Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Jos Arrillaga
This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright
Convention. All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research
or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any
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terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
The Institution of Engineering and Technology
Michael Faraday House
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www.theiet.org
While the author and the publishers believe that the information and guidance given
in this work are correct, all parties must rely upon their own skill and judgement when
making use of them. Neither the author nor the publishers assume any liability to
anyone for any loss or damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether
such error or omission is the result of negligence or any other cause. Any and all such
liability is disclaimed.
The moral rights of the author to be identified as author of this work have been
asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
The high voltage mercury-arc valve and its application to the development
of an HVDC transmission technology have been described in earlier books
by Adamson and Hingorani, Kimbark and Uhlmann. In common with
these texts the first edition of this book, published in 1983, described the
basic principles of static power conversion and their application to power
transmission by high-voltage direct current.
By then, however, in parallel with the development of microelectronic
technology there had been an equally impressive, although less publicised,
macroelectronic development in the power field sharing the same basic
ingredients, i.e. switching and silicon. The main exponent of macroelectro-
nic technology must surely be the solid-state HVDC valve. By the time the
first edition of this book was being prepared, thyristors had already
displaced mercury-arc valves in new HVDC schemes, and the book
reflected the change. Although the basic principles of operation remain
the same, the past 15 years have seen a worldwide acceptance of HVDC
and particularly the installation of a large number of back-to-back inter-
connections. There have also been substantial improvements in the ratings
and reliability of thyristor valves and the appearance of more controllable
solid-state devices; the latter have encouraged a new technology called
FACTS (flexible AC transmission systems) which is proving to be very
competitive with HVDC for some specific applications. However, thyristor
technology has not remained at a standstill and a variety of new concepts
and techniques have been appearing with the aim of reducing the cost of
HVDC and extending its area of application.
This expanded edition of the book includes the main technical advances
of the past 15 years and describes the new concepts which, no doubt, will
help to make HVDC even more competitive in the new millennium.
Again, I would like to acknowledge the valuable help received early
on from all the experts mentioned in the first edition and extend my
gratitude to my present colleagues C.P. Arnold, P.S. Bodger, S. Chen,
xii Preface
W. Enright, B.C. Smith, N.R. Watson and A.R. Wood for their support
and dedication to the HVDC cause. I acknowledge the continued encour-
agement and financial assistance received from TransPower NZ Ltd for
our research into HVDC transmission.
It would be difficult to properly acknowledge all the sources of informa-
tion used in the preparation of this book; I must, however, single out the
vast amount of work carried out by CIGRE study committee 14 on HVDC
transmission from which I have derived inspiration, the practical informa-
tion and photographs obtained from industry, especially GEC-Alsthom
and ABB, and the close collaboration that I have had over the years with
the Manitoba HVDC Research Centre.
Contents
Preface xi
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Historical background 1
1.2 The mercury-arc valve 3
1.3 The silicon controlled rectifier (thyristor) 4
1.4 Future switching trends 7
1.5 The HVDC claims 8
1.6 The advent of a FACTS technology 8
1.7 References 9
Harmonic elimination 56
3.1 Introduction 56
3.2 Pulse number increase 56
3.3 Design of AC filters 57
3.3.1 Design criteria 57
3.3.2 Design factors 58
3.3.3 Network impedance 62
3.3.4 Circuit modelling 70
3.3.5 Tuned filters 70
3.3.6 Self-tuned filters 72
3.3.7 High-pass filters 73
3.3.8 Example of recent filter arrangement 74
3.3.9 Type C damped filters 74
3.3.10• Simplified filtering for 12-pulse converters 76
3.4 DC-side filters 77
3.5 Active; filters 80
3.5.1 AC-side active cancellation 80
3.5.2 DC-side active cancellation 81
3.6 References 82
Index 296
Chapter 1
Introduction
Anode assembly
Anode porcelain
Voltage divider
Equipment for
temperature
control of anodes
earlier medium-voltage valve, its main aim being the elimination of the
reverse emission of electrons which causes reversal of conduction or arc
back.
With the graded electrodes it is possible to achieve a more uniform
distribution of the reverse voltage in the vicinity of the anode. This
reduces the energy of the charge carriers striking the anode material, and
with it the likelihood of arc backs. The grading electrodes are connected
to an external capacitive-resistive voltage divider, which together with the
interelectrode capacitances limits the voltage difference between them to
about 5 kV. The anode porcelain forms a vacuum-tight envelope that
functions as a supporting insulator for the different electrodes in the
anode assembly. Depending on the rated current, up to six parallel anodes
are placed on top of the stainless steel tank.
The quality of the porcelain used for the external cylinder is essential to
the viability of the HVDC valve. Under the influence of the direct-voltage
component across the valve, some ion migration occurs which causes ion
depletion at one end and ion increase at the other. This effect produces
conductivity variation and thus causes uneven voltage distribution. In later
designs the use of very high-resistance porcelain has reduced this problem
dramatically.
Another important problem was the deposition of material throughout
the valve which results from charge carriers striking the walls during
firings and blockings. This effect appears to limit the maximum direct
voltage achieved with mercury-arc bridges to about 150 kV and necessi-
tates considerable maintenance.
u n P
o w p
IK
n P
Figure 1.2 Basic structure of a thyristor with anode current iA, gate current
and cathode current iK
Introduction 5
1.2. The collector of a pnp transistor structure forms the base of the npn
transistor structure, or vice versa. The thyristor function is based on the
regenerative action of the two coupled transistors and is modelled as a
four-layer, three-terminal device.
The complete voltage-current characteristic of a thyristor unit is illu-
strated in Figure 1.3. A small current injection through the gate terminal
makes a forward-biased thyristor switch from a very high to a very low
impedance stage, thus approximating the characteristic of the ideal switch,
with practically unlimited amplification factor.
Two-terminal breakover (in the absence of gate injection) can also take
place, either by sufficient forward (anode-cathode) bias (V) or excessive
rate of change of voltage dV/dt. Once the thyristor is turned on, it can
only be turned off, or blocked, by reducing the main circuit current below
a very low critical value, called the holding current (//>).
Under reverse bias, there is a critical breakdown level (VBD)> below
which the thyristor behaves like a pn junction diode, i.e. with only a low
leakage current.
The thyristor can be destroyed by excessive reverse voltage (VBD),
extended overcurrents and excessive rate of change of current (di/dt).
Therefore, when connected in series, the individual devices have to be
properly protected against overvoltages, overcurrent, di/dt and dv/dt.
For the use of thyristors in HVDC transmission to be economical, it was
necessary to improve their ratings. Although a typical thyristor in the late
1960s had a peak blocking voltage of approximately 1600 V and could
carry about 1000 A, modern devices permit in excess of 4000 A DC in a
six-pulse bridge and a 10 kV blocking voltage is not far away. Higher
voltages and currents are feasible but normally at the expense of severe
derating on other important parameters. The main limitation of the
forward region
+ on anode
Standard wafer diameters of 100 and 150 mm are currently used by the
ETT and LTT devices, giving repetitive peak off-state voltages of 7500
and 8800 V and average on-state currents of 2100 and 3500 A respectively.
Although the ratings of the individual devices are still increasing, there
is no need for dramatic growth in this respect because of the progress
made in thyristor-valve architectures; the individual devices can now be
connected in series and in multibridge configurations to process practically
unlimited power.
these IGTBs have today reached 1600 V/1200 A, and 3300 V/1200 A
have already been announced; they also have inherent short-duration
high-current capability. At present most IGBTs are manufactured in
modular form; a module includes a number of individual chips connected
in parallel. However, presspack designs have already been developed
which permit the stacking of devices in series for high-voltage applications.
Because it has high switching speed and low switching loss, and can also be
switched snubberless in a suitably low-inductance circuit, the IGBT can be
operated at high pulse-width modulation (PWM) frequency, typically
several kHz for large units to minimise harmonics and equipment size.
1.7 References
1 'The history of high voltage direct current power transmission', Direct Current
Part I, December 1961, p.260; Part II, March 1962, p.60; Part III, September
1962, p.228; Part IV, January 1963, p.2; Part V, April 1963, p.89
2 PIMENOV, V.P.: 'The work of the Direct Current Institute (Leningrad)', Direct
Current, 1957, 3, (6), pp. 185-91
3 LAMM, U.: 'Mercury-arc valves for high voltage DC transmission', Proc. IEE,
1964, III, (10), pp. 1747-753
4 BERNERYD, S., and FUNKE, B.: 'Design of high voltage mercury-arc valves'.
IEE conference on High voltage DC transmission, Publication 22, Manchester,
UK, 1966
5 LIPS, H.P.: 'Semiconductor power devices for use in HVDC and FACTS
controllers'. International colloquium on HVDC and FACTS, Johannesburg,
South Africa, 1997, paper 6.8
6 ADAMSON, C, and HINGORANI, N.G.: 'High voltage direct current power
transmission' (Garraway Ltd, London, 1960)
7 KIMBARK, E.W.: 'Direct current transmission' (Wiley Interscience, New York,
USA, 1971)
8 UHLMAN, E.: 'Power transmission by direct current' (Springer-Verlag, Berlin/
Heidelberg, Germany, 1975)
9 HINGORANI, N.G.: 'High power electronics and flexible AC transmission
systems', IEEE Power Eng. Rev., July 1988
Chapter 2
Static power conversion
2.1 Introduction
The static conversion of power from AC to DC and from DC to AC consti-
tutes the central process of HVDC transmission.
It is therefore important to begin the subject with a clear understanding
of the conversion principles, and of the steady-state relationships, which
exist between the various parameters involved in the process of static
power conversion.
This Chapter describes the requirements of stable converter operation,
the effect of controlled rectification and the commutation phenomena.
Detailed consideration is given to the voltage and current waveforms, and
to the reactive-power demand and harmonic problems attached to conver-
ter operation.
(b)
(0
01 VcO
s3 i 5
i
e' '
(e)
41 i 3 i
4
1V6 V2
(0 (f)
+
-3 J-5
\ k - -5
1
a
— —
^2
85 B1 V3 85 R1
Cathode
potential
D ! F ! • Neutral
\ I \
Anode
potential
VB 82 f?4 VB 82
5&6 6&1 1&2 2&3 3&4 4&5 5&6 6&1 1&2 2&3
(h)
(a)
MR)
Cathode busbar
Neutral
- Anode busbar
Reference
anode busbar
(a)
(c)
Figure 2.6 n bridges connected in series on the DC side and in parallel on the
AC side
20 High voltage direct current transmission
• xp + xt+x"d
(2.5)
X"d + nXs
(a)
Haywards
a.c.
110 kV
To North
Island
system
1 sc
SC
To South island
system
o- -CO-fw
D (a)
3 '3
VCY
— ^ *CB
(c)
As the rates of change of % and -i\ are equal (provided that the commuta-
tion reactances are balanced), the voltage drops across ^ c R and XCY are the
same and thus, during the overlap period, the direct voltage vd is the mean
value of t^GY a n d t>cR.
From the circuit of Figure 2.9a and assuming XCR = XQY = XQ w e c a n
write
^CY - ^CR = 2(Xc/co)d(ic)/dt (2.6)
Taking as a reference the voltage crossing between phases R and Y
c sin cot
where Vc is the phase-to-phase r.m.s. voltage.
Eqn. 2.6 can also be written as
Figure 2.10a) reduces the negative potential of phase red and causes the
first voltage dent. The firing of valve 5 (at Ph) increases the potential of
the common cathode to the average of phases yellow and blue; this causes
a second commutation dent, at the end of which (at S3) the common
cathode follows the potential of phase blue (owing to the conduction of
valve 5). Finally, the commutation from valve 4 to valve 6 (between P6 and
S4) increases the negative potential of valve 1 anode and produces another
voltage dent.
Figures 2.10c and d illustrate the individual valves (1 and 4) and Figure
2.10*? the phase (red) currents, respectively.
A number of reasonable approximations have to be made to simplify the
derivation of the steady-state equations that follow. These are:
• converter valves are treated as ideal switches; when calculating the
power loss, the valve resistance can be added to that of the DC trans-
mission line;
• AC systems consist of perfectly balanced and sinusoidal e.m.f.s, the
commutation reactances are equal in each phase and their resistive
components are ignored; the main effects of nonideal supply wave-
forms are discussed in Section 2.9.2;
• direct current is constant and ripple free, i.e. the presence of a very
large smoothing reactor is assumed; the effect of nonideal DC current
waveforms is discussed in Section 2.9.2;
• only two or three valves conduct simultaneously, i.e. two simultaneous
commutations are not considered; the low AC voltage and/or high DC
current required to cause simultaneous commutations are prevented in
the steady state; during disturbances, on the other hand, the converter
behaviour can only be predicted by dynamic analysis.8
2.6.2 AC current
The r.m.s. magnitude of a rectangular current waveform (neglecting the
commutation overlap) is often used to define the converter transformer
MVA, i.e.
tice, full inversion cannot be achieved and the delay angle must be less
than 180°.
With reference to Figures 2.11a and e, a commutation from valve 1 to
valve 3 (at P5) is only possible as long as phase Y is positive with respect to
phase R. Furthermore, the commutation must not only be completed
before C6, but some extinction angle y\ (> y0) must be left for valve 1,
which has just stopped conducting, to re-establish its blocking ability. This
puts a limit to the maximum angle of firing a = % - (u + y0) for successful
inverter operation. If this limit were exceeded, valve 1 would pick up the
current again, causing a commutation failure.
Moreover, there is a fundamental difference between rectifier and inver-
ter operations which prevents an optimal firing condition in the latter case.
Although the rectifier delay angle, a, can be chosen accurately to satisfy a
particular control constraint, the same is not possible with respect to angle y
because of the uncertainty of the overlap angle, u. Events taking place after
the instant of firing are beyond predictability and, therefore, the minimum
extinction angle, yo, must contain a margin of safety to cope with reason-
able uncertainties (values between 15° and 20° are typically used).
The analysis of inverter operation is not different from that of rectifica-
tion, carried out in Section 2.6, and will not be repeated here. However,
for convenience, the inverter equations are often expressed in terms of the
angle of advance p (= n - a) or the extinction angle y (= p - u).
Thus, omitting the negative sign of the inverter DC voltage, the follow-
ing expressions apply
^ d (2.19)
or
(2.20)
or
(e)
- Vc Vc
CMp.u.)
Ptp.u.)
MAP
MPC for y
constant
where a is the angle, A / 2 is the average value of the function F(cot) and A^
and Bn are rectangular components of the nth harmonic. The correspond-
ing vector is
An-jBn=CnZcl>n (2.33)
r
ccos\cot-—\ f o r a + u < cot < ^ - (2.36)
6J 3
and using the Fourier equations, the r.m.s. magnitudes of the harmonic
voltages are obtained from the equation
Figures 2.15 and 2.16 give the sixth and 12th harmonics 2 as a percentage
of Vc0 = S(y/2) Vc/n. These curves and equations show some interesting
facts. First for a = 0 and u = 0, eqn. 2.37 reduces to
Vno = j2Vc0/(n2-l) (2.38)
or
2 2
i^ (2.39)
giving 4.04, 0.99 and 0.44 per cent for the sixth, 12th and 18th harmonics,
respectively. Generally, as a increases, harmonics also increase, and for a =
(TT/2) and u = 0
i (2.40)
Static power conversion 35
10 20 30
Angle of overlap u
2n n n 2n
i =0 for - — - < cot < - —• and — < cot < — -
D O D D
2n , 2n
i = -Id for - n < cot < and < cot < n (2.41)
Static power conversion 37
cot = 0
- JI - JI/2
(a)
(b)
i = - ^ — Id(cos cot - \ cos bent + % cos 7cot - \ i cos 1 lot + ...) (2.42)
In *-d (2.44)
nn
and that of the fundamental
(2.45)
/rf(cos oot+% cos hot - % cos lot - \ x cos 1 lot + ...) (2.46)
38 High voltage direct current transmission
Eqns. 2.42 and 2.46 are the same excepting that harmonics 5, 7 (k = odd
numbers in eqn. 2.43) are of opposite sequence, and therefore with two
bridges in series as above, only the harmonics corresponding to n = \2k ±
1 will enter the AC system.
The current waveform and harmonic spectrum of a double-bridge 12-
pulse configuration are illustrated in Figure 2.18 (with the overlap angle
ignored).
If the commutation angle is taken into account, the current waveform
for the star-star connection has been defined in Section 2.6.2; the charac-
teristic fifth, seventh, 11th and 13th harmonics, as a percentage of the
fundamental (I\), are illustrated in Figures 2.19-2.22, inclusive.2 It is seen
that the harmonics decrease with increases in commutation angle (u), the
rate of decrease being greater for higher harmonics. For the same u,
1/V3
* * Time
(a)
1.0
0.8
0.6
a.
0.4
<
0.2
0 J L Frequency
11 13 23 25
x Fundamental
(b)
19 cr
\ \
IT 18 \
2
c
Q>
(D
i 17
\
CO 16
a = 30°\Y
a = 20°
15 \ \
a = 10° \
a =
14
10 20 30 40
Angle of overlap u (degrees)
0 10 20 30
Angle of overlap u (degrees)
2
c
CD
CO
c
D
(0
W
CO
10 20 30 40
Angle of overlap u (degrees)
i
0)
CO
T3
C
10 20 30 40
n=\
cos n
A,M = A n . c o s n % (2.51)
where \i is the commutation angle.
Regarding the current transfer function, the assumption of a linearly-
changing commutation current during the commutation (Figure 2.236 -
continuous line) leads to the following alternative expression for the coef-
ficient An
^ (2.52)
Aaji Aaji
Aa(i Aaji
-1
(a)
Y
\j/AC
-1
/ ac /phase
+1
n n
switching
ing function ; modulated output
.a o
modulating function
DC + ripple
Figure 2.24 Idealised switching function and modulating function giving modu-
lated AC output
Static power conversion 45
0.05-
0.04-
13
5 0.03-
0.02-
23 25
0.01-
3
.1 1. 1.1.
35 7 47 49
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
harmonic order
(a)
12
10-
O 24
Q
5- 36
48
1
' f
, 35
..i .1
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
harmonic order
(b)
Figure 2.25 a DC-voltage harmonic spectrum, modulation frequency = 4.5 a)0
b AC-current harmonic spectrum, modulation frequency = 4.5 COQ
harmonic frequencies. In this case, with small smoothing reactors the DC-
side coupling is likely to be strong which means that the flow of harmoni-
cally-unrelated currents on the DC side can be large. In six-pulse operation
such schemes can produce considerable subharmonic content even under
perfect AC-system conditions. However, 12-pulse converters do not
produce subharmonic content under symmetrical and undistorted AC-
system conditions. These will produce interharmonic currents as defined
by eqn. 2.55, which for m= n= 1, f% = 60 and/! = 50 results in a 70 Hz AC
current and, through the AC-system impedance, voltage. The latter will
Static power conversion 49
(12n±/c-|) ± Ulf2-^
12n 1 ^
(12/77-1) ±k^lf2 (12/77-1) ± /C-,
Figure 2.26 Harmonic transfers across a 12-pulse HVDC link; the encircled elements indicate harmonic sources and m, n
(1,2,3 ...)
52 High voltage direct current transmission
(a)
(c)
the modern controllers. Figure 2.27 illustrates this effect for an unrealistic
case of unbalance.12 As predicted by Figure 2.26, the result is a high level
of second harmonic on the DC side and of third harmonic on the AC side.
Under more realistic conditions the levels of asymmetry and distortion to
be expected are relatively small and can be determined very precisely by
steady-state three-phase AC-DC conversion analysis.
The importance of various factors of asymmetry has been considered by
CIGRE SC1413 with reference to the 12-pulse configuration. The docu-
ment considered the five different cases listed in Table 2.1; in practice, the
global effect results from a combination of all the asymmetries and the
quantities may be larger or smaller than those individually calculated.
Table 2.2 contains the levels of the first 25 harmonics resulting from
each of the five test cases.
The main conclusions of the CIGRE report were:
Harmonic Reference:
order ideal Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5
errors in the firing angles also produce harmonics of all orders, odd
and even; however, for practical (permitted) tolerances the values of
the noncharacteristic odd harmonics are much lower than those caused
by the other sources of asymmetry;
the principal causes of triplen harmonics are asymmetries in the trans-
former reactances;
the effects owing to differences between the phase reactances and in
the firing angles depend also on the transformer connection, being
more important in the absence of delta connections.
Static power conversion 55
2.14 References
1 UHLMANN, E.: 'Power transmission by direct current' (Springer-Verlag,
Berlin-Heidelberg, 1975), Section 1
2 ADAMSON, C, and HINGORANI, N.G.: 'High voltage direct current power
transmission' (Garraway Ltd, London, 1960), Chaps. 2 and 3
3 ARRILLAGA, J., ARNOLD, C.P., and HARKER, B.J.: 'Computer modelling of
electrical power systems' (John Wiley Ltd, London, 1983), Chap. 3
4 KIMBARK, E.W.: 'Direct current transmission' (Wiley Interscience, New York,
1971)
5 CIGRE Working Group 14.07: 'Guide for planning DC links terminating at AC
systems locations having low short-circuit capacities. Part 1: AC/DC interaction
phenomena'. Report 68, June 1992
6 ARRILLAGA, J., and WOOD, A.R.: 'Harmonic cross-modulation in HVDC
transmission'. International colloquium on HVDC and FACTS, Paper 6.7, Johan-
nesbury, September, 1997
7 SWARTZ, M., BENNETT, W.R., and STEIN, S.: 'Communication systems and
techniques' (McGraw-Hill, 1966)
8 PERSSON, E.V.: 'Calculation of transfer functions in grid controlled converter
system', IEE Proc, May 1970, 117, (5), pp. 989-97
9 HU, L., and YACAMINI, R.: 'Harmonic transfer through converters and
HVDC links', IEEE Trans. Power Electron., July 1992, 7, (4), pp. 514-25
10 WOOD, A.R.: 'An analysis of non-ideal HVDC converter behaviour in the
frequency domain and a new control proposal'. PhD thesis, University of
Canterbury, New Zealand, 1993
11 AINSWORTH, J.D.: 'The phase-locked oscillator - a new control system for
controlled static convenors', IEEE Trans., 1968, PAS-87, (3), pp. 859-65
GIESNER, D.B., and ARRILLAGA, J.: 'Behaviour of h.v.d.c. link;
lanced a.c. fault conditions', Proc. IEE, 1972, 119, (2), pp. 209-15
13 CIGRE WG 14-03: 'AC harmonic filters and reactive compensation for HVDC
with particular reference to non-characteristic harmonics'. 1989
Chapter 3
Harmonic elimination
3.1 Introduction
Since the commutation reactance is low in relation to the DC smoothing
reactance, an HVDC converter acts, from the AC point of view, as a source
of harmonic currents (high internal impedance) and from the DC point of
view, as a source of harmonic voltage (low internal impedance). The
orders and levels of such harmonics have been discussed in Chapter 2.
Excessive levels of harmonic current must be prevented as they will
cause voltage distortion, extra losses and overheating, as well as interfer-
ence with external services (e.g. telephone and railway signals).
The obvious place to eliminate the harmonics is the source itself. In
theory, characteristic harmonics could be eliminated either by some
complex converter configuration (which would be uneconomical), or by
the use of a series filter preventing the harmonics from arising (which
would upset the correct operation of the converter).
Therefore, accepting that the appearance of harmonics is an inherent
property of the static-conversion process, it will be necessary to reduce
their penetration into the AC and DC systems.
Any solution which increases the pulse number reduces the harmonic
orders penetrating into both sides of the converter and should be fully
exploited. Beyond the economic range of higher pulse configurations,
harmonic elimination will normally require the use of filters.
These are now considered separately.
D.C. line
Converter Converter 6-Pulse
busbar transformers bridges
where
Kf= 5000(/1000) = 5/
Pf= C-message weighting
Vf= r.m.s. voltage of frequency / o n the power line
and
11/2
v=
=i=c
T(a)
a
E
Figures 3.2 and 3.3 show typical circuit diagrams and characteristics of
the two types and Figure 3.4 illustrates their incorporation within the
conventional six-pulse HVDC converter configuration.
The diagram in Figure 3.5 indicates that the harmonic current gener-
ated by the converter divides between the shunt filters and the AC
network. To be efficient, the filter needs to be of much lower impedance
than the AC network and ideally must not resonate with the AC-network
impedance.
Therefore, the key to good filter design is a clear understanding of the
two components of the equivalent circuit, i.e.:
(a) The harmonic source (discussed in Chapter 2).
(b) The impedance of the AC network at harmonic frequencies.
Harmonic elimination 61
Converter 6-pulse
Converter
transformer bridge
busbars
a b c A.C. circuit
breaker (CB)
Figure 3.5 Simplified circuit for the harmonic source, filter and AC-network
impedance
62 High voltage direct current transmission
500 1 I
% 250 -
"A
\\11OO
)
J
ISA T1101 f 630
J
635
7 650^
/ 640>
\
1660
>< -250
680
1 i
-500
250 500 750
570
575
-500 L I
250 500 750 1000
R(Q)
Harmonic Zi z2 e2
order " (ohms) (degrees) (ohms) (degrees)
2 47.60 87 19.7 82
3 37.20 77 26.6 30
4 85.70 78 45.5 49
5 71.20 61 29.2 17
6 70.10 58 30.8 29
7 66.60 78 47.6 40
8 114.90 78 55.7 54
9 97.30 63 70.9 24
10 156.90 63 81.1 26
11 168.90 55 109.6 -38
12 93.60 48 24.1 -10
13 121.80 79 51.8 56
14 198.38 55 129.7 -19
15 117.70 43 35.5 -10
16 99.70 51 43.1 24
17 97.70 75 54.7 53
18 140.90 78 84.6 68
19 304.40 82 146.0 68
20 604.20 76 236.4 10
21 657.90 52 163.0 -69
22 291.20 0 65.9 -39
23 128.30 86 37.4 -35
24 146.50 23 72.6 0
25 204.80 71 62.0 58
26 341.90 59 157.8 51
27 525.10 52 200.3 1
28 1319.60 46 381.7 -61
29 460.90 -49 179.0 -72
30 97.00 0 56.0 -34
31 431.30 43 162.8 -34
32 449.80 -14 118.2 -53
33 372.60 5 107.6 -54
34 333.00 -22 82.4 -69
35 130.50 25 41.6 -5
36 238.20 8 102.8 -37
37 368.50 -13 210.3 -65
38 209.80 0 136.8 -33
39 172.20 -40 114.4 -52
40 169.90 -73 88.7 -76
41 143.10 6 66.2 -12
42 149.60 -69 70.5 -79
43 145.00 0 69.2 -70
44 105.90 -53 52.0 -70
45 73.30 -58 37.5 -70
46 74.90 29 37.1 11
47 136.50 -55 90.6 -63
48 102.20 -65 41.8 -71
49 55.10 -60 28.4 -69
50 43.10 -2 35.6 -22
Harmonic elimination 67
100-
90-
80-
70-
60-
2 50-
40-
30-
20-
10-
0
10 20 30 40 50
R, Q.
180-
160-
140-
120-
X, a 100-
80-
60-
40-
20-
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
radius 750 Q (as shown in Figure 3.13) was considered sufficient to encom-
pass all possible impedance loci derived from the 24 operating conditions
considered.
These figures indicate that the first harmonic to exhibit a resonance
condition is the 13th, whereas a generalised impedance circle approach
300-.
250- 13
200-
150-
X, Q
100-
50-
0-
-50-
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360
R, £1
14-49
-800J
Figure 3.13 Harmonic impedances for harmonic order 13, and envelope of
harmonic impedance loci for harmonic orders 14 to 49
would have allowed even low-order harmonics (2nd, 3rd) to exhibit reso-
nance.
In this particular application a further refinement was introduced.
Having chosen the particular worst (resonance) condition from the
polygon search areas, the remaining system impedances for harmonic
numbers two to 25 were chosen from a number of tables of harmonic
impedance, from the column which included the impedance closest to the
resonant impedance. For harmonic numbers greater than 25, the network
impedance was chosen from the impedance circle of Figure 3.13 to maxi-
mise the voltage distortion at each harmonic.
The calculated R ± jX values used in the polygons are the equivalent
Thevenin impedances of the entire network reduced to the Sellindge 400
kV busbar. These include the harmonic impedances of individual plant
items such as transmission lines, generators, transformers, etc.
It must be understood that the quantitative impedance plots used in this
scheme cannot be taken as typical and used as a default option in other
schemes. For instance, in cases of AC networks with long EHV or UHV
lines, the first resonant frequency may even occur below the second
harmonic.
The discrete polygon approach provides a realistic way of representing
the AC network for the purposes of AC-filter design. It avoids the pessi-
mism of a generalised approach using a single search area, and offers a
technique which provides acceptably quick solution times for the highly
iterative task of filter design.
The cumulative effect of the existing nonlinearities will impose an extra
burden on the converter plant (filters in particular) at the bus under inves-
tigation. Traditionally the harmonic currents injected by the converter are
increased by some percentage (typically ten per cent) to take into account
70 High voltage direct current transmission
(3.2)
where fn is the resonant frequency
Xo = con L= \/(cDnC) = ^J(L/O = inductive or capacitive
reactance at resonance (3.3)
The quality factor Qcan be expressed either as
Q= Xo/R (3.4)
or
Q= a)n/PB (where PB is the passband in rad/s) (3.5)
C=l/((onRQ (3.6)
L=RQ/con (3.7)
Often, two single-tuned filters are replaced by a double-tuned filter. This
has proved more economical because it uses only one common inductor
and the power loss at fundamental frequency is lower.
In practice, a filter is not always tuned exactly to the frequency of the
harmonic that it is intended to suppress, for the following reasons:
(a) Variations of the power-system frequency, which result in proportional
changes in the harmonic frequency.
(b) Changes in the inductance and capacitance of the filter owing to
ageing and temperature variations.
(c) The accuracy of the actual tuning is restricted by the discrete nature of
tuning steps.
The total detuning is
S = Aco/con = Af/fn + \ (AL/Ln + AC/Cj (3.8)
where fn is the nominal system frequency, Ln is the nominal inductance
and Cn is the nominal capacitance. In terms of S and Q the filter impe-
dance can be written as
Zf = R[l +jQS(2 + S)/(l +d)] (3.9)
We are normally interested in small frequency deviations, i.e. 5 <£ 1 and
therefore
Z/« R(l+j2dQ) (3.10)
Very often, admittances are used instead of impedance, i.e.
zf
where
72 High voltage direct current transmission
Vn=iy(Yf+Yj (3.14)
or
i i2 \ 90s 1 1 2 -i/2
1 ZVd
' '- ' ' (3.15)
(a) The frequency deviation, 8, which is set to the greatest value that is
expected to exist.
(b) The network admittance, Ysn. If an accurate specification of system
impedance could be made, the filter design would be technically satis-
factory and cost effective. This is not normally the case, however, and
various criteria used in the Ysn selection have been described in Section
3.3.3.
Capacitance
II
(a) ib)
Since the sharpness of the high-pass filter tuning increases with the ratio
R/XQ, the Qof this filter normally refers to that ratio (i.e. the inverse of the
expression used for the resonant filters). Typical values of Qare between
0.5 and 5.
The second and third-order high-pass filters shown in Figures 3.15a and
b are extensively used in HVDC schemes. These are designed to reduce
the injection of harmonics above the 17th order into the AC system.
When designing such damping filters the Q is chosen to obtain the best
characteristic over the required frequency band, and there is no optimal Q
as with tuned filters. Because of their bandwidth there is no sensitivity to
fundamental-frequency deviation or component-value drift.
(a)
C1=±s C2:
(b)
where
n = harmonic order: the upper limit usually considered ranges
between 2.5 and 5 kHz
Cn = normalised weighting factor at harmonic n, referred to 800 Hz
or 1000 Hz for the psophometric and C message weights,
respectively
Hn = frequency-dependent factor, taking into account variations (if
significant) of the mutual impedance among the HVDC line
and the telephone lines, of shielding and of telephone circuit
balance
In the second method, the performance requirements are specified as a
longitudinal induced voltage, properly weighted as indicated above, on a
hypothetical sample telephone line, which is assumed to be parallel to the
main line, 1 km long and 1 km far away; the ground resistivity to be used
in the calculation is to be specified.
Comprehensive studies must be carried out at the planning stage, in
order to decide whether to use filters or reroute parts of the transmission
lines away from telephone systems.
/12 (A)
i i
0.18-
0.14-
0.10
0.06-
I L6 2.5± H P
r 07
ololo
280 0.7 j > 1000
mH mH' £ ohms
San Dalmazio
(Italian mainland)
T 63
ohms
Celilo
!
0.21
HF--
0.5 J . 6 12
T 8.8 I
Ohms <
Dorsey
110
ohms <
<; 0.29 i
F ^
3.25 4:
3
ohms> ohmsS ohmsS
-V
r
0.06 H
16-
12&24
7c 0.75 H
0.4 JJ
K
MF
T
0.9^
A] 120 123 20 £ 1000
mH
A] mH mH fohms
I
Arrowhead (Duluth)
ohms ,
Dorsey (Winnipeg)
Computer programmes are used for this purpose8'12 which calculate the
self impedance, mutual impedance and capacitive matrices for any
frequency and line.
As an estimated worst case, the results are then combined by adding the
root of the sum of squares (of the peak profile) derived from each end of
the link. At each harmonic a profile along a single equivalent conductor is
obtained. This is determined from the vector addition of the harmonic
current values from each of the DC conductors and the DC overhead
ground wire. The equivalent conductor is assumed to be located along the
centre of the DC lines. A typical 12-harmonic current profile, with filters
included, is illustrated in Figure 3.18.
Typical types and locations of DC filters in several existing schemes are
shown in Figure 3.19.
Secondary current /2
A A
I V \
I
Figure 3.20 Basic configuration of harmonic-current elimination method by flux
compensation
Harmonic elimination 81
nonlinear load. These are fed, through an amplifier, into the tertiary
winding of a transformer in such a manner as to cause cancellation of the
harmonic currents concerned. The main area of concern with this system
is the coupling of the output of the amplifier to the tertiary winding in
such a way that the fundamental current flow does not damage the ampli-
fier. A quaternary winding and filter are used, as shown in Figure 3.20, to
reduce the fundamental current in the amplifier output.
Another important difficulty is the transfer of the amplified compensat-
ing current waveform from the low to high-voltage side of the transformer.
A small-scale prototype was developed and discussed in Reference 13; its
extension to a 300 MW converter was alleged to require a 750 kW ampli-
fier. Thus the replacement of the lower-order characteristic harmonics
does not appear to be a viable proposition at the moment.
protection
arrester circuit
neutral bus
3.6 References
1 KIMBARK, E.W.: 'Direct current transmission' (Wiley Interscience, New York,
1971)
2 KUUSSAARI, M., and PESONEN, A.J.: 'Measured power line harmonic
currents and induced telephone noise interference with special reference to
statistical approach'. CIGRE, Paris, 1976, paper 36-05
3 ARRILLAGA, J., BRADLEY, D., and BODGER, P.S.: 'Power system harmo-
nics' (John Wiley 8c Sons, Chichester, 1985)
4 ARRILLAGA, J., et ah 'A.c. system modelling for a.c. filter design, an overview
of impedance modelling', Electra, 1996, (164)
5 WATSON, N.R.: 'Frequency-dependent a.c. system equivalents for harmonic
studies and transient converter simulation'. PhD thesis, University of Canter-
bury, New Zealand, 1987
6 LAURENT, P.G., GARY, C., and CLADE, J.: 'D.c. interconnection between
France and Great Britain by submarine cables'. CIGRE, Part III, Paper 331,
1962
7 BAKER, W.P.: 'Measured impedances of power systems'. International confer-
ence on Harmonics in power systems, UMIST, Manchester, England, 1981
8 ARRILLAGA, J., SMITH, B.C., WATSON, N.R., and WOOD, A.R.: 'Power
system harmonic analysis' (J. Wiley 8c Sons, Chichester, September 1997)
9 CLARKE, CD., and JOHANSON-BROWN, M.J.: 'The application of self-
tuned harmonic filters to h.v.d.c. convenors'. IEE Conference on High voltage
DC transmission, Publication 22, 1966, pp.275-76
Harmonic elimination 83
10 STANLEY, C.H., PRICE, I J., and BREWER, G.L.: 'Design and performance
of a.c. filters for 12-pulse n.v.d.c. schemes', in IEE Conf. Publ. 154 on 'Power
electronics-power semiconductors and their applications', 1977
11 OUELETTE, K.R., and LEWIS, D.W.: 'Harmonic interference from d.c.
lines'. Manitoba Power Conference EHV-DC, Winnipeg, 1971, pp.543-78
12 HARRISON, R.E., and KRISHNAYYA, P.C.S.: 'System considerations in the
application of d.c. filters for h.v.d.c. transmission'. CIGRE, Paris 1978, Paper
14-09
13 SASAKI, H., and MACHIDA, T.: 'A new method to eliminate AC harmonic
currents by magnetic flux compensation - considerations on basic design',
IEEE Trans. Power Appar. Syst. 1971, PAS-90, (5), pp.2009-19
14 JANSSON, B., et at 'New features of the Skagerrak 3 HVDC intertie', Interna-
tional Colloquium on HVDC and FACTS, Wellington (NZ), 1993, paper 6.3
15 NYMAN, A., EKENSTIERNA, B., and WALDHAUER, H.: 'The Baltic cable
HVDC project'. CIGRE, 1996, paper 14-105
Chapter 4
HVDC system development
converter 1 converter 2
(a)
(c)
1— i i
ela-
L*
—\\< i § a -
A
A
A
.,. j o y \
A A y
converter 1 converter 2 converter 3
-cm —
-Q
A
- x i xi —
Figure 4.1 Five basic configurations
Volgograd-Donbass (1962-65)
This was the first overhead transmission scheme and was built as a reinfor-
cement of an existing AC weak transmission system. The transmission
distance is 470 km and the link rating 720 MW at ± 400 kV and 900A.
The scheme used an alternative design of mercury-arc valve with a single
(air-cooled) anode and an oil-cooled tank. The bipolar scheme uses four
bridges per pole and two valves in series each for 50 kV and 900A.
energy from hydro resources in the South Island. Given the relatively
short submarine interconnection, the scheme was feasible using conven-
tional AC technology. However, the depth of the Cook Strait would have
restricted the use of AC cable to relatively low voltages and thus resulted
in many parallel circuits. Under such conditions, and given the reasonably
large overhead transmission, the DC solution was found to be more
economical.
Konti-Skan (1965)3
This is a monopolar 250 MW, 250 kV DC (using earth return), partly over-
head, partly submarine interconnection between Sweden and Denmark.
The cable section, although sufficiently long (87 km), is divided into two
parts and an AC interconnection would have been feasible. In fact, the
economic justification for DC was very marginal, but it offered the advan-
tage of future further extension (by means of a second pole) to 500 MW, a
power rating beyond the stability limit of an alternative AC interconnec-
tion between the two countries.
1968 and 1969 with mercury-arc valves. A second pole, of equal power,
was added in 1979 using thyristor technology.
The impact of the thyristor technology was not just because of valve cost
(which initially was much the same as the cost of the mercury-arc valve)
but also because of the overall economic effect of station plant and layout.
Even before the commissioning of the last two mercury-arc schemes
(Nelson River and Kingsnorth) the small experience gained with thyristor
valves was sufficient to discourage any further development of the
mercury-arc technology.
The technical reasons in favour of solid-state HVDC transmission are
basically the same as those given for the mercury-arc schemes discussed
above. However, a brief look at the solid-state schemes in existence will
help us to understand the great progress made with the new technology.
Cahora-Bassa (1978)4
A decision was taken in 1969 to use solid-state valves to transmit 1920 MW
at + 533 kV between the Zambia River in Mozambique and Johannesburg,
separated by 1360 km. This was the first scheme, whether AC or DC, in
the megavoltage range (between poles). It was also the first case of interna-
tional bulk power transmission. The first stage of the scheme started
commercial operation in 1978. It used over 36000 thyristors, oil cooled
and oil insulated in an outdoor-valve layout involving four bridges per
pole at each end of the link. It is interesting to consider that switching,
which used to be the curse of power-transmission circuits, had become the
basis of power controllability. In fact, the normal operation of the
complete Cahora-Bassa scheme required of the order of 4 x 106 ON and
OFF individual switchings per second.
Skagerrak (1976)5
A further step from the Inga-Shaba project led to this scheme where
the four individual valves (per phase) of a 12-pulse converter are
90 High voltage direct current transmission
CU(1979)
Again, the DC solution was justified in this scheme for base-load bulk
power transmission from the Coal Creek lignite mine generating plant to
the Dickinson area in the USA. It is a 702 km 1000 MW ± 400 kV scheme
and uses the, by then standard, air-cooled and air-insulated quadruple
valves.
Hokkaido-Honshu (1979)6
Despite the short transmission distance (167 km) the use of HVDC was
justified by the 43 km submarine crossing and the need for an effective
control of frequency variations as well as mutual emergency power assis-
tance during fault occurrences.
It is a bipolar ± 125 kV scheme and was developed in three stages, i.e.
150 MW (1979), 300 MW (1980) and 600 MW (1993). In the final stage,
light-triggered water-cooled thyristor valves of Japanese manufacture were
used.
Inga-Shaba (1982)
The rapid progress made in thyristor architecture became apparent in this
project, approved by the Zaire Government in 1974 to exploit the Zaire
River hydro potential. In the first stage, the DC system transmits 560 MW
HVDC system development 91
Gotland II (1983-87)
The mercury-arc pioneering link (Gotland I), described in Section 4.2, was
replaced between 1983 and 1987 by a 320 MW thyristor scheme.
tion of a 2000 MW link was issued by EDF and CEGB in 1981 to exploit
the different daily load curves and generating plant mix of the French
and British systems. The converter stations are linked by eight cables
operating at + 270 kV. The scheme consists of two 1000 MW bipoles
between Sellindge in SE England and Bonningues-les-Calais in Northern
France.
The main novel feature of the scheme is the use of different converter
equipment (with valves and control of different manufacturers) at each
end of the link. On the English side the converter plant includes three
high-speed static compensators of the saturated-reactor type to provide, in
conjunction with switched capacitor banks, the required reactive power
control capability for load and load rejection conditions.
Sileru-Barsoor (1989)
The Indian-built 196 km long 100 MW 100 kV six-pulse monopolar link
was initially developed with the purpose of gaining design and operational
experience on HVDC transmission. Two further stages were planned, first
a 12-pulse extension and then a second extension to make the link bipolar
with a final rating of 400 MW ± 200 kV.
Fenno-Skan (1989)9
This is a 200 km sea-cable interconnection to exchange up to 500 MW at
400 kV between Finland and Sweden. It is a monopolar link with sea
return. Its main purpose is to use the available peak-power reserve of both
countries, transfer power from North Sweden to Southern Sweden via the
Finnish network and increase the power-transmission capability on the AC
interconnections owing to higher stability limits.
Gesha (1991)10
Long-distance bulk-power transmission justified the use of DC for the
Gezhouba-Shanghai interconnection, a 1200 MW, ± 500 kV scheme and
the first HVDC in China.
Rihand-Delhi (1992)12
This scheme was built to transfer bulk power from the Rihand-Singrauli
thermal power-generating complex to the load centre around Delhi. Over
a distance of 814 km a nominal power of 1500 MW is transferred at ±
500 kV.
Kontek (1995)14
This link rated at 600 MW and 400 kV utilises the highest rated cable in
commercial service. It has both sea and land-cable sections (totalling 120
km) and is used for economy energy transfers between Denmark and
Germany.
Figure 4.2 Unusual map of North America highlighting four blocks of AC trans-
mission connected together by DC links
HVDC system development 95
European schemes
(xi) Vyborg (CIS - Finland, 1981)19 - three independent, parallel back-
to-back units totalling 1065 MW at ± 85 kV to provide contracted
energy supply from Russia to Finland.
(xii) Duernrohr (Austria, 1983)20 - a monopolar 550 MW at 145 kV link
installed at Duernrohr to exchange energy between East and West
Europe.
96 High voltage direct current transmission
4.5 References
1 HINGORANI, N.G.: 'High voltage DC transmission: a power electronics work-
horse', IEEE Spectr., April 1996, pp.63-72
98 High voltage direct current transmission
2 NYMAN, ADIELSON, LOFGREN, and MUDER: 'Supply of a small isolated
AC system by local generation with an HVDC interconnection'. CIGRE, 1990,
paper 14-302
3 VON GEIJER, G., SMEDSFELT, S., AHLGREN, L., and ANDERSEN, E.:
'The Konti-Skan HVDC project', Electra, 1979, (63)
4 KANNGIESSER, K.W., et ah 'Commissioning of the Cahora-Bassa HVDC
system'. CIGRE, 1978, paper 14-13
5 HAUGE, O., VIKANES, S., ANDERSEN, E., and STYRBRO, G.: 'The Skager-
rak HVDC transmission scheme system design features and service experi-
ment'. CIGRE, 1978, paper 14-04
6 TAKEUCHI, T., et ah 'Hokkaido-Honshu HVDC link'. CIGRE, 1980, paper
14-03
7 BERIGER, C, ETLER, P., HENGSBERGER, J., and THIELE, G.: 'Design of
water cooled thyristor valve groups for extension of Manitoba Hydro HVDC
system'. CIGRE, 1976, paper 14-05
8 DONAHUE, J.A., and BRADLEY, D.: 'Multiterminal commissioning of the
Sandy Pond HVDC converter terminal'. International Colloquium on HVDC
and FACTS, paper 3.3, Wellington, 1993
9 EMBAIE, T., et ah 'Fenno-Skan HVDC link as a part of interconnected AC/
DC system'. CIGRE, 1988, paper 14-02
10 HAMMEL, A., KOELSCH, H., and DACHLER, D.: 'Control features of the
HVDC Gezhouba-Shanghai transmission scheme'. APS COM-91 international
conference on Advances in power system control, operation and management, 1991,
pp.680-85
11 GLEADOW, J., O'BRIEN, M.T., and FLETCHER, J.E.: 'Principal features of
the DC hybrid link'. International colloquium on HVDC andflexibleAC power
transmission systems, Paper 1.3, Wellington, NZ, 1993
12 DUBE, S.K., et ah 'Operating experience of the Rihand-Dadri ± 500 kV
HVDC transmission'. IEE conference on AC and DC transmission, 1996, pp. 134-
8
13 NYMAN, A., EKENSTIERNA, B., and WALDHAUER, H.: 'The Baltic cable
HVDC project'. CIGRE, 1996, 14-105
14 NIELSEN, T.G., CANELHAS, A., and HANSEN, B.S. 'KONTEK - the
HVDC link with the longest land cable in the world'. International colloquium
on HVDC and FACTS, Paper 6.1, Wellington, NZ, September 1993
15 YASUDA, M., MIZUSHIMA, K., KATO, Y., and SEKI, A.: 'Shin Shinano
frequency converter station'. CIGRE, 1978, paper 14-02
16 SENDA, T., et ah 'New technology applied to the recent HVDC converter
stations in Japan'. CIGRE, 1992, paper 14-02
17 RUIZ DIAZ, O., et ah 'Acaray HVDC back-to-back station'. CIGRE, 1982,
paper 14-02
18 SAKAI, T., et ah 'The Uruguaiana frequency converter station interconnecting
the Brazilian and Argentina AC system . Toshiba Rev., 1985, (153)
19 EMELUANOV, V., HEIKKILA, H., and MAKELA, L.: 'USSR-Finland HVDC
intertie'. CIGRE, 1978, paper 14-11
20 KANNGIESSER, K.W., MORAW, G., and POVH, D.: 'Commissioning and
system tests for the HVDC back-to-back tie Duernrohr/Austria'. CIGRE, 1984,
paper 14-01
21 LIPS, P., and THIELE, G.: 'Design and testing of thyristor valves for the
HVDC back-to-back tie Chateauguay'. Proc. int. conf. DC power transmission,
Montreal, June 1984, pp.228-33
22 DOHERTY, R.D., JOHNSON, R.K., SCHWEITZER, S.F., and WEAVER,
T.L.: 'Miles City converter station - early operating experience'. CIGRE, 1986,
paper 14-03
23 KOLODZIEJ, E., and HINGORANI, N.G.: 'Layout consideration for the
Oklaunion HVDC tie'. IEEE PES, tenth conference and exposition on Overhead
and underground transmission and distribution, September 1986
24 KLENK, E., et ah 'Advanced concepts and commissioning experiences with the
Sidney converter station'. CIGRE, 1988, paper 14-10
25 SCHMITT, et ah 'System performance and basic design aspects for the Elzen-
HVDC system development 99
richt 600 MW back to back HVDC converter station', IEE.Conf. Publ on AC
and DC power transmission, (345), London, 1991, pp. 171-76
26 WHEELER, J.D., DAVIDSON, C.C., WILLIAMS, J.D.G., and ROY, A.K.:
'Design aspects of the Chandrapur 2 x 500 MW back-to-back HVDC scheme'.
CIGRE, 1996, paper 14-104
27 CHRISTOFERSEN, D.J., ELAHI, H., and BENNETT, M.G.: 'A survey of the
reliability of HVDC systems throughout the world during 1993-1994'. CIGRE,
1996, paper 14-101
Chapter 5
Control of HVDC converters
and systems
A — CONVERTER CONTROL
A.C. line
w
voltage Critical
-L.
/A \
m level Variable
A trigger delay
Grid
circuit
pulse
(valve 1) A A
1 ~± / \
lds\
y- Amplifier
-
Figure 5.1 Constants current-control system
or
J2VC cos a + y/2 Vc cos y0 = 2wLId
Moreover, during large or small system disturbances the actual current at
102 High voltage direct current transmission
V2VC-
the end of the commutation period will be different from the magnitude
anticipated by the controller, and compensation is made for the rate of
change of current. Thus the equation used as a basis for a predictive
constant extinction angle (CEA) is2
Firing pulses
to converter
six output pulses normally occurs at successive intervals of 60°. The STOP
pulses are also obtained from the ring counter but two stages later (e.g. the
START pulse for valve 1 is from stage 1 and the STOP pulse for valve 1 is
from stage 3, normally 120° later). One oscillator and one ring counter per
bridge constitute the basic control hardware.
The various control modes only differ in the type of control loop which
provides the oscillator control voltage, Vc.
The phase of each firing pulse will have some arbitrary value relative to
the AC-line voltage, i.e. an arbitrary value of converter firing angle a.
However, when the three-phase AC-line voltages are symmetrical funda-
mental sine waves, a is the same for each valve.
In practice the simple independent oscillator would drift in frequency
and phase relative to the AC system; hence some method of phase locking
the oscillator to the AC system is required. This is normally achieved by
connecting Vc in a conventional negative-feedback loop for constant
current or constant extinction angle, as described in the following two
sections.
loop, tending to hold current constant at a value very close to the refer-
ence.
To visualise the operation of this loop, imagine that the current is nearly
equal to the reference, such that the amplified error (Vc) happens to be
precisely that value required to give an oscillator frequency of six times
the supply frequency. The ring-counter outputs, and thus the valve-gate
pulses, will have a certain phase with respect to the AC-system voltage.
Suppose, further, that this phase, which is identical to firing angle a,
happens to be such as to give the correct converter DC output voltage,
which, with the particular back e.m.f. of the DC link, results in the correct
DC-line current. This is steady-state operation.
The loop is self correcting against disturbances of any source. For
instance, a drop of back e.m.f. in the DC system causes a temporary
current increase, which reduces Vc and hence slows down the oscillator,
thus retarding its phase and finally increasing the firing angle a. This
tends to decrease the current again, and the system settles down to the
same current, with the same Vc and oscillator frequency but a different
phase, i.e. different a.
The control system will also follow system frequency variations, in which
case the oscillator has to change its frequency; this results in different Vc
and hence current, but the current error is made small by using high-gain
amplification.
This constant-current scheme is the main control mode during rectifica-
tion; it is also used during inversion whenever the inverter has to take over
current control, as explained in Section 5.5.
The control system response is fast but, in practice, its effect will be
slowed down by the relative slower response of the DC line which includes
capacitance, inductance and smoothing reactance.
M. .
—OH • (a) Firing pulse, valve 3
state operation and full inversion, Vc2 controls the oscillator holding the
smallest y at a predetermined value by closed-loop control.
Under these conditions Vc\ is zero because the inverter constant current
(CC) setting is less than the DC-line current (determined by the rectifier
CC control); hence the inverter CC loop is trying to decrease oe by making
Vc\ as low as possible. The minimum Vc\ is clamped to zero volts and thus
during normal inverter operation the CC loop is ineffective.
Component B is an additional feedback voltage (V^) applied during the
transient conditions when y < ymin. A sudden impulse is then applied to
the voltage-controlled oscillator, which has an integrating characteristic
and thus can suddenly shift the phase (i.e. angle a) by an appropriate
amount.
1Aa
Let us assume that the value of Vc in Figure 5.3 has been selected so that
the impulse interval is precisely 60° of the actual system frequency, and
that the position of the impulse corresponds with a particular delay angle,
a. If Vc remains unchanged, the sequence of firing instants is determined
by the dotted vertical lines. With a temporary increase in Vc the impulse
spacing increases and the firing sequence is determined by the full vertical
lines. For each impulse occurring while Vc is higher, the delay angle is
increased by the amount Aa. Following the return to the original Vc the
total increase (3Aa in the illustration) is retained.
Some schemes involve an element of prediction of the extinction angle,
similar to the conventional individual phase-control scheme; the prediction
is made using the latest values of AC voltage and DC current in the
commutation equation, as described in Section 5.2.
One of these versions, entitled 'equidistant firing predictive-type control'?
claims that the prediction is effective for the incoming firing, and uses a
feedback loop to update the predictive model for the subsequent firings.
In both the basic phase-locked oscillator and the equidistant-firing
predictive schemes, a change in the control voltage directly changes the
frequency of the oscillator, and the synchronisation of the oscillator takes
place with the help of the main current-control loop or the extinction-
angle control loop.
108 High voltage direct current transmission
Pulse generator
r
Voltage Shift
Voltage comparator register
controlled
current
source
Capacitor
discharge
circuit
ex-Control ler| * Q
(a)
Ar/i /i i
V V V\
A^ci.i ,
vl2
1 /f A ..A
[AW2
tan 6
\A I
vP (ot
n i n i n nn n n n_
* 60°
u
5.6 Pulse-phase grid-control system (PPC) (© 1970 IEEE)
a Block diagram
b Determination of the phase of the firing pulses
110 High voltage direct current transmission
Disturbing
magnitudes
Y*
+
y-Measuring v.« Y* V
controller
circuit +
/
' YN Y^,
Grid
ld act control
Controller
B - DC SYSTEM CONTROL
5.4 Basic philosophy
From an operational point of view, the use of constant-current control
provides a greater safeguard against disturbances. Therefore, if there is a
choice and the economics are right, constant current should be used as the
basic control philosophy. This, however, is not possible with conventional
AC-power systems which, being normally multiended, require reasonably
constant voltages at the point of common coupling.
The use of current conversion as the basis for rectification and inversion
has already been justified in Section 2.2. Moreover, present DC schemes
consist of point-to-point system interconnections and constancy of DC-
voltage levels is not a primary consideration because these are not directly
available to consumers. There are, however, other considerations influen-
cing the control philosophy, among them featuring prominently the over-
voltages resulting from open circuiting and load rejections and the high
resistive losses resulting from constant-current transmission at low power
levels.
A hybrid voltage/current philosophy is possible with a DC transmission
scheme to suit the needs of the particular operating conditions. This is
achieved by adjusting the DC-voltage levels on both sides of the link, by
means of on-load tap-changer control on the steady state, and by thyristor
control following large or small changes of operating conditions at either
112 High voltage direct current transmission
end of the link. The DC current is only limited by the small resistance of
the transmission line and is therefore very sensitive to such variations.
It will be shown in the following sections that the provision of current
controllers at both ends, combined with transformer on-load tap changing,
offers a perfectly satisfactory solution to this problem; thus the use of
current control is universally accepted in HVDC transmission.
Vd=Vc()--±Irl (5.2)
C.C. control
/3V2\ /3to/.\
(a = n -
Rectifier
i
C.C. control
Inverter
/3V2\ / 3a)L
Wccos p+
V JI / V n
C.E.A. control
(3V2)
JI
/3V2\ /3coL\
(3V2) <= VCCOSYO- )
Vc cos YO
Ids
(a) (b)
d\ - - , r
A ^ ^
>^
d'
A^~-~~\
•-^
"?^
w
8 8
2
0
fid
line. This point is also reached from the inverter-end open-circuit voltage,
(Ko)i> reduced by the extinction angle, (V^i cos y, and by the commuta-
tion reactance. It should be obvious that point A represents the same oper-
ating condition as indicated by the crossing point in the characteristics of
Figure 5.9a.
Let us now assume that there has been a substantial AC-voltage reduc-
tion at the rectifier end, such that the DC-voltage ceiling (the natural
voltage) of the rectifier becomes lower than that of the inverter. In the
absence of a current controller at the inverter, the voltage across the line is
reversed and the current reduces to zero (current through the valves
cannot reverse). However, an inverter-current controller will prevent a
current reduction below its setting by advancing its firing (i.e. reducing a
and hence inverter DC voltage), thus changing from extinction angle to
constant-current control. A new operating point, A (Figure 5.96), results at
a current reduced by the current margin. In Figure 5.10 this condition is
represented by the dotted lines and clearly shows that power flow will
continue in the same direction, in spite of the lower AC voltage at the
sending end.
—* Idm - —
Ids
A
—
(a) (b)
Figure 5.11 a Operating point with power flowing from Station I to Station II
b Operating point after power reversal
a = 0°
B'
B
'dm
F
D'
K'H K
G H lds
Figure 5.12 Rectifier and inverter modified characteristics
Ymin
const. Ud
1.0 p.u.
AP*
••CE
&f* 6
Figure 5.14 Example of power-flow control with additional emergency control for
frequency
TC telecommunication equipment
EPC emergency-power controller
P*o manually-set power order
Z!*P additional power order by higher-level controller
AP*£ step in emergency power
P*E emergency-power order
OS order-setting unit
Af thresholds for frequency deviations
A/ AC-network frequency deviation
I*i calculated current order
CE control error
Inv inverter
Rec rectifier
(Asterisks denote reference values)
(© 1978CIGRE)
stepping, and synchronisation of order setting at the two ends of the link,
by telecommunications.
In most cases there is only one master controller (at one of the stations)
which sends a current order to the pole controls of the two ends of the
link. The power is monitored by multiplying voltage and current (summed
from both poles) and fed back directly to the controller. As in previous
control methods, to prevent unacceptable current orders (e.g. during start
up) limits are normally built in.
' Pa
+ Af
^
controls
p ** U
df/dt m h
Telecom. \ Telecom.
-1 —»
(a) Bridge controls - to control the firing instants of the valves within a
bridge and to define the y0 and a min limits.
(b) Pole controls - to co-ordinate the bridges in a pole to provide the
ordered current, with minimum harmonic generation.
(c) Master controls - to provide co-ordinated current orders to all the
poles.
(d) Overall controls - to provide the current orders to the master controls
in response to required functions such as power-transfer control,
system-frequency control, system damping or combinations of these.
Henday
Radisson
Figure 5.17 A simplified schematic of controls on the Nelson River HVDC system
124 High voltage direct current transmission
vated only when a major outage occurs on the bipole, such as a valve
group or pole block.
(d) The HVDC power reduction for the tie-line trips controller is
designed to ensure system stability upon loss of interconnection lines.
DC power is reduced by an amount equal to tie-line loading prior to
tripping.
(e) The undervoltage DC-reduction controller is designed to reduce DC
power whenever Dorsey voltage starts to collapse. A fixed amount of
DC reduction releases MVARs both from the HVDC link and the AC
system to restore the voltage. This control does not react to faults.
if) The allocator accepts DC reductions from the tie-line reduction and
undervoltage-reduction controllers. Total DC reduction is then
summed and allocated to each bipole according to a preset power
order.
ig) The sending-end frequency control (SEFC) minimises oscillations in
the collector system.
ih) The receiving-end frequency control (REFC) minimises oscillations in
the receiving system.
ii) The receiving-end damping control (REDC) operates to prevent
changes in the angle of the Dorsey 230 kV bus voltage.
110kV 34.7km
system
1x350kV 1430A
bipole +270kV/-350kV
nominal rating 992MW, 1600A
continuous overload rating 1240MW 2000A
^ t 99_su|?manne_cables_
2x350kV 1430A
Haywards Benmore
of the submarine cables. The power transfer onto the overloaded pole
is automatically reduced to the maximum continuous acceptable cable
current after the inherent overload capability has been utilised. This
assists the dispatch of spinning reserve plant on the AC grid and mini-
mises AC-grid frequency excursions and load shedding following a
sudden forced-pole outage;
• a fully automated reactive-power/AC-bus voltage controller at each
station, to control all the equipment which affects reactive power
supply. The control includes switching of AC filters and shunt reac-
tors, generator and synchronous condenser outputs, DC-voltage level,
and interconnecting transformer tap changers. This ensures the
optimum co-ordination of equipment for any DC-power level and
system configuration;
• sustained reduced voltage level operating provision, of 250 kV for the
350 kV pole, to cater for conditions such as serious insulation pollution
problems on the DC line. This is achieved by a combination of the tap-
changer range on the converter transformers and some delay-angle
control. During reduced voltage operation the DC current is limited to
1200 A.
a comparator and a few simple gates. This logic is inserted between the
source of master current order and the telecommunication system, and
also supplies the output to the local pole controls. Its effect is to ensure
that the sequence of current-order updating is never such as to decrease
the effective current margin, even in the presence of errors in the telecom-
munication systems, and to freeze both current orders for a detected error
in either telecommunication channel.
Telecommunication technologies used in earlier HVDC schemes
included microwave radio, carrier on the power conductors of private
wire, rented wire and the use of the public telephone system.
All of these are liable to interference and even occasional failures.
Carrier systems, using an HVDC line or cable, are affected by a continuous
source of interference (i.e. the converters) which is difficult to filter
because of the high impedance of the smoothing reactors; the use of the
lowest possible bandwidth is thus recommended to reduce the effective
noise.
To avoid noise the analogue signals are converted to digital form and
transmitted with an error-checking signal.
Digital signals are normally sent in regular blocks of binary bits, at a
block rate which depends on the telecommunication medium and on the
desired rate of response. The main information includes the current order
and some logical signals such as the power-flow direction and fast shut-
down orders.
A number of relatively slow signals, such as the interchange of manually-
set power orders or supervisory signals, can be sent by submultiplexing.
Recent schemes make extensive use of fibre-optic cables, which are
immune from interference. The New Zealand scheme, for instance,
contains a high-capacity fully-redundant communication link plus a physi-
cally-independent back-up link. It is used for control, protection, data,
status functions and speech facilities, between Haywards and Benmore.11
The high-capacity redundant link utilises fibre-optic ground and submar-
ine wire as far as Islington near Christchurch, and finally a microwave link
to Benmore.
The fibre-optic ground wires, containing 12 fibres, were installed in
place of the original ground wires, and two 40 km 12 fibre submarine
cables were installed across Cook Strait at the same time as the 350 kV
submarine power cables were installed. This section of the main link
has a signal capacity of 565 megabits/s and the microwave section 8 mega-
bits/s.
The main communications link transmits all the signals which are criti-
cal to the successful operation of the DC hybrid link. When operating on
the back-up link, which has a limited capacity of 256 kbits/s, the HVDC
control is limited to the constant-current mode which is reliant on some
operator manual intervention and does not include the use of any of the
modulation features.
128 High voltage direct current transmission
5.8 References
1 TARNAWECKY, M.Z.: 'H.v.dx. transmission control schemes', Manitoba
power conference EHV-DC, Winnipeg, 1971, pp.699-741
2 HINGORANI, N.G., and CHADWICK, P.: 'A new constant extinction angle
control for a.c./d.c./a.c. static converters', Trans. IEEE, 1968, PAS-87, (3)
pp.866-72
3 AINSWORTH, J.D.: 'The phase-locked oscillator - a new control system for
controlled static convenors', Trans. IEEE, PAS-87, (3), 1968, pp.859-65
4 UHLMANN, E.: 'Power transmission by direct current' (Springer-Verlag,
Berlin/Heidelberg, 1975) p. 147
5 EKSTROM, A., and LISS, G.: 'A refined h.v.dx. control system', Trans. IEEE,
1970, PAS-89, (5/6)
6 RUMPF, E., and RANADE, S.: 'Comparison of suitable control systems for
h.v.d.c. stations connected to weak a.c. systems. Part I: New control systems.
Part II: Operational behaviour of the h.v.d.c. transmission', Trans. IEEE, 1972,
PAS-91, pp.549-64
7 JOTTEN, R., BOWLES, J.P., LISS, G., MARTIN, C.J.B., and RUMPF, E.:
'Control of h.v.d.c systems - The state of the art'. CIGRE, Paris, 1978, paper
14-10
8 CIGRE WG 14-07: 'Guide for planning DC links terminating at AC system
locations having low short-circuit capacities'. Part 1: AC-DC interaction
phenomena, 1992
9 BOWLES, J.B.: 'Control systems for h.v.d.c. transmission'. Report to CEA-
HVDC Subsection, Edmonton, 1975
10 CHAND, J., RASHWAN, M.M., and TISHINSKI, W.K.: 'Nelson River HVDC
system-operating experience'. IEE Conf., Publ. 205 on 'Thyristor and variable
static equipment for A.C. and D.C. transmission' (London, 1981), pp.223-26
11 O'BRIEN, M.T., FLETCHER, D.E., and GLEADOW, J.C.: 'Principal features
of the New Zealand DC hybrid link'. International colloquium on HVDC and
FACTS, Wellington, 1993, paper 1.3-1
12 AINSWORTH, J.D.: 'Telecommunication for h.v.d.c.'. IEE Conf. Publ. 205 on
'Thyristor and variable static equipment for A.C. and D.C. transmission'
(London, 1981) pp. 190-93
Chapter 6
Interaction between AC and DC systems
6.1 Introduction
A DC link can be operated according to the basic control modes described
in Chapter 5, and thus remain passive to any special needs of the intercon-
nected AC systems. Alternatively, the link can be provided with more
adaptive dynamic controls which respond to critical deviations from the
expected operating conditions in the AC or DC systems.
The exclusive use of the basic controls often gives rise to unwanted
interaction between the AC and DC systems, which is manifested in a
variety of voltage, harmonic and power instabilities. When full advantage
is taken of the fast and adaptable converter controllability, a more useful
interaction can be achieved which manifests itself in stable AC and DC
system operation.
AC-DC system interactions are concerned with voltage stability, overvol-
tages, resonances and recovery from disturbances:
• voltage-stability criteria are used to determine the type of voltage
control and of reactive-power supply;
• the level of temporary overvoltage (TOV) influences station design,
including thyristor valve and surge arrester ratings; the lower the value
of SCR the higher the potential value of TOV;
• shunt capacitors are used in converter stations as part of the AC filters
and VAR compensation; the larger the ratio of shunt capacitor MVAR
to AC-system short-circuit MVA, the lower will be the resonant
frequency;
• recoveries from AC and DC faults are slower with weak systems (i.e.
high impedance sources), although modern controls are less affected
by the system impedance than those used in earlier schemes.
Thus, the degree of interaction depends on the relative strength of the
AC-DC system, a concept that must first be clarified.
130 High voltage direct current transmission
-o
ZS i
Id
-o
(a)
l=lp-jlt
impedance Zsti for the purpose of defining the strength of the AC system
as shown in Figure 6.1&.
Zst is the equivalent of Zs (source), Xsc (synchronous compensators), Xc
(filters and static compensation) and Z/ (local load) in parallel. Th^ equiva-
lent Thevenin source voltage, Est, results from the vectorial addition of
Vc/yj3 (line to neutral) and LZst, as shown in Figure 6.2.
As the DC link is integrated into the AC-power system, it is convenient
to express the converter equations in the same per-unit system as for the
AC network.
A convenient factor in the per-unit notation is the converter rating, r,
defined as the ratio of converter MVA to DC power (P^), i.e.
(6.1)
and substituting eqn. 2.14
r=(3y/2/n)Vc/Vd (6.2)
It is standard practice to refer the parameters of a power-plant component
to its rated power and voltage. In the case of the converter bridge we will
use as reference base parameters the converter transformer MVA and
132 High voltage direct current transmission
(a)
ends. The maximum voltage regulation will occur if the disturbance takes
place when the phase angle of the converter (c|)) is equal to the phase angle
of the equivalent AC-system impedance (4>.^), and is calculated as follows2
Est=V+LZst (6.7)
Dividing throughout by the base voltage
Est/Vc=V/Vc+ZJ/Vc (6.8)
and substituting eqns. 6.3 and 6.6
esi/y/S = (vA/3) + (// Fc)(r/ESCR)( V2C/M VAC) (6.9)
or
est=v+r/ESCR (6.10)
With an ESCR of 2.5 and under rated conditions
est=l+0Ar (6.11)
In order to calculate r, let us refer to the DC-voltage equation (eqn. 2.12),
i.e.
Vd = Vc0 cos a - (2Xc/n)Id (6.12)
which can be more conveniently written as
= cos a - (6.13)
- = cos a xc (6.17)
r 6
Thus, for a system having a commutation reactance of 0.2 p.u. (to the base
of transformer MVA), and a rated firing angle a (or y) of 15°, the value of
r in eqn. 6.17 is approximately 1.15, which substituted into eqn. 6.11
results in a temporary overvoltage equal to 1.46.
Under these particular severe conditions a regulation of 46 % can there-
fore be expected.
Interaction between AC and DC systems 135
In order that (|> = fyst (at a rectifier) under rated conditions, either the
phase angle of the system impedance needs to be of the order of 30°, an
unusually low value, or the rectifier should operate at an unusually high
firing angle. Typical impedance angles of the order of 70-85° are found
in practice; the more resistive the AC system appears at the rectifier end,
the higher regulation overvoltages may be anticipated.
At the inverter, however, it can be seen (Figure 6.2 b) that under normal
operating conditions <fyst is considerably less than cj). Therefore, the more
reactive the AC system appears, the higher the regulation overvoltage.
With an impedance of 0.4 p.u., a maximum value of est - 1.29 p.u. can be
anticipated, thus causing a 29 % regulation, following full-load rejection;
however, the expected impedance angle in practice is of the order of 70°.
The regulation (dynamic) overvoltages are therefore more significant at
the rectifier end. At both terminals the effective impedance angle is as
important in determining the overvoltages as is the magnitude of the
impedance. For links from hydro sources, the increase of frequency
following load rejection will produce even higher dynamic overvoltages.
This is an unacceptable situation for local consumers and must be allowed
for in the insulation co-ordination of the converter station.
In practice, transformers start to saturate at typically 1.2 to 1.25 p.u. AC
voltage and the fundamental-frequency overvoltage will therefore be a
little lower, with some distortion.
Single line-to-ground faults are also a source of dynamic overvoltage on
the other phases or pole. As a result of an AC phase-to-earth fault, the
mutual coupling between phases causes a voltage increase in the other
phases; for a network effectively earthed the overvoltage is limited to a
peak value of ^/2(0.8) of the line-to-line r.m.s.
On the other hand, following a voltage drop in the AC network, the
initial effect is a fall in power. The power controller of the DC link then
increases the current reference to try and restore the ordered power; the
extra current increases the reactive demand and tends to reduce the AC-
system voltage further. With very weak AC systems this could lead to
voltage collapse; however, power controllers always have built-in limits to
avoid excessive action.
By far the most important case is that of a nearby three-phase short
circuit, assuming that the converters are blocked permanently during the
fault, with all the capacitors left on. This condition produces full magnetis-
ing inrush current on all transformers after fault removal, which results in
substantial fundamental and harmonic overvoltages. Such overvoltages
constitute in practice the determining condition for most valve, surge
arrester and insulation voltage ratings.
Dynamic-compensation equipment is used to reduce the dynamic-
voltage regulation, to help in the recovery of the AC system from faults
and to reduce the disturbances resulting from DC-load variation or from
the switching of filter banks.
136 High voltage direct current transmission
If the angle between the machines increases steadily, the system is transi-
ently unstable. If the machines fall out of step after a period of increasing
oscillations around the equilibrium point, the system is dynamically
unstable. Dynamic instability is rare in tightly connected systems, which
are usually well damped for their characteristic frequencies of electrome-
chanical swing (between 1 and 2 Hz).
However, when large systems are connected by long relatively-weak
interties, low-frequency swing modes result. T h e response of the power-
system controls to the synchronising swings associated with these low-
frequency modes can produce sufficient negative damping to cancel the
natural positive damping of the system. When this happens, oscillations of
increasing amplitude occur.
An example of dynamic instability4 is the northern and southern parts
of the Western US power system, which are connected by the parallel
Pacific AC and DC Interties with ratings of 2500 and 1400 MW, respec-
tively. The AC Intertie has a long history of negatively-damped 1/3 Hz
oscillations resulting from interactions between generators with automatic
voltage regulators and system loads. As a result of these oscillations, and
because the oscillatory tendency imposed a constraint on the amount of
surplus north west hydro power which could be transmitted to the south
west, a control system to modulate the Pacific DC Intertie was developed.
Damping in the Pacific Intertie is produced by small-signal modulation
of the DC power in proportion to the frequency difference across the AC
Intertie. This was accomplished by processing the AC lntertie power
measured at the northern end, to obtain a filtered signal proportional to
the derivative of AC: power at frequencies near 1/3 Hz. This signal is
applied, through a & 3 016 (+ 40 MW) limiter, to the current regulator at
the northern terminal of the DC Intertie; thus the current setting changes
are well within the current margin.
Figure 6.3 shows the results of field tests with and without modulation,
wherein series-capacitor compensation was First switched in and then
bypassed. It is also possible to use AC current, rather than power, as the
modulation (error) signal. Current is more linear with respect to large
swing angles, hence will be more effective when AC-system oscillations
approach stability limits.
Successful operation of DC modulation was a key factor permitting
uprating of the AC Pacific Intertie from 2100 MW to 2500 MW.
Detecting the effect of the modulating frequency he. the l/S Hz harmo-
nic power in the case of the Pacific Intertie) is less effective than detecting
absolute phase change directly (a method used in the Nelson River
scheme); power measurement provides a signal which levels off near 90" of
the phase difference between the e.m.f.s 6.e. right where most response is
urgently needed to try and prevent pole slipping). In fact, in most
machine-swing problems, the net peak survival angle is about 130" and yet
above 90" the power-measurement method actually gives a reduced output.
138 High voltage direct current transmission
With modulation
1 25 MW
3 seconds
D.C. power
A.C. power
T50MW
Without modulation
T5OMW
iA/v
A.C. power
7- 0.05
Communication system
16.7 ms delay
1 p.uy p.u. I
Inverter —
/50 _j0.15
(arrowhead To current
ms
terminal) Im Rate Limiter
current margin limiter
(0.1 p.u.)
bance affecting the other system, and thus the system in difficulty loses an
essential infeed.
An HVDC link, on the other hand, even with the basic controls, shields
one system from disturbances on the other. Although the specified power
flow can continue, the option is available to vary the power setting to help
the system in difficulty to the extent which the healthy system can allow,
without putting itself in difficulty, and subject to the rating on the link.
Although the policy of providing controls which enable the HVDC link
to assist actively in the damping of disturbances should be encouraged, it
must be considered that the DC link contains negligible energy storage
and therefore any action to damp a disturbance at one end must naturally
produce some disturbance at the other. In some cases such assistance is
readily acceptable, for example when the local system has no directly-
connected consumers and it can be designed for greater than normal
frequency variations. In effect, this allows the inertia of the system to be
used to provide the energy for damping the distant system. Another
example is where one system is very small as compared with the other,
such as the case of an off-shore system where the total load is insignificant
compared with the size of the mainland network.
With appropriate control, a disturbance originating in either system can
be shared in a predetermined manner, and the resulting system oscillations
can be damped simultaneously. Unlike transient stability, where the DC
link must have the necessary overload capability to get through the first
140 High voltage direct current transmission
AP,, \Elt
AC side DC side
2
+ xcos(</>m- na)+-\\ (6.18)
4 JJ
where
(6.19)
(b) ¥orn=6p+2
ib)
Figure 6.8 Model test on six-pulse converter with realistic AC system (short-circuit
ratio = 3) and conventional harmonic filter: constant-en control
system, a = 32°; control-system-filter Qfactor = 2.5
a AC-line voltages
b DC-bridge voltage
It is, however, clear from the equations above that if Zn (in per unit) can
be guaranteed to be less than
0.5 for n = 2, 4, 6, 7 etc.
1.0 for n= 3, 9, 15 etc.
there is no danger of instability, although magnifications may still occur.
This can, in principle, be achieved by the addition of extra shunt filters to
the main circuit, but this is usually very expensive.
If a shunt filter is used for the normal harmonics, i.e. orders 5, 7, 11, 13
etc., partial resonance may occur between the AC system and the filter at
the abnormal harmonics; the requirement then virtually implies that the
conductance component of the AC-system harmonic admittance must be
greater than 2 p.u. or, expressed in another way, the AC harmonic impe-
dance on a polar diagram must be within a circle of radius 0.25 p.u.
centred on (0.25, 0).
Except for the case of a relatively small converter connected to a large
AC system, this is found to be a somewhat stringent requirement, and in
certain typical cases the calculated maximum circle radius has been about
1-2 p.u., implying stable operation only up to 0.125-0.25 of rated current,
with the worst combination of a and system-impedance angle.
The main practical effects of large harmonic magnification or instability
are:
(a) Excessive harmonic voltages and currents in the AC and DC systems.
Instability owing to even one system resonance, in general, produces
distortion containing all harmonic orders, i.e. 2, 3, 4 etc. Usually, any
local overvoltage resulting from this is small but interference else-
where may be unacceptable.
148 High voltage direct current transmission
current, pu
1.1000-
0.8800 -
0.6600 -
0.4400 -
0.2200
0.0000
0.0000 0.2000 0.4000 0.6000 0.8000 1.0000 1.2000 1.4000 1.6000 1.8000 2.0000
time, s
Example 1
current, pu
1.3980-
1.1184-
0.8388-
0.5592-
0.2796-
0.0000 •-
0.0000 0.2000 0.4000 0.6000 0.8000 1.0000 1.2000 1.4000 1.6000 1.8000 2.0000
time, s
Example 2
current, pu
1.3570-j
1.0856-
0.8142-
0.5428 -
0.2714-
0.0000 •
0.0000 0.2000 0.4000 0.6000 0.8000 1.0000 1.2000 1.4000 1.6000 1.8000 2.0000
time, s
Example 3
AC side DC side
positive sequence
fundamental
second harmonic
frequency voltage
f AC side ^ voltage distortion
converter distortion
second harmonic \ switching
\^ impedance J action
DC side
positive sequence ideal transformer fundamental
second harmonic - frequency
current distortion \ impedance
converter
switching
transformer
multitude of majority of negative action fundamental
core
distortions at saturation sequence DC current frequency current
many frequencies distortion distortion
Figure 6.11 EMTDC simulation results of the modified CIGRE HVDC bench-
mark model
2.0 2.5
time, s
Figure 6.12 EMTDC simulation results with the addition of an auxiliary high-
pass filter to the converter controller
for the instability to occur at either end. Moreover, the high resistance at
the unstable end will be reflected onto the DC side as additional damping
which tends to stabilise the opposite-end system. Therefore, for the back-
to-back scheme, it is necessary to consider the consequential impact on the
stability of the remote-end system when undertaking any modification at
the local end.
Besides the system impedances, the stability of the AC-DC system is
strongly dependent on the response of the converter controller. Consider-
ing the stringent reactive requirements for the instability to develop, the
onset of this harmonic instability almost certainly involves a destabilising
contribution from the converter controller. This suggests the possibility of
preventing the onset of the instability through proper tuning of the
converter controller.
Since the detection and control action are relatively fast, the most signifi-
cant factors affecting the energy loss are the arc deionisation time, the
number of restart attempts that may be required to clear a particular fault
and the recovery rate.
Typically, all actions including detection, forced retard and controlled
restart to 90 % power, but excluding the deionisation time, require less
than 50 ms. Depending on many factors including flashover mechanism
and air conditions, the deionisation time required may be of the order of
100 to 500 ms to ensure a successful restart.
6.8 References
1 CIGRE WG 14.07, 'Guide for planning DC lines terminating at AC system
locations having low short-circuit capacities, Part I: AC-DC interaction
phenomena', 1992
2 BOWLES, J.B.: 'Alternative techniques and optimisation of voltage and reac-
tive power control at h.v.d.c. converter stations'. IEEE conference on Overvol-
tages and compensation on integrated A. C.-D.C. Systems, Winnipeg, 1980
3 LE DU, A.: 'Use of static or synchronous compensators in h.v.d.c. systems'.
CIGRE Study Committee 14, Rio de Janeiro, 1981
4 GRUND, C.E., POHL, R.V., CRESAP, R.L., and BAHRMAN, M.P.: 'Increas-
ing power transfer capabilities of a.c./d.c. transmission systems by coordinated
dynamic control'. Symposium sponsored by the Division of Electric Energy
Systems, U.S. Dept of Energy, Phoenix, Arizona, 1980, pp.37l-87
5 UHLMANN, E.: Tower transmission by direct current' (Springer-Verlag,
Berlin/Heidelberg, 1975), p. 169
6 HINGORANI, N.G., NILSSON, S., BAHRMAN, M., REEVE, J., LARSEN,
E.V., and PIWKO, R.J.: 'Subsynchronous frequency stability studies of energy
systems which include h.v.d.c. transmission'. Symposium sponsored by the
Division of Electric Energy Systems, U.S. Dept of Energy, Phoenix, Arizona,
1980, pp.389-98
7 IEEE SSR Working Group: 'Countermeasures to subsynchronous resonance
problems'. IEEE PES Summer Meeting, Paper F79 754-4, Vancouver, 1979
8 GRUND, C.E., POHL, R.V., and REEVE, J.: 'Increased performance of
h.v.d.c. power modulation by active and reactive power coordination and
modern control design'. IEE Conf. Publ. 205 on 'Thyristor and variable static
equipment for A.C. and D.C. transmission' (London, 1981), pp. 176-81
9 TURNER, K.S.: 'Transient stability analysis of integrated a.c. and d.c. power
systems'. PhD thesis, University of Canterbury, New Zealand, 1980
10 CHEN, S.: 'Analysis of HVDC converter transformer core saturation instabil-
ity, and design of a data acquisition system for its assessment'. PhD thesis,
University of Canterbury, New Zealand, 1996
11 AINSWORTH, J.D.: 'Harmonic instability between controlled static converters
and a.c. networks'. Proc. IEE, 1967, 114 (7), pp.949-57
12 AINSWORTH, J.D.: 'The phase locked oscillator - a new control system for
controlled static converters'. IEEE Trans., 1968, PAS-87 (3), pp.859-65
13 WOOD, A.R. and ARRILLAGA, J.: 'Composite resonance, a circuit approach
to the waveform distortion dynamics of an HVDC converter'. IEEE Trans.,
1995, PD-10 (4), pp.1882-888
14 SZECHTMAN, M., WESS, T., and THIO, C.V.: 'First benchmark model for
HVDC control studies'. Electra, 1991, (135), pp.55-75
15 AINSWORTH, J.D.: 'Core saturation instability in the Kingsnorth HV-d.c.
link'. Paper presented to CIGRE study committee No. 14, Winnipeg, Canada,
1977
158 High voltage direct current transmission
16 CHAND, J., and TANG, D.: 'Experience with Resonances and Oscillations in
the Nelson River HVDC System'. HVDC system operating conference, Winnipeg,
Canada, 1987
17 STEMMLER, H.: 'HVDC Back-to-back Interties on Weak a.c. Systems, Second
Harmonic Problems, Analyses and Solutions'. CIGRE symposium 09-87,
Boston, 1987, paper no. 300-08, 1-5
18 HAMMAD, A.E.: 'Analysis of second harmonic instability for the Chateauguay
HVdc/SVC scheme', IEEE Trans. Power Deliv., 1992, 7 (1), pp.410-415
19 CHEN, S., WOOD, A.R., and ARRILLAGA, J.: 'HVDC Converter Transfor-
mer Core Saturation Instability: A Frequency Domain Analysis'. IEE Proc,
Gener. Transm. Distrib., 1996 143 (1), pp.75-81
20 YACAMINI, R., and de Oliveira, J.C.: 'Instability
'Instat in HVDC Schemes at Low
Integer Harmonics'. IEE Proc. C, 1980, 127 (3), pp.179-188
21 BURTON, R.S.: 'Report on Harmonic Effects on HVDC Control and Perfor-
mance'. CEA 337 T 750, prepared by Manitoba HVDC Research Centre, 1994
Chapter 7
Main design considerations
7.1 Introduction
A typical design sequence for an HVDC transmission scheme should
include the following steps:
(a) Identify the main operational objectives to be met, i.e. energy consid-
erations, MW loading requirements and maintenance.
(b) Identify any technical constraints which may have to be accepted, e.g.
the maximum voltage and current ratings of submarine cables, limita-
tions of earth return etc.
(c) Adopt voltage and current ratings.
(d) Decide the overall control requirements, e.g. constant-power control,
short-term overload, damping characteristics, constant extinction-angle
control, constant ideal (noload) direct voltage, etc.
(e) Develop converter-station arrangements.
if) Design the transmission line.
(g) Assess the capital equipment cost, the operating costs and the cost of
losses.
Steps (a) to (/) must be critically reviewed to assess the effect of any
permissible parameter variation on (g).
Although the basic principles of rectification and inversion apply
equally to the mercury-arc and thyristor technologies, the design layout of
the converter plant is greatly influenced by the switching-device technol-
ogy.
As there are still several schemes using mercury valves, this Chapter
starts with a brief exposition of their components and layout. Most of the
Chapter, however, is devoted to thyristor-converter technology.
160 High voltage direct current transmission
saturating
reactor
firing databack
optical fibres
.*-
single-phase -
three-winding 2415 A. 205 kV DC
transtorrners I
Y
4W kV AC
switchyard
connecting a gapless metal-oxide surge arrester across the valve. This surge
arrester constitutes the primary protection of the valve against overvoltages
of external origin. The arrester has to withstand continuous operation
while subjected to the valve OFF state voltage, including the periodic
switching transients occurring every cycle. The arrester provides a protec-
tive level typically around 70 % higher than the peak of the normal operat-
ing voltage of the valve.
T h e number of series-connected thyristors required to meet the operat-
ing conditions for a particular scheme is determined by the protective level
of the arrester and a test withstand margin (typically 15 %). Extra redun-
dant levels are included to allow the equipment to remain in service after
a small number of thyristor failures.
7.3.2Mechanical considerations
T h e power thyristors used in the valves are constructed from monocrystal-
line silicon wafers of typically 100 mm nominal diameter. Thyristors of
this type require a very high clamping pressure to maintain adequate
thermal and electrical contact between the silicon and the electrical connec-
tions and heatsinks; a 100 mm thyristor requires a clamping force of 80
kN (eight tonnes). T o provide this clamping force in a compact and low-
cost manner without losing the capability to replace a thyristor in the event
of its failure, the elastic properties of a very advanced composite material
are used. T h e banded-pair assembly, shown in Figure 7.4, consists of thick
bands of filament-wound void-free glass-reinforced polymer, which apply
the necessary clamping force to a series-connected pair of thyristors and
the associated heatsinks. Removal of a thyristor is accomplished by using a
hydraulic tool to separate the two heatsinks which are in contact with the
166 High voltage direct current transmission
I
nt.: UC.
onc
valve
A i: AC
tier
assemb Iy
c
I) DC
AT:
AT,
DC
7.3.3 Valve-coolingsystem
T h e thyristors produce considerable heat loss, typically 30 to 40 W/cm2 (or
over 1 MW for a typical quadruple valve), and an efficient cooling system
is thus essential. Each thyristor unit is normally provided with a double
heat sink and the heat is taken away from the sinks by circulating water.
High-purity water combines superb cooling with high dielectric strength.
168 High voltage direct current transmission
The purity of the water must be very high to remove all ionic components,
which would otherwise cause the coolant to bypass the electrical insulation
of the valve. Thus, the conductivity of the pure-water coolant is monitored
continuously and is controlled to less than 0.5 jiS/cm by the use of ion-
exchange resins. The heat generated by the thyristor valves is rejected to
air by evaporating coolers.
The liquid coolant is distributed to every thyristor level in the valve
through electrically-insulating polyethylene hoses. Water-cooling systems,
however, require careful design to prevent leakage (which would have
disastrous consequences) and corrosion. A water-cooling system is normally
placed in the basement under the valve hall, as illustrated in Figure 7.8.
Figure 7.8 500 kV valve hall with mechanical auxiliaries (Brown Boveri Rev.)
1 = quadruple valve
2 = cooling water system
3 = base electronics
4 = ventilation of the hall with air filter
Thyristor level
(Local firing
control and
protection)
Valve
(Current
K H — * measurement
-triplicated)
3 Fibre optics
(Valve current
Control room data)
(Main valve
Ground level
firing control Valve firing at valve base
and protection (Signal interface)
-triplicated) command
(duplicated)
\ r
'Start' 'Stop'
(From central control system)
Figure 7.9 Location and basic functions of the Cross-Channel valve electronic
systems
The auxiliary power needed for the thyristor firing is obtained from the
voltage across the thyristor.
The location and basic functions of the Cross-Channel4 valves are shown
in Figure 7.9; they are divided into a number of thyristor levels or
modules acting independently. As a result, marginal differences in protec-
tive settings, or tolerances in valve components, can cause the protective
circuits at some levels to operate. This may lead to cascade turn on, with
the last level to fire experiencing a greater duty than that occurring under
normal turn-on conditions. The valve-circuit components are rated to with-
stand such duty.
In the absence of cascade turn on, the levels that have been protectively
fired will conduct the valve grading current. If the disturbance causing a
protective level to operate were now to reverse the valve voltage to a value
approaching the protective level of the valve-surge arrester, then those
Main design considerations 171
The routine tests carried out on each thyristor in the factory include:
recovery-charge check;
recovery-time check;
gate-voltage and gate-current check;
gate-controlled delay-time check;
nonrepetitive inrush-current test at overvoltage protection triggering;
nonrepetitive peak-reverse avalanche voltage test;
repetitive voltage measurements;
on-state voltage-drop measurements;
surge on-state current test;
helium leakage test.
The final assembly of the device with the heat sink is further tested for
forward-voltage drop, current balance if the design involves paralleling of
thyristors on the same heat sink, rate of change of current and gating
capability.
Test specifications also require checking of the protective devices (for
forward and reverse protection) at this stage.
Each resistor is tested for poor mechanical joints or defective connec-
tions; the test stresses the resistor thermally and mechanically simulta-
neously.
All valve commutating and storage capacitors are required to pass a
temperature cycling test of typically 25°C to 80°C.
Reactors and pulse transformers are individually tested for corona
extinction at a level at least 1.25 times the maximum repetitive voltage
stress expected.
172 High voltage direct current transmission
The last two tests above are not included in IEC 7005 but are being recom-
mended for inclusion in a future revision of the standard.6
Additional tests
Each scheme has specific nonstandard requirements and a supplementary
test programme results from detailed discussions between the purchaser
and the supplier. For instance, in the case of the New Zealand upgrade,
extra tests were carried out on a representative section of a valve to verify
the valve fire withstand capability. Snap-back tests on the quadrivalve unit
(including the associated arresters) were also performed to demonstrate its
dynamic response and verify seismic requirements.7
174 High voltage direct current transmission
Figure 7.10 Cutaway view of the valve hall showing the locations of the major
components
10
Figure 7.11 Main circuit diagram for one pole of a converter station (ASEA
Journal)
1 surge arrester
2 converter transformer
3 air-core reactor
4 thyristor valve
5 smoothing reactor
6 director-voltage measuring divider
7 DC filter
8 current measuring transducer
9 DC line
10 electrode line
the low-voltage side of the valve protects the reactor. Pole and electrode
arresters supplement the overvoltage protection.
The measuring equipment, i.e. a voltage divider, current measuring
transductors and current transformers, provide the necessary input signals
for the control and protection circuits.
The switching components (i.e. isolators and circuit breakers), are of
conventional design on the AC side of the converters. Several switches are
also used on the DC side. Conventional oil-minimum circuit breakers are
used to interrupt small currents for the switching of the neutral bus load
and for the changeover from single-pole metallic return to bipolar opera-
tion.
Also, an HVDC circuit breaker is used to achieve ground-to-metallic
return transfer; this breaker is designed to interrupt 1500 A and to absorb
an energy of 2 MJ.
The area of the modern thyristor station is only a fraction of that
needed for earlier mercury-arc converter stations.
Figure 7.12 shows a typical layout for a 1000 MW bipolar HVDC
station9 and gives a clear indication of the relative space taken up by the
various plant components. The major proportion of the space is taken by
external plant, particularly the capacitors used in the form of harmonic
filters and for voltage support.
The layout of the valve hall, which apart from the valves contains surge
arresters, phase reactors and the line reactor, is better explained with
reference to the sketch in Figure 7.13. The transformers (on the right of
the picture) and the smoothing reactor (on the left) are placed close to
the hall walls with their bushings passing through the wall. The location
of the equipment inside the hall is designed to combine a low probability
of internal flashovers with the best possible utilisation of the space avail-
able.
The floor area of the valve, service and control rooms is only a small
fraction of the total station area. The auxiliary power equipment used for
cooling and air conditioning is placed immediately under the valve hall.
The building normally contains a steel structure designed to act as a
Faraday cage to reduce electromagnetic radiation from the valve hall
which might cause radio interference.
11
Figure 7.12 Station layout for a bipolar HVDC station (ASEA Journal)
1 DC and electrode lines
2 DC switchyard
3 DC smoothing reactors
4 valve hall, pole 1
5 service building with control room
6 valve hall, pole 2
7 converter transformers
8 AC harmonic filters
9 high-pass filter
10 11th harmonic filter
11 13th harmonic filter
12 shunt capacitors
13 AC switchyard
Chapter 8
Fault development and protection
8.1 Introduction
DC converter stations form an integral part with the AC-power system, and
their basic protection philosophy is thus greatly influenced by AC-system
protection principles.
There are, however, two technical reasons which influence some depar-
ture from the conventional protection philosophy, i.e. the limitations of
DC circuit breakers and the speed of controllability of HVDC converters.
Furthermore, the series connection of converter equipment also presents
some special problems not normally encountered in AC substations.
As with AC protective systems, DC safety margins should be based on
statistical risk evaluations, distinguishing between independent distur-
bances and the possible cascading of faults. For a given disturbance, the
protective system must also be capable of disconnecting only the lowest
necessary level and for the minimum time interval.
The characteristics of internal (within the converter) and external faults
are quite different and are considered separately.
(c) Short circuits within the converter station. Although these faults are
rare, they must be taken into consideration in converter design.
/ •• S3 • •. S5
G HI
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A B C D E F G H I J KL
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AB
bances (in per cent). Another parameter of interest in this respect is the
number of commutation-failure starts (CFS). A CFS is the initiation of a
distinct and separate commutation-failure event.
Table 8.1 shows reported cases of TR and CFS in 1994 in 24 different
schemes. The high recovery level (one hundred per cent in most cases) is a
clear indication of the progress made in the reliability of recent HVDC
schemes. Another interesting piece of information extracted from the
Table is the low probability of commutation failure (in the New Zealand
scheme only one CF for every 20 x 106 successful ones!).
1994
Recordable AC faults
8.2.3 Backfire
Although backfires, or conduction in the reverse direction, can occur (and
have occurred) on thyristors, both as external flashover and as failure of
all thyristors in a valve, this fault is only discussed with reference to
mercury-arc valves and is caused by the combined effect of:
The reverse voltage is higher during rectification (refer to Figure 2.3) and
therefore the backfire probability is much higher on this mode of opera-
tion.
Having lost its unidirectional conduction property, the backfiring valve,
together with the forward-conducting valve on the same side of the bridge,
provides a path for uncontrolled phase-to-phase short circuit in the conver-
ter transformer. Self recovery is not normally possible with backfires and
total blocking is ordered upon detection of a single fault. However, block-
ing is not always possible and back-up AC breaker action is often needed
to clear the fault.
The current in the forward-conducting valve during this condition
reaches typical peak values of 10 p.u.3 The combination of a high-voltage
jump following current extinction in the forward-conducting valve, and
the large current magnitude shortly before extinction (i.e. the ionisation
level met by the recovery voltage), often produces what is called a conse-
quential backfire in this valve. This constitutes a most serious condition in
mercury-arc rectifiers, as the converter valves and transformers have to be
rated to withstand large overcurrents prior to fault clearance by the AC
circuit breaker.
Bridge 1
Convenor
transformers
3!i ¥3 ¥
6
I¥2
Figure 8.5 Bridge using a bypass pair (1-4), two series switches and a bypass
switch
210 High voltage direct current transmission
The criterion for this selection, after a repetitive failure, is that none of
the valves of the selected bypass pair should have been involved in the
fault.
Although this will be satisfied only by one bypass pair, there are various
alternatives according to the selected blocking instant. Ideally, bypass
action should be carried out immediately after the fault, using the valve
which was the last to conduct and its opposite; e.g. if at the instant of the
blocking signal, valve 4 is commutating to 6, then the bypass pair to be
used should be 3, 6.
The selection of the bypass pair and the blocking sequences is thus
simple, with the exception of double successive commutation failure; with
this fault, two of the valves involved in the fault form a bypass pair, and
each one of the remaining two valves belongs to either of the two remain-
ing bypass pairs; the simple criterion used to select the bypass pair for a
single commutation failure cannot be applied in this case. Generally,
however, not all the four valves will be faulty or directly responsible for
the occurrence of the fault, and there will be at least one bypass pair
through which blocking will be possible.
The selection of the most suitable bypass pair for blocking depends on
the cause of the fault. If the fault detectors do not provide sufficient
discrimination of the initial cause of the fault and its subsequent develop-
ment, the selection of the bypass pair and final blocking will be slower.
Resumption of normal operation simply demands the restoration of
firing pulses with suppression of the blocking pulses. Inverter deblocking
by these means is much simpler than in the case when a conventional
bypass valve is used, since momentary rectifier action by advancing the
firing angle, /?, is not required.
Time (cycles)
Figure 8.6a Inverter AC voltages following a three-phase fault using a time-invariant AC circuit model
Fault development and protection 213
214 High voltage direct current transmission
IsO
216 High voltage direct current transmission
100 mA
50 V
Ud
1000-
2000-.
1000-
Q
CO
2000-1
2.6
time, s
100
2.6
The rectifier, on the other hand, will increase its firing delay and main-
tain its own current setting.
Thus normal converter control is not adequate to reduce the fault
current to zero; however, by suitable control action, the current can be
reduced to zero very rapidly as compared with AC protection. In practice,
this is achieved by driving the two terminals temporarily into inversion
218 High voltage direct current transmission
and thus clearing the energy stored in the DC circuit faster. This action
requires a reversal of the rectifier voltage, following fault detection. The
inverter already has the correct polarity, but it must be prevented from
going into rectification by setting a limit to its firing-angle advance, ft.
which is directly related to the travelling waves initiated by the fault and
contains information from which fault type and location can be deter-
mined. In a bipolar DC line each pole will require this type of detection.
Although the above considerations have been made in relation to the
rectifier end, the inverter end should be equipped with a similar detection
scheme (but with different settings) to ensure fast arc extinction.
The sensitivity of the settings of the wave-front detectors has to be
assessed by means of actual line tests. For instance, in the case of the
Nelson River Bipole 2,12 and for faults at the remote end of the DC line,
the steepness values obtained from an early simulation were rather differ-
ent from those encountered in the actual tests, i.e. 0.3 kV//is on an HVDC
simulator, 0.7 kV/fis from digital computer simulation and 3.7 kV/fis for
the actual plant tests. The digital mode has since been improved and
provides more accurate simulation.
DC cable faults are generally permanent and fast detection is not
normally used; it is, however, important to provide a very reliable fault-
detection and location scheme.
Fault development and protection 219
where OCQ is the control angle which will give nominal line voltage, A9 is the
elapsed time since the beginning of restart control action (i.e. from when a
= 90°) and k is a constant controlling the rate of response.
Throughout the recharge period the inverter continues operating under
extinction angle control (i.e. yt = y0)-
250 kV
Rectifier D.C. line voltage
225 kV
Inverter D.C Line voltage
1800 A
! liillliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii ifiliiii Inverter D.C. current /<*>
Rectifier a-order
180"
120* Inverter a-order
180*
83 ms
Inverter a-order
180°
Inverter bipole power
422 MW •
T
Inverter D.C. Line voltage
222 kV
1 r
Inverter D.C. Current order
1900 A
Rectifier a-order
180°
Figure 8.11 HVDC system response to DC-line fault protection operation
(redrawn from oscillograms of both substations) (© 1980 IEEE)
Fault development and protection 221
0.0
12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0
Time (cycles)
Figure 8.12a Direct current waveform during a DC-line fault
(i) Rectifier end
(ii) Inverter end
12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0
Time (cycles)
Figure 8.12b Direct voltage waveforms during a DC-line fault
(Hi) Rectifier-line end 1
(iv) Inverter-line end
224 High voltage direct current transmission
9
id
1\
Valve capability
100
I Set value J
I reduction '
Figure 8.14 Overcurrent protection for a converter station with one 12-pulse
group per pole (© 1978 CIGRE)
8,7 References
1 CIGRE WG 14.02.: "Commutation failure in HVDC transmission systems due to
AC system faults'. Electro, December 1996, (169), pp.59-85
2 CHRISTOFERSEN, D.J., ELAHI, H., and BENNETT, M.G.: 'A survey of the
reliability of HVDC systems throughout the world during 1993-1994'. Paris
1996, CIGRE, paper 14-101
3 ARRILLAGA, J., and GIESNER, D.B.: 'Recovery of mercury-arc h.v.d.c. inter-
connectors from backfire faults'. Proc. IEE, 1972, 119 (11), pp.1611-15
4 MORALES, M.: 'Sequential arrangements for the elimination of bypass valves
in high voltage direct current converters'. PhD thesis, Manchester University,
UK, 1965
5 ARRILLAGA, J., ARNOLD, C.P., and HARKER, B J.: 'Computer modelling of
electrical power systems' (John Wiley, UK, 1983)
6 RTDS Technologies Inc.: 'Real-time digital simulator users manuals'. Rev.
February 1996
7 HEFFERNAN, M.D.: 'Analysis of a.c.-d.c. system disturbances'. PhD thesis,
University of Canterbury, New Zealand, 1980
8 KAUFHOLD, W., and POVH, D.: 'Recovery of the h.v.d.c. transmission after
Fault development and protection 227
faults in the a.c. system'. IEE Conf. Publ. 205 on 'Thyristor and variable static
equipment for A.C., and D.C. transmission', London, 1981, pp. 171-75
9 GIESNER, D.B., and ARRILLAGA, J.: 'Behaviour of h.v.d.c. links under unba-
lanced a.c. fault conditions', Proc. IEE, 1972, 119 (2), pp.209-15
10 DE SILVA, J.R., et al: 'Commissioning of the New Zealand HVDC hybrid link'.
International Colloquium on HVDC and FACTS, Wellington 1993, paper 1.6
11 HEFFERNAN, M.D., ARRILLAGA, J., TURNER, K.S., and ARNOLD, C.P.:
'Recovery from temporary h.v.d.c. line faults', Trans. IEEE, 1980, PAS-100, (4),
pp. 1864-70
12 MAZUR, G., CARRYER, R., RANADE, S.T., and WEB, T.: 'Converter control
and protection of the Nelson River h.v.d.c. Bipole 2 - Commissioning and first
year of commercial operation'. Trans. IEEE, 805M6T4-2, Minneapolis, 1980
13 KAUFERLE, J., and POVH, D.: 'Concepts of overvoltage and overcurrent
protection of h.v.d.c. converters'. CIGRE, Paris, 1978, paper 14-08
Chapter 9
Transient overvoltages and insulation
co-ordination
9.1 Introduction
There are some fundamental differences between the types of overvoltage
experienced in AC and DC transmission schemes, the main differences
resulting from:
P i
Figure 9.2 Multigroup converter with bridges in series
Figure 9.3 Deblocking with full rectifier voltage against an open inverter end
U(kV)
600- >
A
500 4 s U'i(a)
400-
300-
200- A7'A /
100-
•
0 V
.2 0 4 0.6 0.8 1 t/julS
i
-100-
-200-
Figure 9.4 Calculated maximum rate of rise of earth-fault overvoltages across the
valves with faults inside the converter station (© 1974 IEEE)
Transient overvoltages and insulation co-ordination 231
1.0 |
0.5 I
|
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
1-0 I , r 1.0
2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 75° 80° 85°
VWW'wx,
Figure 9.7 Line current and voltage recorded at the inverter during missing
puke condition in a rectifier bridge (© 1980 CIGRE)
(a) Fast front surges of external origin and of shapes similar to the light-
ning surge. The front and tail times of the lightning surge tend to fall
within reasonably closely-defined limits; for most purposes it is taken
that a voltage surge associated with lightning may be represented by a
unidirectional double-exponential wave, rising to crest from zero in
about 1 fisy and falling to half the amplitude in 50 us. This is the so-
called standard lightning impulse, or 1.2/50 us wave.
(b) Slow front surges with shapes similar to the switching surges, e.g. with
250 jus front and 2500 us tail.
2000-
1500
1000
500
Microseconds
Figure 9.8 Lightning surge IQ- 5 kA propagating into the converter station
a Main-circuit scheme
h Surge-capacitor voltage
parameter T:risetime of the lightning surge on the DC line before
the surge is influenced by the surge capacitor
surge capacitor C() = 0.1 fiF
surge capacitor connections LQ = 100 fxH
stray capacitance across the smoothing reactor C\\ = 1000 pF
DC-line wave impedance ZQ
Group 3
Group 2
Group 1
2 p.u. p*W
1.7
£ 1-5 "
50
Microseconds
Figure 9.10 Capacitive and inductive voltage transformation through the con-
verter, transformer of a lightning surge with the amplitude 2 p.u.
superimposed on the operating voltage on one phase
parameter Ct: capacitive coupling between the valve and line wind-
ings of the transformer
transformer ratio 1:1
238 High voltage direct current transmission
40 —
600
operating states and the diversity which exists in those properties between
the individual thyristors of the valve structure. These characteristics inter-
act in a complex manner with other converter components such as the
saturating inductors, transformers, damping and grading circuits, stray
capacitances and inductances of the valves, busbars, transformer windings
etc.
Computer simulation12 is used to assess the internal distribution of tran-
sient voltage stresses and other related information such as cascade turn
on, overvoltage limitation, protection and co-ordination, valve recovery at
turn off, voltage unbalance along a series-connected string of thyristors
and transient overvoltage disturbances.
If, in a valve equipped with independent overvoltage firing at each
voltage level, a component failure causes one level in the valve to rely on
this protection for triggering, abnormal voltage excursion and inrush
current in excess of the normal will be imposed on the afflicted level.
Since this operating regime can persist repetitively until the next scheduled
maintenance, it is of crucial importance to valve-component ratings.
Thyristor valve
Simplified
external circuit
When the levels in a valve fire noncoherently, the voltage across the last
level to turn on will rise at a relatively fast rate. The overvoltage protection
gates the thyristor when its switching-threshold level is exceeded. However,
because of the turn-on delay of the thyristor, a finite time passes before a
thyristor impedance falls sufficiently to establish a safe conduction path.
The simulation programme is then used to ensure that during this interval
the thyristor and other components are not overstressed owing to excessive
current, voltage or rate of rise of voltage, and that all components are
adequately rated.
A simplified equivalent circuit used to study the cascade firing is shown
in Figure 9.13 for a valve employing n levels with saturating inductance
Cascade firing
O)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (\xs)
(a) Thyristor voltage waveforms.
c Cascade firing
CD
6 7
Time (us)
{b) Thyristor current waveforms.
Figure 9.14 Typical thyristor voltage and current waveforms for normal and
cascade firing
Transient overvoltages and insulation co-ordination 243
distributed equally between the levels. The circuit external to the valve
represents the bridge in respect of valve-inrush current over the period of
interest. The valve is split up into two parts, one part representing the late
firing level and the other simulating the rest of the (n - 1) levels; the impe-
dances of the (n - 1) levels are taken with minimum tolerance and those of
the late firing level are at maximum tolerance (this maximises the voltage
on the last level to turn on).
The equivalent circuit of Figure 9.13 is initially charged to the appropri-
ate voltage level. At the beginning of the calculation the (n - 1) levels turn
on simultaneously, with their thyristors represented by time-dependent
resistors/During this time, the thyristor in the last level to turn on is simu-
lated by a voltage-dependent capacitor. When the voltage across the thyris-
tor reaches the protection threshold, the thyristor is gated to turn on after
a specified delay. The impedance of the thyristor begins to fall in a
manner determined by its time-dependent switching characteristics, the
sequence being initiated when the gate current attains a preset level.
Typical waveforms of thyristor voltage and inrush current are shown in
Figure 9.14 for the last level to fire. Corresponding waveforms for normal
coherent turn on are also shown for comparison.
Typically, a ZnO disc can carry thousands of amps at twice the nominal
voltage and thus permit the elimination of series-connected spark gaps.
The zinc-oxide arrester voltage characteristic has a very definite knee
and is extremely flat; hence, the arrester will not permit the voltage to rise
without shunting a substantial current to ground. Furthermore, in the case
of a switching surge, all arresters connected to a busbar share the discharge
duty; they draw an increased current out of the overvoltage source and
hence contribute to the damping effect.
With gapless metal-oxide arresters, the arrester elements are continu-
ously subjected to the normal operating voltage of the AC-DC system. The
number of series-connected elements are selected so that only a very low
current flows under normal applied voltage.
An important advantage of the metal-oxide arresters is their ability to
parallel units to achieve the needed energy capability. However, metal-
oxide arresters have a given physical ratio between the maximum DC
operating voltage and the protective level at internal overvoltages. This
ratio is about 1.9 p.u. at the present state of the art. For arresters with
this protective level only moderate energy capability is required even at
high internal overvoltages. A parallel gap can, if necessary, be added
across part of the metal-oxide arrester in order to limit overvoltages to
lower values.14 The idea is to reduce the arrester current at the operating
voltage by a larger number of elements. However, when an overvoltage
occurs, part of the series-connected elements is bridged over by the paral-
lel gap to reduce the protective level. The use of this arrester needs
careful co-ordination to consider at which conditions the gap should
operate and ensure that it reseals after the operation. It is also possible to
trigger the gap using a signal from the voltage-measuring devices or from
DC control.
An overvoltage limiter can also be designed using antiparallel-connected
thyristor valves in series with the metal-oxide arrester, or using other mate-
rial such as a metallic resistance. The limiter can be triggered depending
on overvoltage conditions or by DC control. With such equipment even
lower protective levels can be achieved.
™ 575 O rr^
D.C. arrester
A.C. arrester
(BID BIL to ground
[BIL] BIL across device
To remote
ground electrode
D.C. Line
20 kA
910 kV
400 kV
Switchyard
60 kA
430 kV
All voltages in kV
Withstands given at 1.2/50 us and 250/2500 \xs
stored in the filter capacitors; this in turn reduces the energy absorption
duty imposed on other surge arresters.
Regarding the filter components, during transient conditions the
prospective voltage across these components may be even higher than the
phase-to-earth voltage. The insulation level of the resistors and reactors
can thus be substantially reduced by using a surge arrester in parallel with
these components.
The surge arresters of the DC-converter equipment are illustrated in
Figure 9.17. The arrester across the thyristor valve is determined mainly
by considerations of maximum continuous operating voltage. For an
economic valve design the protection level of the valve arresters should be
kept as low as possible. In addition to the discharge energy present in the
DC system, valve arresters may be exposed to severe discharge duty during
fault recovery in the AC system; as a result, the arresters incorporate
several parallel columns of zinc-oxide blocks.
The DC-cable arrester is mainly determined by considerations of
required protection level. In the absence of overhead lines, fast transient
248 High voltage direct current transmission
(iii) British Columbia Hydro (Stage IV) 140 kV valves:17 Figure 9.18 graphi-
cally illustrates the valve insulation co-ordination and clearly indicates that
the thyristor characteristics are far in excess of the arrester characteristics.
The central column quantities are in per unit (referred to the rate DC
voltage).
The commutation transient peak at 90° firing delay must be less than
the minimum sparkover of the arrester; moreover, sufficient margin must
be allowed for the commutation transient during normally expected over-
voltages. Excessive reduction of the commutation transient by damping
resistor-capacitor circuits is avoided (considering the increased losses) by
introducing an inverse-time overvoltage protection scheme which inhibits
operation at near 90° firing delay during excessive AC-system overvoltage.
Transient overvoltages and insulation co-ordination 249
4.5
1
5 microsecond test
(negative only)
3.5
(475))
Switching surge test
3.0
(237) J240)
Rated reseal voltage Crest commutation transient
at a = 90
1.5
168)
Scale: per unit of 140/kV A.C. line to line crest
(crest volts) 1.0 (140)
Rated valve direct voltage
B.C. Hydro
„ 420 kV
*extrapolated values
9.10 References
1 UHLMANN, E., and FLISBERG, G.: 'H.v.d.c. insulation co-ordination, Part 1:
Generation of overvoltages', Direct Curr. Power Electron., 1971, 2, (1), pp.8-14
252 High voltage direct current transmission
2 HEISE, W., BURGER, U., KAUFERLE, J., and POVH, D.: 'The Cahora-Bassa
D.C. transmission system: overvoltage protection and insulation co-ordination'.
IEEE PES winter meeting, paper T74 050-1, New York, 1974
3 BOWLES, J.P.: 'Overvoltages in h.v.d.c. transmission systems caused by trans-
former magnetising inrush currents', IEEE Trans., 1974, PAS-93, pp.487-93
4 GIESNER, D.B., and ARRILLAGA, J.: 'Behaviour of HVDC links under unba-
lanced AC fault conditions', Proc. IEE, 1972, 119, (2), pp.209-15
5 RAYNHAM, E.F., and GOOSEN, P.V.: 'Anollo inverter station h.v.d.c. operat-
ing experience'. Presented to CIGRE committee 14, Rio de Janeiro, 1981
6 UHLMANN, E., and FLISBERG, G.: 'H.v.d.c. insulation co-ordination - Part 2:
Distribution of overvoltages', Direct Curr. Power Electron., 1971, 2, (3), pp. 104-11
7 CLERICI, A.: 'Transient overvoltages caused by earth fault on bipolar dx.
lines'. IEE Conf. Publ. 107 on 'High voltage D.C. and/or A.C. power transmission',
London, 1973, pp. 196-200
8 BREUER, G.D., CSUROS, L., HUGUM, R.W., KAUFERLE, J., POVH, D., and
SCHEI, A.: 'H.v.d.c. surge diverters and their application for overvoltage
protection on h.v.d.c. schemes'. CIGRE conference 1972, paper 33-14
9 ARRILLAGA, J., and EL-BATAL, S.: 'Lightning-surge distribution in h.v.d.c.
convertors', Proc. IEE, 1973, 120, (5), pp.595-600
10 ARRILLAGA, J., and EL-BATAL, S.: 'Internal oscillations in multibridge
h.v.d.c. convenors', Proc. IEE, 1972, 119, (9), pp.1351-59
11 ARRILLAGA, J., and EL-BATAL, S.: 'Arc-quenching transients in HVDC
convenors', Proc. IEE, 1973, 120, (11), pp.1397-1402
12 DISEKO, NX., WOODHOUSE, M.L., THANAWALA, H.L., ANDERSEN,
B.R., CRAWSHAW, A.M., and ROWE, J.E.: 'Application of a digital computer
program to transient analysis and design of h.v.d.c. and ax. thyristor valves'.
IEE Conf. Publ. 205 on 'Thyristor and variable static equipment for A.C. and
D.C. transmission', London, 1981, pp. 167-70
13 KREGGE, J.S., and SAKSHANG, E.G.: 'Zinc oxide arrester experience and
application at h.v.d.c. stations'. IEEE conference on Overvoltages and compensa-
tion on integrated A.C.-D.C. systems, Winnipeg, 1980, pp.65-69
14 BUI-VAN, Q., BEAULIEU, G., and ROSENQUIST, R.: 'Overvoltage studies
for the St Lawrence River 500 kV DC cable crossing'. IEEE/PES winter
meeting, paper 91WM 121-4, PWRD, 1991
15 BAHRMAN, M.P.: 'Overvoltage and VAR compensation on the Square Butte
h.v.d.c. system'. IEEE conference on Overvoltages and compensation on integrated
A.C.-D.C. systems, Winnipeg, 1980
16 ANDERSEN, B.R., DISEKO, N.L., and ROBINSON, A.A.: 'Insulation co-ordi-
nation for the U.K. terminal of the 2000 MW h.v.d.c. cross-channel scheme'.
IEE Conf. Publ. 205 on Thyristor and variable static equipment for A.C. and
D.C. transmission, London, 1981, pp. 199-203
17 DEMAREST, D.M., and STAIRS, CM.: 'Solid state valve test procedures and
field experience correlation'. Paris, 1978 CIGRE paper 14-12
18 GAMPENRIEDER, R., et at: 'Design goals, specification, studies and commis-
sioning of the 600 MW HVDC back-to-back station Elzenricht'. Paris, 1994
CIGRE paper 14-105
19 POVH, D., and LUONI, G.: 'Impact of overvoltages on design of HVDC
cables'. Paris, 1992 CIGRE paper 14-104
Chapter 10
DC versus AC transmission
0 . . . 2000 km
well established in spite of the relatively high cost of the dual conversion
required.
In less obvious decisions, the accounting procedures used in the
economic comparison must include the cost of lines, terminals, any special
apparatus needed for voltage support (see Figure 10.2), short-circuit
limitation, etc. The energy lost and the plant needed to supply it must also
be capitalised.
rr
-X-
svs
However, the basic costs alone are not decisive and allowance must be
made for other considerations such as:
DC versus AC transmission 255
• operational reliability, flexibility and performance during disturbances;
the consequences of shutdowns owing to maintenance and forced
outages;
• maximum loading capability as well as the continuous and short-time
overload;
• transmission-system development and the possibility of a staged instal-
lation programme.
Moreover, to try and achieve a meaningful and generally applicable
comparison in marginal cases is a very difficult task. Among the factors
responsible for the complexity of a generalised theory are:
• the wide range of practical situations involving differing conditions
among countries, e.g. overhead line costs vary from country to country
by a factor as high as 2.5, and the cost of the converter terminals varies
very little;
• the lack of technical comparability, given the rather different degrees
of freedom of AC and AC-DC power systems;
• the need to consider the long-term effects on overall system design and
cost when choosing among alternative plans for system development;
• the rapid strides being made in the technology of both AC and DC
transmission; in this respect, transmission-line costs have experienced a
large increase in recent years. As the line cost is relatively lower in the
case of HVDC transmission this effect has affected the AC alternative
more; however, the appearance of FACTS devices is now having a
similar beneficial effect on AC-transmission costs.
Thus, a precise economic determination is only possible in terms of a
specific situation, taking into account the long-range development of the
system, its probable future pattern of load growth and generation
resources, and the many other factors affecting the planning of power
systems.
This Chapter provides a brief comparison of the AC and DC technolo-
gies with reference to bulk-energy transfer.
The escalating costs of bulk-energy transfer in the first half of the
century kept alive the memory of the initial supremacy of direct current as
a transmission channel and encouraged its revival. However, the fact that
transmission by DC requires a less expensive line or cable for the same
power capacity has to be weighed against the high cost of the AC to DC
and DC to AC power-conversion terminals.
/L = /<* (10.12)
Vd-{kkx/k^)Ep (10.13)
derived from eqn. 10.4 equated to 1. The power ratio is therefore
— = — =(**i)/*2 (10.14)
Pa Ep
and since the actual losses are the same, the percentage power-loss ratio
will be the inverse of eqn. 10.14. Thus, for the same values of k, k\ and k^
as in a above, the power transmitted by overhead lines can be increased to
147 %, with the percentage line losses reduced to 68 %; corresponding
figures for cables are 294 % and 34 %, respectively.
258 High voltage direct current transmission
^SR
Load Load
the converter station, partly by the capacitance of the AC filters and often
by additional shunt capacitors. With weak AC systems, the AC-voltage
regulation with varying load conditions may demand the use of synchro-
nous condensers or static compensators.
With DC no stability problems occur because the AC systems are
decoupled and the power flow can be freely and rapidly adjusted by
converter control. For a given conductor size the power-carrying capability
of the DC line in principle is only limited by thermal considerations and,
therefore, should the extra current be justified (in terms of ohmic loss),
the DC conductors can carry substantially higher power levels.
On the other hand, overloading is more restricted in DC transmission.
The silicon-controlled rectifier has a very small thermal capacity and thus
the modern converter valve is only designed to handle temporary overcur-
rents under fault conditions or to damp AC-system oscillations. If long-
term overload capability is desired, this can be achieved by appropriate
overrating of the thyristors and permitting higher temperatures at the
converter plant.
Cable transmission: High-voltage transmission by cable is rarely used because
of the higher cost and longer repair times; it is normally restricted to
underwater crossings and infeed to urban centres.
The high-voltage cables have a low series inductance and large shunt
capacitance. Moreover, their loading, owing to the lower surge impedance
and thermal limitations, is usually below 0.3 times the surge-impedance
level. Therefore, high charging reactive powers are required, which
considerably limit the length of AC-cable transmission. For instance, at
50 Hz the charging current varies typically from 5.5 A/km for a 132 kV
cable to about 15 A/km for a 380 kV cable. With a 4.52 cm2, 380 kV cable
of 600 A thermal limit, the charging current for a 40 km length equals the
thermal limit and no useful load can therefore be carried. Similarly, a
2.58 cm2, 450 A, 132 kV cable has a critical length of about 80 km.
These critical lengths may be extended by inserting shunt reactors. Even
with a one hundred per cent compensation by means of two reactors, one
at each end, the power transmission capacity is only 86.6 % at critical
length and reduces to zero at twice the critical length. With two intermedi-
ate reactors, each providing 100 % compensation, dividing the line in
three equal parts, the critical length will increase to three times. Moreover,
intermediate compensation is impractical in the case of underwater links.
2000
c
CD
1500
1a °
x
s
o 1000
500
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
2
Cost of losses ($ x 1O~ )
alternative produced the lowest capital cost for low values of the losses.
However, the two-line 765 kV scheme became cheaper when losses were
evaluated at about $6.4 x 1(T3 per kWh. It should be pointed out that this
situation occurs because of the lower DC-voltage level used (i.e. 600 kV).
With a ± 765 kV DC line the relative cost of the DC alternative would
reduce as the value of losses increased.
Some allowance is made in the economic analysis for the difference
between cost of money and inflation. In the above example, such a differ-
ence was considered equivalent to a discount rate of three per cent. The
effect of varying the discount rate is illustrated in Figure 10.5.
i
"£
CO
1500 X \ - 2 x 1159 kV
\V
\v
2 x 765k\T
o 1000
2 x yutr
\A \
£
8
0) -2 >' (± 600 i kV dc-
500 3 x 765
2 4 6 8 10
r-1—•• -i 1
Dist J I
r
I I Jr" — .
network j i I D1 | Distribution ]
100 j • ! i network i
i L- ! | 200 ! I J
i I I
(a) (b)
$218/kW+
$157/kW+
_ 2000-
•§ 1000-
S 500-
r' ioo-
i 50-
10-
5-
8
link that results in a break-even distance of 360 miles. The other case is
particularly interesting because of the very low power involved, i.e. only
10 MW. With 35 kV AC, plus reactive compensation, the scheme may cost
some $40 000 per mile (i.e. $4000 per MW-mile). The cost of the two DC
converters will be of the order of $4 million ($400 per kW for two conver-
ters). Assuming that the cost of AC substations and reactive compensation
is about $1 million, the additional DC-converter cost for break even is $3
million. If the ± 30 to 50 kV bipolar DC line costs $25 000 per mile, then
this line saves $15,000 per mile which represents a break-ev^n distance of
200 miles.
A representative curve of break-even distances as a function of power
can be expected to be within the shaded region of Figure \0.1b.
The subject of light-power HVDC transmission is considered further in
Chapter 11 with reference to self-commutated schemes.
bipolar
15
E
>
10
-60 -30 0
distance, m
Figure 10.8 Electric field ofmonopolar and bipolar 450 kV overhead lines
DC versus AC transmission 267
- potential
earth electrode
under the overhead conductor, both with monopolar and bipolar transmis-
sions, and is approximately 21 kV/m for a 450 kV overhead-power trans-
mission line (see Figure 10.8). Moreover, the electric field may be
strengthened further by external factors such as the weather, seasonal
variations and relative humidity.
The electric-field problem is less severe in DC because of the lack of
steady-state displacement current; thus HVDC lines require much less
right-of-way (ROW) than the horizontal AC configuration and less height
than the AC delta configuration of HVAC lines of comparable rating.
Land electrodes create potential differences on the earth's surface,
termed step voltages, which can cause shock currents (Figure 10.9). Assum-
ing a typical human-body resistance of 1000 Q, a limit value of 5 mA is
recommended as the maximum safe current that can flow through the
body. If a higher electric-field strength is anticipated, then there will be a
proportionately higher shock current in the vicinity of the electrode. In
that case the area is deemed to be hazardous and may have to be fenced
off.
60
40
1/ ^ 1
S /
±500 kV DC 800 kV AC
route width: 50m 85m
2 x 500 kV AC
100m
Figure 10.12 Typical tower structures and rights-of-way for alternative trans-
mission systems (2000 MW)
(a)
(b) (0
Local generation
Local generation and compensation Local generation
and compensation and compensation
1100 MW high
security load 2200 MW high
800 MW, high
security load
ttt
(*£ ttt t security load
M MM •
s
I
T- 220 kV ac
D
X X X X
220 kV ac
HI
M l I 220 kV
330 kV ac
330 kV ac I
I
•4—^ f- 330 kV
y
210 km
2 x 350 m m 2
T ACSR conds
98 km tif
B , 1 ]
X
123 km
330 kV ac
- r 330 kV r—>-330 kVac
Hydro generation
Hydro generation Hydro generation
170-
realistic trend in a limited
160- market for UHV
g 150-
| 140-
130-
120-
"natural" trend in a
110-
conveniently large market
100
400 600 800 1000
kV
1200 1200
I
kV |LOSSE:S«2000$/kW
I 5000 MV
kV (LOSSES * 1000 $/kW
1
4000 MV f
1000 1000
/ 5000 MV^
_ _ _——1
3000 MW 4000 MVf
800 800 — • 3000MVf
2000 MV
_———' • ___^—«—~* 2000 MVr
400 1000 2000 3000 4000 km 400 1000 2000 3000 4000 km
Figure 10.15 Optimum voltage against line length with different capitalised cost
of losses
DC versus AC transmission 275
transmission of electricity
length
AC
HVDC power
OHTL
RE
transmission of gas
length
GAS
field gas duct
SE RE
• longer distances;
• higher cost areas for transmission lines and gas ducts;
• lower prices for gas at the gas field;
• smaller powers.
For a distance of 5000 km and power in the range from 1000 to 5000 MW,
the cost of kWh with gas transmission is from 1.9 times to 1.2 times higher
than for electricity transmission. The range covers differences in the gas
price (i.e. two or five c$/m3) and high or low transmission costs (as apply-
ing in Europe and Africa, respectively).
276 High voltage direct current transmission
For 3000 km and 3000 MW and low price for both overhead transmis-
sion and gas ducts, the cost of the two alternatives (G-gas and ^-electricity)
are shown in Table 10.1.
In any case, up to powers around 5000-8000 MW, electricity transmis-
sion is the preferred option.
10.10 References
1 ADAMSON, C, and HINGORANI, N.G.: 'High voltage direct current power
transmission' (Garraway Ltd, London, 1960), Chap. 1
2 HARDY, J.E., TURNER, F.P.P., and ZIMMERMAN, L.A.: 'A.c. or d.c, one
utility's approach'. IEE Conf. Publ. 205 on Thyristor and variable equipment
for A.C. and D.C. transmission' London 1981, pp.241-46
3 EHMKE, B., and HARDERS, C.F.: 'Planning aspects of h.v.d.c. power transmis-
sion into metropolitan load centres'. Symposium sponsored by the Division of
Electric Energy Systems USDOE, Phoenix, Arizona, 1980, pp.63-75
4 HINGORANI, N.G.: 'Dc technology for rural transmission'. CIGRE interna-
tional colloquium on HVDC and FACTS, Johannesburg 1997, paper 3.1
5 LAFOREST, J.J., LINDH, C.B., and STAMBACH, M.R.: Techniques for
determining overhead line cost data for comparison of a.c. and d.c. transmis-
sion alternatives'. Symposium sponsored by the Division of Electric Energy
Systems USDOE, Phoenix, Arizona, 1980, pp. 143-61
6 SCHMIDT, G., FIEGL, B., and KOLBECK, S.: 'HVDC transmission and the
environment'. Power Eng. /., October 1996, pp.204-10
7 EPRI Research Project 1467-1: 'HVDC ground electrode design'. Electric Power
Research Institute, August 1981
8 JACKEL, B.W.: 'Investigations on radio interference and power line carrier
interference of a back-to-back converter'. IEE Conf. Publ. 423 on 'A.C. and D.C.
power transmission', London 1996, pp.58-63
9 REIPLINGER, E.: 'Lasta bhangige transformatorengerausche', Sonderdruck aus
Elektrotechnischer Zeitschrift (etz), 3, 1989
10 COAD, J.N.O.: 'Audible noise design and testing for the DC hybrid link
project'. International Colloquium on HVDC and FACTS, Wellington, 1993,
paper 2.2-1
11 JONES, K.M., and KENNEDY, M.W.: 'Existing AC transmission facilities
converted for use with dc'. IEE Conf Publ. 107 on 'High voltage DC and/or AC
power transmission', London 1973, pp.253-60
12 ASPLUND, G., et al: 'A novel approach on UHVDC 800 kV station and equip-
ment design'. International Colloquium on HVDC and FACTS, Wellington,
1993, paper 7-3
13 CLERICI, A., LONGHI, A., and TELLINI, B.: 'Long distance transmission: the
DC versus AC transmission 277
DC challenge'. IEE Conf. Publ. 423 on AC and DC power transmission, London,
April 1996, pp.86-92
14 KRISHNAYYA, P.C.S., et at. 'An evaluation of the R. & D. requirements for
developing HVDC converter stations for voltages above + 600 kV\ CIGRE,
Paris, 1988, paper 14-07
15 PARIS, L.: 'Remote renewable energy resources made possible by high voltage
interconnection: the Grand Inga case'. IEEE PES WM New York - IEEE Power
Eng. Rev., June 1992
16 MEISEN, P.: 'Worldwide interconnections may be an idea whose time has
come', Trans. Distrib. Int., December 1992
17 PRACA, J.C.G., et at. 'Amazon transmission challenge - comparison of technol-
ogies'. CIGRE, Paris, 1992, paper 14/37/38-01
18 BAKER, M.H., HEPBURN, A., and LEWIS, W.P: 'HVDC economic assessment
in a Southern African context'. International colloquium on HVDC and FACTS,
Johannesburg, 1997, paper 6.1
Chapter 11
New concepts in HVDC converters
and systems
11.1 Introduction
HVDC technology took a big step forward around 20 years ago when thyr-
istor valves succeeded the mercury-arc valves previously used. The conver-
ter-station concept introduced at that time, however, has remained
practically unchanged since then, even though great improvements in
equipment and subsystems have taken place. At the same time there have
been substantial advances in conventional AC technology and, particularly,
in the application of power electronics to make power transmission more
flexible and economical. Such competition is now exciting a continuous
stream of new HVDC concepts and techniques with the aim of improving
performance and reducing costs and delivery times. The main advances
are discussed in this Chapter.
presently used at each thyristor level for converting the turn-on light
signals into electrical pulses. Direct light triggering of the devices using
optical fibres requires powerful light sources at ground level; Japanese
manufacturers have developed light-emitting diodes for that purpose.
However, the elimination of the protecting circuit at each thyristor level
requires higher overvoltage margins for the light-triggered thyristors; a
thyristor self turn on, when voltage or rate of rise of voltage is too high, is
now under development in Europe.
valve-cooling
Economic evaluation
(% of station capital cost)
insulating tube
\
tube-shaped core direct current control
winding
valve
housing
communication
channel
valve base
electronics valve control signals j ~ *
rv~ COOLERS
GAS INSULATED
3 4 5 kV AC BUS
GAS INSULATED
3 4 5 kV AC BUS
SMOOTHING
REACTOR
BASEMENT PARKING
AND STORAGE
series filter
Item Specification
power flow
terminal A ^ terminal B
system A system B
AEdp
PWMh |DC-AVR|—(J-—Edp
. DC volt,
ref. B
voltage I
margin j
terminal A terminal B
lower limit lower limit
power flow
Figure 11.9 Active power against DC-voltage characteristics (terminal B has the
voltage margin)
XLPE insulation has so far been developed for use in commercial instal-
lations up to 150 kV DC (Gotland Island DC link) and research and devel-
opment work for use at higher voltages is continuing.
PPLP (polypropylene laminated-paper insulation) has been under inves-
tigation for some years, primarily for use in very high-voltage AC oil-filled
cables where it has particular advantages arising from the ability of the
insulating material to withstand higher stress levels. Reduced insulation
thickness and lower dielectric losses result. AC cables are being produced
using PPLP insulation for voltages up to 800 kV. The relatively high-
temperature coefficient of expansion, and the swelling characteristics of
PPLP when impregnated with oil compounds, currently pose difficulties
for use in DC cables. Research is continuing, but so far no commercial
project has been installed.
To AC network
Pole 1
12 Pulse Convenor
Electrode
Pole 2
Polel
12 Pulse Convenor
Electrode
Pole 2
inates the generator transformer and the AC busbar. The generators are
directly connected to the converter transformers and the harmonic
currents produced by the 12-pulse unit-connected scheme are absorbed by
the generator so that the need for AC filters is eliminated. Moreover,
voltage control can be exercised entirely by the generator excitation and
transformer on-load tap changers are no longer needed.
The direct-connected scheme is considered an attractive proposition for
electrical generation from remote sources of power, such as hydro and
low-grade coal fields, when a new development supplies little or no local
load. Its potential for variable-speed operation can be used to optimise the
efficiency of hydro sets under different load conditions and under varying
water heads. This property can also be useful in pump-storage and wind-
power applications. Two interesting variations of the basic direct connec-
tion of Figure 11.11 are the group connection and the uncontrolled recti-
fier.1 In the group connection, illustrated in Figure 11.12, the matching
of generator and converter ratings is no longer required, the flexibility of
operation and of maintenance is enhanced, and although variable-speed
operation is still allowed, the group of synchronised generators will
require some form of joint speed control.
Direct connection with uncontrolled (diode) rectifiers leads to the
highest degree of simplification of the sending end, and brings in addi-
tional savings on firing-control gear and on the valves themselves, as
diodes are less expensive and have reduced losses. However, the accept-
ability of diode rectification is subject to its ability to clear and recover
from DC faults and receiving-end commutation failures without greatly
increased delays.
292 High voltage direct current transmission
Polel
12 Pulse Convenor
Electrode
Pole 2
I"
tapping station
11,9 References
1 HINGORANI, N.G.: 'High voltage DC transmission: a power electronics work-
horse', IEEE Spectr., April 1996, pp.63-72
New concepts in HVDC converters and systems 295
Bridge rectifier 13 24
Bridges in parallel 18
Bridges in series 174 228
Bypass switch 161 208
Bypass valve 160 208
Bypassing of bridges 208
Converter (Cont.)
phase-shift 19 35 57
160
pulse number 33 42 50
56
rating factor 132 134
six-pulse 25 34
twelve-pulse 21 38 42
50 108 143
Cross-modulation 39 42 145
Current extinction 232 235
Current margin 114 127
Current setting 112
FACTS 8
Filter
admittance of 71
cost of 73
damped 60 73 76
237
second-order 74
third-order 74
type-C 74
Filter (Cont.)
DC 77 196
double-tuned 71
high-pass, see Filter, damped
impedance of 64
protection of 226
quality of 58 71 74
77
reactive power of 58 73 133
self-tuned 72 282
sharpness of tuning 58
single-tuned 70
size 58
tuned 70 74
Filter design 57 69 76
Firethrough 201
Firing angle, see Delay angle
Forced commutation 294
Fourier analysis 27 33
Frequency control 120
Frequency conversion 87 93
Frequency deviation 71 138
Gate control 14
Gate turn-off, see GTO
Generators feeding DC link 290
unit connection 290
Grading electrode 4
Grid control 3
GTO 7 279
IGBT 7
Instability, see Harmonic instability and
Power instability
Insulated gate bipolar transistor, see
IGBT
Insulation co-ordination 135 164 229
243
Protection
differential 224
filter 226
overcurrent 221 224
valve group 224
Pulse duration modulation 43
Pulse number 33 42
Pulse position modulation 43
Thyristor (Cont.)
valve 7 143 162
283
cooling 167 176 192
286
quadruple 89 167
tests 171
Thyristor-controlled reactor 136
Thyristor-switched capacitors 136
Transformer connections 36 57
for increased pulse number 36
Transformer, converter 174 178 196
leakage 18
saturation effects 135 150 182
231
tertiary winding 21
Transient overvoltages 190 231
Transient stability 139 142 143
Transients fast (see also Lightning and
Switching surges) 228 233 238
247
Triple harmonics 150
Unbalanced AC voltage 49 54 63
Voltage distortion 49 58 69
Voltage regulation 134
Voltage source converter 286
Voltage stability 135