Power System Analyses/Studies

• Extensive system studies are required at

planning, design, operation & control stages.
• Broadly classified as,
1. Steady State studies or static analysis ( e.g. load
flow studies, economic load dispatch/optimal load
flow, fault calculation for a snapshot of transient
situation)
2. Dynamic Analysis or Stability studies ( simulates
electro-mechanical transients)
3. Transient Analysis (simulates electro-magnetic
transients e.g. study of switching and lightning
transients)
 Power System Transients -Classification
• Ultra Fast Transients:
- Due to lightning discharge on exposed lines or abrupt
but normal networkchanges from regular switching.
- Electric in nature. Involves Electromagnetic (EM)
phenomenon.
- EM waves die out ( freq. 103 to 107 Hz) after few
reflections ( may last for few msec.).
- Result in high voltage build up ( may destroy
insulation)
• Medium Fast Transients:
- Abrupt abnormal structural changes (short circuit).
- Electric in nature (interplay between gen. windings
e.g. damper windings having time constant in m sec).
Power System Transients –Classification (contd.)

- First 10 cycles are important (time range 10-200

msec. following a fault).
- May cause thermal damage to equipments.
• Slow Transients:
- After effects of short circuit or sudden load change/
generator tripping.
- Results into mechanical oscillations/voltage collapse
(Angular/voltage stability, Load freq. control problem)
- Involves electro-mechanical oscillations.
- Time frame ranges from fraction of sec. to few
minutes or longer ( SSR:10 - 50 Hz, Transient
stability:0.1 - 10 Hz, LFC:0.01 - 0.1 Hz)
 Load Flow/Power Flow Analysis
• Steady state analysis
• Provides voltage profile, line flows and losses for
a given loading condition
• Most Frequently carried out study
• Required for taking planning, operation and
control decisions

Basic Steps in P.S. Analysis

1. Model the components & power system
2. W rite down the governing equations
3. Choose the appropriate solution techniques to
solve the resulting equations.
 Modeling for Power Flow Analysis
• Static model of loads as Constant power, Constant
current or constant impedance type or a composite of
these three types.
• Transformers by its nominal series admittance and an
ideal transformer reflecting its tap ratio.
• Lines by its equivalent – model.
• Generator as an ideal source (power output )
• System in bus frame of reference ( balanced system)
[V bus]= [Y bus][Ibus]
or [Ibus]= [Z bus][V bus]
n
W here, elements of [Y bus]; Yii = yij, and Yij! -yij.
j=1
 Power Flow/Load Flow Equations
• Complex SLFE (Static Load Flow Equations)
N N
P #jQ!V* Y Vn! Y VVn$% #&n#&
i i i n!1 in n!1 in i in i

• Real SLFE (Polar Coordinates)

N
P !P # P ! Y V V cos(& #& #% )
i Gi Di j!1 ij i j i j ij
N
Q !Q #Q ! Y V V sin(& #& #% )
i Gi Di j!1 ij i j i j ij
• Real SLFE (Rectangular Coordinates)
n
P =P -P = [G (e e +ff)+B (fe -fe )]
i Gi Di j=1 ij i j i j i j i j j i
n
Q =Q -Q = [G (fe -fe )-B (e e +ff)]
i Gi Di j=1 i j i j j i ij i j i j
 Observations

• Two real SLFE at each bus but six variables

(PG,QG, PD,QD,V & ")
• W ith loads already known, the above reduces to
four at each bus.
• To match no. of variables with no. of equations,
two of these are prespecified –Bus classification
• SLFEs are nonlinear algebraic equations –
require numerical solution techniques to solve
( GI, GS and NR methods popularly used)
 Bus Classification
1)P-Q type or Load bus:
At this type of bus, real and reactive power generations ( PGi ,
QGi) are aprioi known and load flow results provide the values
of unknown voltage magnitude and angle (V and ")

2)P-V Type or Generator bus or Voltage controlled bus:

At this type of bus, real power generation ((PGi) hence the bus
real power (Pi), and bus voltage magnitude (Vi) are
prespecified. Load flow results provide the values of unknown
reactive power generations (QGi) and bus voltage angle .

3)Reference bus (slack or swing bus):

The voltage phasor of such a bus acts as reference phasor to
other buses. Voltage angle of this type of bus is, usually, fixed
as zero and its magnitude is apriori known. Load flow results
provide the values of unknown real and reactive power
generations (PGi and QGi).
 Summary
Bus type No of buses Specified
1.Slackbus (bus 1) 1 Vmag,Vangle
2.Generatorbus Ng Vmag,Pi
(i=2… . Ng+1)
3.Loadbus N-Ng-1 Pi,Qi
(i=Ng+2… N)
--------------------------------------------------------------
Total N 2N
 Numerical Solution Techniques
Gauss-Iterative and Gauss-Seidel Methods:
• Consider an example of n nonlinear equations relating known functions Yi
(i=1,… .n) in terms of n unknown variables (X1, X2 … .,Xn) as,
Yi = fi (X1, X2 … .,Xn) i =1,...n
• Above equations can be rearranged to express each variable Xi in terms
of the unknown variables and known functions as:
Xi = Fi (X1, X2 ...,Xn) i =1,.. n
• For (K+1)th iteration, equation for Xi using Gauss iterative method can be
written as,
Xi(K+1) = Fi (X1(K), X2(K), … . Xn (K) ) i =1,.. n

• Above Eq. gets modified for Gauss-Seidel method as,

Xi(K+1) = Fi(X1 (K+1),… Xi-1(K+1), Xi (K) ,… Xn (K) ) i =1,2,… … ,n

• The iterative process in both G.I. and G.S. methods continues until the
absolute value of difference of variables during consecutive iterations are
within a pre-specified small tolerance.
i.e. IXi(K+1) -Xi(K)I' ( i =1,2,… … … … .,n
 Gauss-Seidel LoadFlow Equations

General equation forcalculated voltage at busi:

* P ) jQ i#1 i#1 +
1 , i,sch (k#1)-
Vi !
(k) i,sch
# Y V (k)
# Y V
Yii , Vi (k#i)*
-
ij j ij j
j!1 j!i)1
. /
Vi,acc ! (
(k)
1 # 0)Vi,acc ) 0Vi ! Vi,acc ) 0(Vi # Vi,acc )
(k#1) (k) (k#1) (k) (k#1)

0 ! AccelerationFactor
 Newton Raphson Method
• Taylor’
s series can be expanded to determine the change in variables
#X = (#X1,.. #Xn) to reach solution point Y s = (y1s … ns) written as,
Y s = Y0+ f `(X) .# X+1/2 f ’’
(X).( #X)2 + higher order terms.
where first, second and higher order derivative terms f `(X), f ’
’(X),
… are evaluated at X= X0 .

• Assuming initial guess to be close to solution point, X will be small

quantity and second & higher order derivative terms can be neglected
from the Taylor’ s series expansion, reducing it to
#Y = Y s-Y0 = f’ (X). #X
or [#Y]= [J][#X]
• [#Y]in the above equation, whose elements represent the difference
between specified and calculated values of functions is known as
Residue or Mismatch vector.[#X]is called correction vector and
represents the amount by which each variables should be corrected
to reach to solution point. [J]is known as Jacobianmatrix consisting
of first partial derivative terms of Y with respect to variables X
• In N.R. Method, convergence is usually checked on values of
elements of mismatch vector.
 NRLF in Rectangular Coordinates
(Consider bus-1 as slack)

Equation to determine correction vector

*
,
1P +
-
, 2 -
, -
*
,
1e +- , -
2- #1
J ! 2P J ! 2P --
, * + , -
, - , 1Pn
, -
, - 1 2e 2 2f -
, ,
,
-
-
, -
1en --
,
, - 1Q
, -
,
, J ,
! 2Q J ! 2Q - ,
,
m)1 -
-
1f -- ! 3 2e 4 Qf -- .
, - , -
, , , -
, -
, 2- ,
, -
,
, - J
,
,! 2v 2
J ! 2v 2 -- 1Q
, -
, - 5,
2e 6 2 f - , n2 -
, , - , -
, 1f n -- , - 1
,
,V 2 -
-
, - , - 2
,. /- , -
, -
,,. --/ , -
, -
, -
,
,.
1Vm2 -
-/
 NRLF in Polar Coordinates
Equation to determine correction vector
* 1& 2 + * 1P2 +
, : - , : -
, - 2P 2P + , -
, 1& n - * H ! L! V- , 1Pn -
,1V -!, 2& 2V
, -
, 2Q -
Vm )1 - , M ! 2Q
m )1
, 1Q
, m )1 -
, - . N! V-
: 2& 2V / , : -
, - , -
, 1Vn - ,. 1Qn -/
. Vn /
where
H ! N !V V (G sin& - B cos& )
ij ij i j ij ij ij ij
L !# M !V V [G cos& ) B sin & ]
ij ij i j ij ij ij ij
H !# Q - B V 2;N ! Q - B V 2
ii i ii i ii i ii i
L ! P ) G V 2andM ! P -G V 2
ii i ii i ii i ii i
 S t a rt

R e a d l o a d fl o w d a ta & fro m [Y B U S ]

A ssu m e b u s v o l t a g e fo r 2 … n b u se s 1 S l a ck

S e t i t e ra t i o n co u n t K = 0

S e t b u s co u n t P = 1

s3
C o m p ut e P 3k Q k
3 an d 1 P 3
k
! P 3 # P 3
k

P -V Ty p e Is P -Q Ty p e
B us P Q P - V o r P _Q ty p e ?

C o m p ut e Q K
G P & 4
V P
K
5
2
C o m p ut e Q K
G P 6 Q G P

Y es Is Y es
Is C o m p ut e
Q K
6 Q m in
' Q
41 5 4V 5 4V 5
K m ax
Q G P G P 2 2 2
G P G P
V p
k
! p
sp
# p
k

N o
C o m p ut e 1 Q P
K
! Q m ax
G P # Q k
gp C o m p ut e 1 Q P
K
! Q m in
G P
# Q k
gp

Is N o
‘P ’ t h e l a st b u s S et p = p + 1
Y es

D e t e rm i n e m a x i m u m m i sm a t ch m a x 71 P k
, 1 Q k
an d 4
1 V k
58
2

N o Is Y es
M a x . m i sm a t ch ' ( ?

A sse m b l e Ja co b i a n [J]
C o m p u t e a n d p ri n t l i n e
fl o w s, p o w e r l o ss, v o l t a g e
# 1
D e t e rm i n e [J]
C o m p u t e 1 e kp an d 1 f p
k

S to p

C o m p ut e e k )
p ! e k
p ) 1 e k
p

k )
f p ! f p
k
) 1 f p
k

A d v a n ce i t n . C o u n t K = K + 1

F i g.: F l o w C h a rt fo r N e w t o n – R a p h so n m e t h o d i n R e ct a n g u l a r C o -
 Decoupled NRLF Method

• A practical power system possesses an interesting characteristics

that the real bus power (P) is hardly affected by the bus voltage
magnitude (V) whereas, the bus reactive power (Q) is hardly
affected by bus voltage angle (").
• Using this property sub matrices L & M can be ignored from NRLF
equation ) and it can be rewritten two decoupled equations as,
*
,.
1P +-/ ! *,. H +-/ *,. 1& +-/

and
*
,. 1Q +-/ ! *,. N +-/ *,. 1V /V +-/
• Above equations can be solved alternatively in each iteration to
update the voltage angles followed by updating of bus voltage
magnitudes (called 1"-1V scheme).
• This method is found not to be as reliable as NRLF method. In
addition, [H]and [N]matrices are formed and inverted in each
iteration which again involves large computational time.
 Fast Decoupled Load Flow
• Assumptions

cos "ij$ 1
Gijsin "ij<< Bijcos "ij
Qi < < Bii Vi2

Additional Assumptions
i) Omit from [B’]the representation of those networkelements that
predominantly affect MVAR flows such as shunt reactances and off
nominal transformer taps etc.
ii) Omit from [B’ ’
]the angle shifting effects of phase shifters.
iii) Taking one voltage term from right hand side of equations to left
side and removing the influence of MVAR flows in P-" by setting all
right hand side voltage terms to 1 p.u.
v) Neglecting series resistance of lines while calculating elements of
[B’ ]matrix.
 FDLF Equations
*
,
1P +- ! [B '
][1& ]
,
. V -/
*
, 1Q +- ![B '
].[1V ]
'
, V -/
.

•The above two equations form the model of FDLF method.

[B’]and [B’’]matrices are constant, sparse and has the size
(n-1)x(n-1) & (n-m)x(n-m), respectively.
• They need to be formed and inverted only once at the
beginning and can be used in subsequent iterations for
calculating correction vectors
•Above equations can be solved using 1"-1V scheme.
Example- 1Figure below showsthe one-line diagr am ofa simple thr ee-buspowers ystem
with gener ators at buses 1 and 2. The voltage at bus 1 is 1.0 $ 0o perunit. Voltage
magnitude at bus2 isf ixed at 1.05 pu with a real powergener ation of400 M W . A load
consistingof500 M W and 400 M Varisconnected at bus3. Line admittancesar e marked
in perunit on a 100 M VA bas e. Line r
esistances and line char ging s usceptances ar
e
neglected.

y12 = -j40 P2 = 400M W

y13 = - j20 Y23 = -j20

1 2
Slack Bus 3 V 2 =1.
05

500 400
MW M var

Per
for
m NRLF (
polarcoor
dinates
)fortwo iter
ationsto deter
mine busvoltages
.

SOLUTION :

Base M VA=100M VA.

P2= 4p.u.
P3= 5+j4p.u.
AssumingV3= 1 $ 0o.
YBUS forthe above networ
k, YBUS= 60 $ -90o 40 $ 90o 20 $ 90o
40 $ 90o 60 $ -90o 20 $ 90o
20 $ 90o 20 $ 90o 40 $ -90o

a)
. Expr
ess
ionsf
orpowerin polarcoor
dinates
:

P2(o)= V2V1Y21 cos( 21+ 2

1- 2) +V2 Y22 cos! 22+V2V3Y32 cos (!32+ 3- 2)
o
= 40*" V2" *" V1" * cos (90 + 1- 2) + 20*" V2" *" V3" * cos (!32+ 3- 2)

P3(o) = V3V1Y31 cos (! 31+ 2

1- 3) +V2V3Y32 cos (!32+ 3- 2) +V3 Y33 cos! 33
o o
= 20*" V3" *" V1" * cos (90 + 1- 3) + 20*" V2" *" V3" * cos (90 + 2- 3)

Q3(o) = -V3V1Y31 sin (!31+ 1- 3) -V2V3Y32 sin (!32+ 3- 2) -V32Y33 sin!33

= - 20*" V3" *" V1" * sin (90o+ o
1- 3) - 20*" V2" *" V3" * sin (90 + 2- 3)+
2
40* " V3"
Init
iale stimat es:
V1(o) =.1 0opu P3SP= -5pu.
V2 = 1. 05 pu. Q3SP= -4pu.
V1(o) = 1 0opu P3SP= 4pu.

Atinit ialguess:
P2(o) = V2V1Y21 cos (!21+ 1- 2) +V22Y22 cos!22+V2V3Y32 cos (!32+ 3- 2) = 0.
P3(o) = V3V1Y31 cos (!31+ 1- 3) +V2V3Y32 cos (!32+ 3- 2) +V32Y33 cos!33=0.
Q3(o) = -V3V1Y31 sin (!31+ 1- 3) -V2V3Y32 sin (!32+ 3- 2) +V32Y33 sin!33
= -20-1.
05*20+40 = -1pu.

#P2(o) = 4-0= 4pu.

#P3(o) = -5-0= -5pu.
#Q3(o) = -4+1=-3pu.

Fi rstIter at
ion:
El ement s ofJacobian matrix:
J1= $P2/$ 2 = V2V1Y21 sin (!21+ 1- 2) +V2V3Y32 sin (!32+ 3- 2) = 1.
05*40 + 1.05*20
= 63.
05*1*20* sin90o = -21.
J2= $P2/$ 3 = -V2V3Y32 sin (!32+ 3- 2) = -1.
J3 = $P2/$V3 = V2Y32 cos (!32+ 3- 2) = 0.
05*20*sin90o = -21.
J4= $P3/$ 2 = -V2V3Y32 sin (!32+ 3- 2) = -1.
J5= $P3/$ 3 = V3V1Y31 sin (!31+ 1- 3) +V2V3Y32 sin (!32+ 2- 3) = 20*1 + 1.
05*20*1
= 41.
J6= $P3/$V3 = V1Y31 cos (!31+ 1- 3) +V3Y32 cos (!32+ 3- 2) +2V3Y33 cos!33 = 0.
J7= $Q3/$ 2 = -V2V3Y32 cos (!32+ 3- 2) = 0.
J8 = $Q3/$ 3 = V3V1Y31 cos (!31+ 1- 3) +V2V3Y32 cos (!32+ 3- 2) = 0.
J9 = $Q3/$V3 = -[V1Y31 sin (!31+ 1- 3) +V2V3Y32 sin (!32+ 3- 2) + 2V3Y33sin!33]
= -[20+ 1.
05*20 + 2*40*(-1)]= 39.

J1 J2 J3 63 -21 0
J = J4 J5 J6 = -21 41 0
J7 J8 J9 0 0 39

NRLF equat
ions dur
ingit
erat
ion:

4 63 -21 0 $!2(o)
-5 = -21 41 0 $!3(o)
-3 0 0 39 #V3(o)
 0.
0191 0.
0098 0 4 #!2(o)
0.0098 0.
0294 0 -5 = #!3(o)
0 0 0.
0256 -3 #V3(o)

#!2(o) = 0. 0274r ad .= 1. 569o.

(o)
#!3 = -0. 1078r ad= -6. 176o.
(o)
#V3 = -0. 0768p u .
M ag nit ud e& ph aseofv oltageatthee ndofiter
ation.
!2(1) = !2(o) + #!2(o) = 1. 569o
!3(1) = !3(o) + #!3(o) = -6. 176o
(o) (o) (o)
V3 = V3 + #V3 = 1- 0.0768 = 0.
9232 pu.

Second I
terat
ion:

P2(1) = V2V1Y21 cos (!21+ 1- 2) +V22Y22 cos!22+V2V3Y32 cos (!32+ 3- 2)

= 1.
05*40* cos (90+0 -1.569) + 1.05*0.9232*20* cos (90-6. 176-1.569) + 0
= 3.
763 pu.

P3(1) = V3V1Y31 cos (!31+ 1- 3) +V2V3Y32 cos (!32+ 3- 2) +V32Y33 cos!33

= 0.9232*20*cos (90+0+6. 176) + 1.
05 *0.9232*20*cos (90+1. 569+6. 176)+0
= -4.6pu.

Q3(1) = -[V3V1Y31 sin (!31+ 1- 3) +V2V3Y32 sin (!32+ 3- 2) +V32Y33 sin!33]

= - [0.
9232*20*sin (90+6. 176) + 1.
05*0. 9232*20* sin (90+1. 6+6. 176)
+ 0.92322*40*-1]= -3.474 p u.

#P2(1) = 4- 3.763 = 0.237 pu.

#P3(1) = -5 –(-4.
6) = -0.4pu.
#Q3(1) = -4+3. 474 = -0.526 pu.

El
ement
s ofJacobian mat
ix:

J1= $P2/$ 2 = V2V1Y21 sin (!21+ 1- 2) +V2V3Y32 sin (!32+ 3- 2)

= 1.05*40* sin (90+0-1.569) + 1. 05*0. 9232*20*sin (90+6.176-1. 569)
= 61.19.
J2= $P2/$ 3 = -V2V3Y32 sin (!32+ 3- 2) = -0.9232*1.
05*20* sin (90-6. 176-1.569)
= -19.21.
J3= $P2/$V3 = V2Y32 cos (!32+ 3- 2) = 1.05*20*cos (90-6.176-1. 569) = 2.
83.
J4= $P3/$ 2 = -V2V3Y32 sin (!32+ 3- 2) = -0.
9232*1.05*20*sin (90+1. 569+6.176)
= -19.21.
J5= $P3/$ 3 = V3V1Y31 sin (!31+ 1- 3) +V2V3Y32 sin (!32+ 2- 3)
= 0.9232*20*sin (90+6. 176) + 0. 9232*1. 05*20*sin (90+1.569+6. 167) = 37.56
J6= $P3/$V3 = V1Y31 cos (!31+ 1- 3) +V3Y32 cos (!32+ 3- 2) +2V3Y33 cos!33
= 20*0.9232*40*cos (-90) + 1. 05*20* cos (90+1. 569+6. 167) + 2*0. 9232*40*cos(-90)
= -4.975.
J7= $Q3/$ 2 = -V2V3Y32 cos (!32+ 3- 2) = -0.9232*1.05*cos (90+1. 569+6.167) = 2.61.
J8 = $Q3/$ 3 = V3V1Y31 cos (!31+ 1- 3) +V2V3Y32 cos (!32+ 3- 2)
= 0.9232*20*cos (90+6. 167) + 0.9232*1. 05*20* cos (90+1. 569+6.167) = -4.593.
J9 = $Q3/$V3 = -[V1Y31 sin (!31+ 1- 3) +V2V3Y32 sin (!32+ 3- 2) + 2V3Y33sin!33]
= - [20*sin (90+0+6.
167) + 1. 05*20* sin (90+1.569+6. 167) + 2*40*sin (-90)]= 33.
16.

J1 J2 J3 61.19 -19.
21 2.83
[J]= J4 J5 J6 = -19.21 37.
56 -4.
975
J7 J8 J9 2.61 -4.
593 33.16

NRLF equat
ions duringit
erat
ion:

0.
237 61.19 -19.21 2.83 $!2(1)
-0.4 = -19.21 37.56 -4.975 #!3(1)
-0.526 2.
61 -4.593 33.16 #V3(1)

$!2(1) 0.0007
#!3(1) = -0. 0126
#V3(1) - 0.0177

!2(2) = !2(1) + #!2(1) = 0. 0274+0. 0007 = 0.281 rad.

!3 (2)
= !3 (1)
+ #!3 (1)
= -0.1078+ (-0.0126) = -0.
1204 rad.
V3(2) = V3(1) + #V3(1) = 0. 9232+ (- 0.
0177) = 0.9055 pu.

Example 2 For t
- he above syst
em, obt
ain t
he powerflow sol ut
ion using t
he Fast
DecoupledLoadFlow (FLDF) al
gor
ithm.Per
for
m two it
erat
ions.

Solut
ion:

FastDecoupledLoadFl
ow:

-j60 j40 j20

[YBUS]= j40 -j60 j20
j20 j20 -j40

j60 -j40 -j20

[-jB]= -j40 j60 -j20
-j20 -j20 j40
 B22 B23 60 -20
[B’
] = B32 B33 = 20 40

[B”]= [-B33]= [40]

.

Fi
rstIt
erat
ion:

#P2(o) = 4pu.
#P3(o) = -5pu.
#Q3(o) = -3pu.

4/1.
05 = 60 -20 #!2(o)
-5 -20 40 #!3(o)

#!2(o) = 0.
002 0.
01 4/1.05
#!3(o) 0.
01 0.
03 -5

#!2(o) = 0. 026r ad= 1. 49o

(o)
#!3 = -0. 11rad= -6. 3o
(1) (o) (o)
!2 = !2 + #!2 = 1.49o
(1) (o) (o)
!3 = !3 + #!3 = -6. 3o

[$Q3(o)/V3]= [40][#V3(o)]
#V3(o) = [1/40]*[-3]= -0. 075
V3(1) = V3(o) + #V3(o) = 1-0.075 = 0.
925 pu.

Second I
terat
ion:

!2(1) = 1.
49o ; !3(1) = -6.
3o ; V3(1) = 0.
925 pu.

P2(1) = V2V1Y21 cos (!21+ 1- 2) +V22Y22 cos!22+V2V3Y32 cos (!32+ 3- 2)

= 1.
05*40*cos (90+0-1. 49) + 0 + 1.
05*0. 925*20*cos (90-6.3-1.49) = 3.
725 pu.

P3(1) = V3V1Y31 cos (!31+ 1- 3) +V2V3Y32 cos (!32+ 3- 2) +V32Y33 cos!33

= 0.
925*20*cos (90+6. 3) + 1.05*0.
925*20*cos (90+1. 49+6.3) = -4.
66 pu.

Q3(1) = -[V3V1Y31 sin (!31+ 1- 3) +V2V3Y32 sin (!32+ 3- 2) +V32Y33 sin!33]

= - [0.925*20*sin (90+6.3) + 0.
925*1.
05*20*sin (90+1. 49+6.3) + 0.9252 * 40*-1]
= - 3.41pu.

#P2(1) = 4-3. 725 = 0.275

#P3(1) = -5- (-4.
66) = -0.34
#Q3(1) = -4- (-3.41) = -0.59
 0.275/ 1.05 = 60 -20 #!2(1)
- 0.34/0.925 -20 40 #!3(1)

[-0.
59/0.
925] = [40][#V3(1)]

#!2(1) = 0.
02 0.
01 0.
262
#!3(1) 0.
01 0.
03 -0.
367

#!2(1) = 0.
00157rad.
(1)
#!3 = -0. 00839rad.

638]= 40 [#V3(1)]
[-0.

#V3(1) = -0.
0159 pu.

V3(2) = V3(1) + #V3(1) = 0.

925-0.
0159 = 0.
9091 pu.

Vol
tagemagnit
udeandphaseshif
tatt
heendofit
erat
ion.

!2(2) = !2(1) + #!2(1) = 0.026+0.00157 = 0.

0276rad= 1.58o
!3(2) = !3(1) + #!3(1) = -0.11-0.
00839 = -0. 783o
1184 = 6.
V3(2) = 0. 9091 pu.
 D.C. Load Flow Method
Assumptions:
1. Line resistances and all shunts are neglected.
2. Transformer taps set at unity (nominal value).
3. Voltage magnitude at all the buses are 1 p.u..
4. Voltage angle difference between two buses connected directly is very
small.
If a line between buses-i and j, having series reactance xij, carries real power
Pij.

Pij = (1/ xij) . (!i- !j)

Where, !I & !j are the voltage angles at buses i & j, respectively.
The D.C. load flow solves the following equation to compute the angle vector [!]
for given value of real power injection vector [P].

[!] = [ XB] . [P]

Where, [ XB] = [BX]-1. The diagonal elements of [BX] matrix (BX)ii = #j (1/xij), and
its off-diagonal elements (BX)ij = -(1/xij).
Matrices [BX] & [ XB] are formed for all the buses except slack ( slack bus
voltage angle is assumed to be zero). The solution of DC load flow is non
iterative and hence is quite fast.
 A 3-BUS EXAMPLE OF DCLF
(Ref. Book on ‘
Power Generation, operation & Control”by Wood & Wollenberg)

1
65M W 2
Line-1,x12=0.
2,Pmax=100M W
G 100 M W
!1 P12
P13 !2
Line-2,x32=0.
25,
Pmax=50M W
P32
Line-3,x13=0.
4,Pmax=50M W

1/x12 = 5 p.u. G
1/x32 = 4 p.u.
1/x13 = 2.5 p.
u. 3 ack bus !3=0
Sl
 Base Case Solution using D.C. load flow

7.5 -5 0.2118 0.1176

[BX] = [XB] = [BX]-1=
-5 9 0.1176 0.1765

!1 0.2118 0.1176 0.65 0.02

= . = rad.
!2 0.1176 0.1765 -1.0 -0.1

Line flows
P12 = 5.(0.02 + 0.1) = 0.6 p.u. = 60 MW
P32 = 4.(0.02 - 0.0) = 0.4 p.u. = 40 MW
P13 =2.5.(0.0 + 0.1) = 0.05 p.u. = 5 MW
 Load Flow in Deregulated Market
• In a Poolco model, only conventional power balance equations
are to be satisfied, whereas in a market having bilateral and
multilateral contracts, additional power balance equations are
required to be included.
• A bilateral transaction is a direct contract between a seller and
a buyer, whereas a multilateral contract is a direct contract
between a group of buyers and a group of sellers.
• The additional power balance equation to be satisfied by a
bilateral contract, say between a seller at bus-s and a buyer at
bus-b is as following:
PGs - PDb=0
• For multilateral transactions the additional power balance
equation will be as given below.
k -# Pk =0
# PGs k=1,
2,.
..
..
.tn
s b Db
 Distribution System Load Flow
Most of the time conventional load flow methods can not
be applied to distribution systems due to following
reasons:
• Distribution Systems are unbalanced and in certain sections
carry only single or two phases. Three phase representation
is required.
• Distribution systems have lines/cables with high R/X ratio.
Thus decoupling assumptions are not valid.
• Most of the systems are radial in nature having single in-
feed. Systems having multiple in-feed or ultimately operated
as radial systems.
 Backward & Forward Propagation Method

• A simple and powerful method for load flow solution of radial

distribution network.
• Starts with some assumed voltages at each bus, except the
source node.
• Forms parent child pair –last node has no child and source
node has no parent- and thus renumbers the buses.
• In the backward propagation, adds all the load currents and
downstream branch currents (computed at the assumed
voltages) to compute current in the upstream branch.
• Starting from the source node, in the forward propagation,
updates the bus voltages utilizing the branch currents
computed in the backward propagation.
• Backward-forward propagation continues till voltages at all
the buses converge within pre-specified tolerance.
A Robust Three Phase PowerFlow Algorithm ForRadial distribution
System s, by D.Thukaram, Jovitha Jerome, H.M.Wijekoon Banda, Electrical
Power Systems Research, Vol 50, No. 3, pp. 227-236, June 1999
Or
der
ingofnodenumber
sto gener
atepr
operpar
ent
-chil
drel
ation

Backwar
dpr
opogat
ion t
o cal
cul
atebr
anchcur
rent
s

For
war
dpr
opogat
ion t
o cal
cul
ateNodevol
tages
No

Testfor
convergence

Yes

Comput
aion ofBr
anchl
osses,t
otall
osses,quant
ity ofunbal
anceet
c

Basic st
eps in t
hepr
oposedal
gor
ithm
 Optimalorderingofnodes

5 11

3
(8) 9
(2)
1
2
(1) 7 9

(3) 4 (7) 6 (9)

1 6
(4) 10
Source
5 10
4
9
New Nodenumber (5) (6)
8
5 Arbitrary Nodenumber
3
8
(2) BranchNumber 7

SampleDistribution feeder
 Forward& BackwardPath

P a ren tn o de c hild n o de fo rthe feeder

P a ren tn o de Child n o de
1 2
2 3
2 4
4 6
4 5
5 7
5 8
6 9
6 10

Fro m the ta b le the b a c k w a rd pa th:1 0 -6 ,9 -6 ,8 -5 ,7 -5 ,5 -4 ,6 -4 ,

4 -2 ,3 -2 a n d 2 - 1 .
Fo rw a rd pa th :1 -2 ,2 -3 ,2 -4 ,4 -6 ,4 -5 ,5 -7 ,5 -8 ,6 -9 a n d 6 -1 0 .
 LineM odel
Series Impedence
jthnode Zk ithnode

Zab Zaa

Zac Zbb

Zbc Zcc

Yk
Yag Ybg Ycg
Yag Ybg Ycg
ShuntAdmittance
ShuntAdmittance

Modeloflinesection k
 LoadM odel

Phase a Pa+jQa

Phase b Pb+jQb

Phase c Pc+jQc

Threephaseloadmodel
 BackwardPropagat
ion
*
) I La (i) & )S La (i)/Va (i) &
' I (i) $ = 'S (i)/V (i) $
' Lb $ ' Lb b $
'( I Lc (i) $% 'S (i)/V (i) $
'( Lc c $%

&
)I (m) &
)i (i) )I (p)& &
)V (i)
'a $ 'La $ 'a $ 'a $
'b $
$=
'I (m) *+ $
$ + # 'I (p)$ + # Y 'V (i)
'i (i)
'Lb $ p,M%' b $ p,M sh' b $
$
'I (m) $
'i (i) 'I (p)$ $
'V (i)
(c % (Lc % (c % (c %
 ForwardPropagati
on

)V (i)& )V (j)& )Z Z Z & 3) I (m)& 0

' a $ ' a $ ' aa,m ab,m ac,m $ -' a $ -
'V (i)$ = 'V (j)$ 4 'Z $ -' I (m)$ -
bb,m bc,m $ 2' b $ /
Z Z
' b $ ' b $ ' ba,m - -
'V (i)$ 'V (j)$ 'Z Z Z $
- ' I (m)$ -
( c % ( c % '( ca,m cb,m cc,m % 1( c % .
$

k k k -1
5V (j)= V (j)- V (j) fora,
b andc phases
 52-Node Distribution System

19

18 17

44 37

36 3
43 5 Feeder1 16
9
42 41 35 38
4 8 10
Feeder3 2 6
G
39
45 33 32
7
Bus1 11
40 20
34 27
47 Feeder2
21 12
25 15
28 22 26
48 30 13
49
29 31
51 23 14
50 24

Figure :One Line Diagram

 Results ofa 52 -nodesystem
(equivalentonelinerepresentation)
1

0.9995
V oltage in p.u

0.999

0.9985

0.998

0.9975
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60
Bus number

Reference: ‘
Optim al Placem ent and Operation ofDistributed Generators in Power
System s’M.Tech. Thesis by G.C. Sethi,IIT Kanpur,May 2006
Results ofa 52 -nodesystem (threephase)

1.10
Voltage M agnitude

1.00

0.90

0.80

0.70

0.60
1
5
9
13
17
21
25
29
33
37
41
45
49
Bus Numbers
Va Vb Vc
THANK YOU