitted to different
drying models. The parameters of the models are determined
by fitting the curve. The best model to describe the drying
characteristics of food materials under IR and IR-assisted dry-
ing methods is one with the lowest χ2, root mean square error
(RMSE), and the highest R2.
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394 Food Eng Rev (2020) 12:381–398

Aidani et al. [5]; Ghaboos et al. [36]

M−Me
MR ¼ ð19Þ

Salehi and Kashaninejad [78];

M0 −Me

Salehi and Kashaninejad [77];

Khampakool et al. (2018)

Ismail and Kocabay [42]

Alaei and Chayjan [7]

Alaei and Chayjan [8]
where M is sample moisture content (dry basis), Me is the

Kantrong et al. [43]

Onwude et al. [59]
Uengkimbuan [86]

Orikasa et al. [60]

equilibrium moisture content, and Mo is the initial moisture

Chen et al. [22]

Xie et al. [93]

content (dry basis).

References

*Moisture ratio (MR), time (t, min), and n, k, b, l, g, c, and a are the coefficients of the models, α—shape parameter of Weibull model; β—scale parameter of Weibull model
Antal [9]
Uengkimbuan [86] found that during IR drying of turmeric,
change in moisture ratio with drying time was best described
using Page model and the constants of the model was depen-
dent on IR power. Ismail and Kocabay [42] reported that the
logarithmic model best represents the drying kinetics of fish
samples during IR drying with higher R2 values and lower χ2

MR = a exp(−k0. t) + b exp(−k1. t)
and RMSE values at all power levels. During IR-assisted hot
air drying exponential model, logarithmic model and two-

MR = a. t3 + b. t2 + c. t + d
term exponential model were found better to describe the

MR = exp(−at/(1 + bt))
MR = a exp(−k. t) + c

MR = a exp(−k. t) + c

MR = a exp(−ktn) + bt

h
 i
β
change in moisture ratio [22, 59, 60].

MR = a + bx + cx2

MR = exp(−(kt)n)
Model equation

MR ¼ exp − αt
MR = exp(−ktn)

MR = exp(−ktn)
Suitability of various thin-layer models for IR-assisted

MR = a. exp−kt
MR = exp(−kt)
vacuum drying was studied. Alaei and Chayjan [7, 8] re-
ported that the Midilli model and Aghbashlo model had
supremacy in prediction of drying behavior of nectarine
slices and pomegranate arils, respectively. Ghaboos et al.
[36], Aidani et al. [5], Salehi and Kashaninejad [77], and
Salehi and Kashaninejad [78] indicated that the quadratic

Two-term exponential model

model satisfactorily described the drying behavior of

third-degree polynomial
pumpkin slices, Hayward kiwifruits, grapefruit slice, and

Henderson–Pabis and

Modified Page model

lemon slices, respectively. The constants of the model in Logarithmic model
Exponential model
logarithmic model

Aghbashlo model
Quadratic model
IR-assisted vacuum drying were affected by IR power and

Weibull model
Midilli model
vacuum pressure.
Page model

Page model

model
Khampakool et al. [44] reported that among exponential,
Model

Page, and diffusion models, the former showed the least gap
between experimental data and model fit as shape factor could
describe the downward concave of IR-assisted freeze drying.
Summary of mathematical models used in infrared drying system

Antal [9] indicated suitability of two models, third-degree

Komatsuna leaves or Japanese

polynomial model and Henderson–Pabis model, in explaining

Grapefruit slice; lemon slices;
pumpkin slices; Hayward

the drying characteristics of apple cube under IR-assisted

freeze drying. Both models have values of R2 close to 1 and
Rainbow trout(fish)

Shiitake mushroom
mustard spinach

low values for the RMSE.

Pomegranate arils
Nectarine slice

In a study conducted by Kantrong et al. [43], Modified

Sweet potato

Apple cubes
kiwifruits
Jujube slice

Wolfberry

Page model was found best to characterize the drying kinetics

Turmeric
Product

Banana

of shiitake mushroom during IR-assisted microwave vacuum

drying. The drying rate constant (k) showed an increasing
trend with an increase in IR intensity. In addition, “n” values
were found to be higher than 1.0 which indicated that the
relationship between moisture ratio and time was not probably
IR-assisted pulse vacuum drying

a first-order kinetic. Xie et al. [93] indicated the suitability of

microwave vacuum drying
IR-assisted vacuum drying

Weibull model for drying of wolfberry under IR-assisted pulse

IR-assisted hot air drying

IR-assisted freeze drying

vacuum drying. The scale parameter (α) and shape parameter

IR radiation–assisted

(β) of the model are observed to be strongly dependent on

Drying method

vacuum pressure duration, ambient pressure duration, and

drying temperature effect.
IR drying
Table 4

Mathematical models used under different configurations

of IR drying systems are summarized in Table 4 .
 Author's personal copy
Food Eng Rev (2020) 12:381–398
Other Applications of IR Heating
Other than drying, IR energy is used in many other food pro-
cessing applications such as roasting, pasteurization,
blanching, peeling, and removal of antinutrients. IR-roasted
products have been reported to have short duration of roasting,
and superior sensory and chemical qualities compared with
conventional roasting [15, 21, 34, 55]. IR heating is also re-
ported to be more efficient than thermal conductive heating
for pasteurizing vegetable bacterial cells and fungi [38, 56,
83]. Researchers have studied the effect of IR heating on
antinutrients which are the restricting factor to use legumes
as a food component. IR heating is reported to be effective in
the reduction of antinutritional factors in legumes [61, 62, 95].
Due to the high heat delivery capability and relatively low
penetration depth of IR radiation, it has emerged as a novel
dry peeling method [48, 49, 90].
Challenges
Although IR drying has shown tremendous advantages in
terms of energy efficiency and time saving, it does have cer-
tain limitations. IR radiation has low penetration depth [31,
40, 41]. In order to adopt the technology for drying of thick or
multilayer material, it has to be combined with other drying
methods. If the food material is dried in multiple layers, IR
drying results in non-uniform drying if the material is not
agitated intermittently. In this case, the layer of material hav-
ing a direct impact of IR dries faster and prolonged exposure
may lead to charring or burning of exposed layers of product.
Several studies have also reported the adverse effect of higher
temperature/intensity and longer exposure time to IR on color
of the dried product [88]. Samples dried under IR alone un-
dergo change in microstructure and thereby a decrease in as-
sociated quality parameter (i.e., rehydration rate) was ob-
served [96]. In contrast, when the IR drying was combined
with other drying methods or pretreatments, it has retained the
microstructure and improved the quality of the dried products
[93, 99]. Therefore, it is a great challenge to optimize IR
intensity or temperature in order to minimize the color and
microstructure degradation or to reduce burning of sample.
The wavelength of IR to be used needs to be very specific,
as each food component has a specific IR absorption band. To
achieve the high efficiency for a particular application, IR
radiation can be used after passing through suitable filters to
allow only a particular wavelength of IR.
Conclusion and Future Scope
IR drying is a promising method of drying food products.
IR heaters can be easily accommodated with various
395
direct and indirect dryers to achieve a combined drying
effect. Such combinations, where IR drying is assisted
with hot air drying, vacuum drying, microwave drying,
freeze drying, and so on, can reduce the drying time,
energy requirement, and also preserve the quality of prod-
uct as compared with the conventional drying method.
However, certain qualities of final dried products could
often be affected at higher IR intensity or temperature.
Therefore, IR intensity or temperature has to be main-
tained at levels where chances of thermal degradation of
product are minimized. Also, there is a need for a viable
combination strategy yielding optimum results based on
the quality attributes of the dried material. Various pro-
cess variables involved in the IR or IR-assisted drying
methods need to be optimized for individual food
product.
As IR radiation has a limited penetration depth in the
food material, its application in quick drying of thin layers
of edible films or coatings needs to be explored, as con-
ventional drying methods take a significant amount of
time for the same. The data regarding penetration depth
of IR are limited; further research on penetration of IR in
different food and non-food material needs to be carried
out. At higher temperature, IR radiation has the ability to
cleave the weak bonds and disrupt the biological structure
of plant cells. This can enable the use of IR in the extrac-
tion of active components from medicinal plants. The ef-
fectiveness of IR-assisted extraction with other methods
of extraction needs to be assessed. IR drying is reported to
preserve or increase the phenolic compounds in the dried
product; however, the effect of drying on the stability of
phenolic compounds is not yet reported. Further studies
with respect to the effect of IR drying on stability of
phenolic compounds can be explored. The use of electric
IR heaters in refractance window drying can also be stud-
ied as an alternative to conventional methods. Possibilities
of drying microbial or biological products such as bacte-
rial cultures of agricultural or medicinal importance using
IR drying can also be explored. Further, modeling works
are required for other biological material and for various
configurations of IR heating systems. Applications of IR
drying at the laboratory as well as on pilot scale are found
to be promising. Further, research for its adoption on in-
dustrial scale needs to be taken up. A complete energy
analysis on a large scale is required in the future to accept
the practicability of IR. In view of the energy efficiency,
time saving, and effectiveness of the IR drying alone or in
combination of other drying techniques, it has huge po-
tential to influence the food processing industry.
Acknowledgments The work was supported by the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research. The authors earnestly express their immense grat-
itude to Dr. K.K. Sharma, Director, Indian Institute of Natural Resins &
 Author's personal copy
396
Gums, Namkum, Ranchi (Jharkhand), India for his continuous encour-
agement and support.
Funding Information Not applicable (review article).
Availability of Data and Material Not applicable (review article).
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of Interests The authors declare that they have no competing
interests.
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