applied

sciences
Article
Nucleation Triggering of Highly Undercooled Xylitol
Using an Air Lift Reactor for Seasonal Thermal
Energy Storage
Marie Duquesne 1, * , Elena Palomo Del Barrio 2 and Alexandre Godin 3
1 Bordeaux INP, CNRS, I2M Bordeaux, ENSCBP, 16 avenue Pey Berland, 33607 Pessac CEDEX, France
2 CIC EnergiGUNE, Parque Tecnológico de Álava, Albert Einstein, 48. Edificio CIC, 01510 Miñano, Álava,
Spain; epalomo@cicenergigune.com
3 Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, I2M Bordeaux, Esplanade des Arts et Métiers, F-33405 Talence CEDEX,
France; alexandregodin1@hotmail.com
* Correspondence: marie.duquesne@enscbp.fr; Tel.: +33-5-40-00-66-64




Received: 21 December 2018; Accepted: 11 January 2019; Published: 14 January 2019


Featured Application: A potential application of this work consists in using Xylitol as phase
change material for latent heat thermal energy storage at temperatures varying from ambient up
to slightly below 100 ◦ C.

Abstract: Bio-based glass-forming materials are now considered for thermal energy storage in
building applications. Among them, Xylitol appears as a biosourced seasonal thermal energy storage
material with high potential. It has a high energy density and a high and stable undercooling, thus
allowing storing solar energy at ambient temperature and reducing thermal losses and the risk
of spontaneous nucleation (i.e., the risk of losing the stored energy). Generally when the energy
is needed, the discharge triggering of the storage system is very difficult as well as reaching a
sufficient power delivery. Both are indeed the main obstacles for the use of pure Xylitol in seasonal
energy storage. Different techniques have been hence considered to crystallize highly undercooled
Xylitol. Nucleation triggering of highly undercooled pure Xylitol by using an air lift reactor has been
proven here. This method should allow reaching performances matching with building applications
(i.e., at medium temperatures, below 100 ◦ C). The advantages of this technique compared to other
existing techniques to activate the crystallization are discussed. The mechanisms triggering the
nucleation are investigated. The air bubble generation, transportation of nucleation sites and
subsequent crystallization are discussed to improve the air injection operating conditions.

Keywords: energy discharge; bubbles burst; bubbles transportation; crystal growth rates; undercooling

1. Introduction
One of the key elements to optimize the use of renewable energies and to improve building
performances is the development of thermal energy storage [1–5]. To this purpose, latent heat
storage using phase change materials (PCMs) is known to provide a greater energy density than
the sensible heat storage with a smaller temperature difference between the energy charge and the
energy discharge. Cabeza et al. [6] reviewed many of PCM complying with this application as well
as the eventual associated technical problems as separation, segregation, corrosion, and materials
compatibility. Among inorganic systems such as salts and salt hydrates, organic compounds such as
paraffin waxes, fatty acids or esters and polymeric materials [3–5], sugar alcohols (SAs) are promising
phase change materials for seasonal energy storage applications at low to medium temperatures (below
100 ◦ C) and allow avoiding these technical problems.

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 267; doi:10.3390/app9020267 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 267 2 of 10

These bio-based glass-forming materials have been up to now widely studied in food engineering
and pharmaceutics [7,8]. Recently, they have been also studied for thermal energy storage
applications [9–14]. The idea consists in storing thermal energy into undercooled sugar alcohols
at a temperature inferior to their melting one, as close as possible to the ambient temperature, to reduce
thermal losses and to limit the risk of spontaneous energy discharge. When heating is needed,
the storage system is discharged by triggering sugar alcohols nucleation, which is the first step
of crystallization.
In spite of the fact that Xylitol has been identified as one of the most promising candidates among
sugar alcohols for applications at temperature below 200 ◦ C due to its high energy storage potential,
few studies only have been conducted on it, as reported in [15,16]. Its melting point of 95 ◦ C, its
latent heat superior to 263 J·g−1 and its total energy density 4–5 times higher than that of water
(110–150 kWh·m−3 whereas it is approximately 30 kWh·m−3 for water on a seasonal basis) are well
suitable for their use in cheap solar collectors for instance. However, the strong undercooling behavior
of Xylitol as well as its nucleation triggering which is very difficult due to the very high activation
energy required for atomic rearrangements at the liquid–solid interface (i.e., the energy barrier to
trigger the nucleation) are seen as the major obstacles to their employment as PCM. A decrease in
temperature causes indeed a drastic increase in viscosity making the atom diffusion slow down or
even stop. This is the reason why [15], among others, stipulated the impossibility to solidify pure
Xylitol once at liquid state and thus, stopped their investigation about this material.
In the case of undercooled Xylitol, the crystallization step is thus a challenging process since it
has a very high viscosity at ambient temperature (see the evolution of its viscosity versus temperature
in [17]). Indeed, the transition from liquid to solid comes with a conformation change (from a linear
structure in the liquid phase, to a bent one in the solid phase) which increases the required energy to
overcome the activation energy barrier. These are the reasons why Xylitol crystal growth rates are
low at ambient temperature. The rate values were measured and calculated according to temperature
and presented in [18]. The maximum growth rates appear around 50–55◦ C and are of the order of
magnitude of µm·s−1 .
In this work, it shown that these characteristics are, on the one part, an asset for a medium/long
term storage. Indeed, the probability for spontaneous nucleation is negligible at high undercoolings
which leads to a negligible risk of losing the stored energy and limited thermal losses. On the other
part, the nucleation triggering, i.e., of the discharge triggering when the energy is needed, is very
difficult and the crystal growth rates are too low for an efficient power delivery. Consequently, if these
two main obstacles are overcome, Xylitol would be a very competitive phase change material for
seasonal storage applications at low to medium temperatures, particularly in building field. To this
end, an air lift reactor was designed and the proof of concept enabling to reach performances matching
with building applications is described in [19].
This work aims at comparing the advantages of using an air lift reactor with the other potential
techniques able to activate highly undercooled pure Xylitol nucleation and to accelerate its complete
crystallization. These latter techniques includes local cooling, intentional seeding, ultrasonication, and
mechanical agitation.
A preliminary parametric study in order to identify the key variables influencing these
mechanisms is performed. To do so, air bubble generations, transportations of nucleation sites and
subsequent crystallizations are observed and discussed. This understanding should help to identify
the parameters triggering nucleation at any time (or temperature) and to crystallize the entire product
in due time.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 267 3 of 10

2. Attempts of Nucleation Triggering and of Discharge at an Acceptable Power

2.1. Materials
Xylitol was purchased from Roquette (batch E089X, purity 98.43%, Lestrem, France). In all the
performed experiments, molten Xylitol is conditioned as follows: Xylitol is placed at 100 ◦ C overnight
in an oven to be fully melted, then, it is free-cooled down to the starting temperatures (ranging from
30 ◦ C to 75 ◦ C).

2.2. Xylitol-Conscious Nucleation and Crystallization: Commonly Used Techniques

The most common used techniques to crystallize Xylitol have been considered and the preliminary
observations and analyses carried out are presented hereafter.

1. Local cooling. It fails to trigger nucleation in severely undercooled Xylitol due to the very high
activation energy required for atoms diffusion and rearrangement at the solid–liquid interface.
2. Intentional seeding. It allows triggering Xylitol crystallization, even in cases with very high
undercooled melts. However, the effect of seeding on nucleation is too local. The seed growth
being too slow (4 days/10 mL), this technique will lead to very low heat release rates and too
long discharge times for the aimed application.
3. Ultrasonication. High-power ultrasonification (450 W) allows also crystallizing the studied Xylitol.
However, the crystallization rates are still too low for this technique to become appropriate at the
storage system scale.
4. Solvents addition in Xylitol. It does not contribute to accelerate crystallization even in combination
with ultrasonification.

2.3. Successful Xylitol Nucleation and Crystallization: Preliminary Tests

Two techniques only succeeds in activating the nucleation of severely undercooled melts in
extended area with then, significantly increased crystallization rates of the studied systems.
The first one is the mechanical agitation and the second one consists in stirring undercooled Xylitol
by bubbling. Both of them aim at triggering Xylitol nucleation and at speeding-up its crystallization.

2.3.1. Undercooled Xylitol Crystallization Induced by Mechanical Agitation

In industrial crystallization, mechanical agitation is often used in combination with seeding.
The primary objectives of this method are to create and maintain a good dispersion of the seeds in the
bulk and to enhance the rate of mass transfer between the solid and liquid phases [19]. Mechanical
agitation without seeding has been here considered to crystallize undercooled Xylitol.
A glass beaker with a diameter of 85 mm and a height of 105 mm is filled with Xylitol initially
in powder form and placed into an oven up to its molten liquid state. Small volumes (~400 mL) of
undercooled Xylitol are used for testing. Then, the beaker is put out of the oven and remains at room
temperature to make it naturally cool down to the selected starting temperature. Finally, the mixer is
started with a power of 125 W at a constant and low speed and for a short duration of 5 s. This allows
the agitation of the undercooled Xylitol.
The form and the position of the mixer within the undercooled Xylitol can be seen in Figure 1.
The crystallization of the sample is observed with a high speed CCD camera (HM1024, Genie, Teledyne
DALSA, Waterloo, ON, Canada). Simultaneously, a thermocouple glued to the wall of the beaker
provides useful information regarding the sample temperature evolution with time. Several starting
temperatures were investigated.
Figure 1 illustrates the device used for mechanical agitation and the snapshots in Figure 2 show an
example of tests performed on highly undercooled melts at a starting temperature of 50 ◦ C (T0 = 50 ◦ C),
i.e., with an undercooling of 45 ◦ C (∆T = 45 ◦ C) regarding the melting temperature of 95 ◦ C.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 267 4 of 10
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 10
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 10

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Picture
1. Picture ofof the
the mixer
mixer within
within aa sample
sample of
of undercooled
undercooled Xylitol
Xylitol in
in aa glass
glass beaker
beaker at
at aa starting
starting
starting
temperature T0
temperature T0 = 50 °C
◦
T0 == 50 °C (ΔT
C (ΔT = 45
(∆T == 45 °C)
◦
45 °C) before
C)before mechanical
beforemechanical agitation.
mechanical agitation.
agitation.

It
It has
has been
has been observed
been observed that
observed that mechanical
that mechanical agitation
mechanical agitation results
results inin aa very
very fast
fast response.
fast response. Indeed,
response. Indeed, nucleation
Indeed, nucleation
nucleation
is
is reached in only 5 s of
of mixing
mixing all
all over
over the
the agitated
agitated region.
region. Then, the crystallization
is reached in only 5 s of mixing all over the agitated region. Then, the crystallization progresses progresses
downwards
downwards from
downwards from the
from the agitated region. As
agitated region. As shown
As shown in
shown in Figure
in Figure 2,
Figure 2, crystal
2, crystal clusters
crystal clusters detach
clusters detach from
detach from the
from the
crystallization
crystallization front
front and
and fall
fall by
by gravity,
gravity, thus
thus contributing
contributing to
to accelerate
accelerate the
the process
process of
of
crystallization front and fall by gravity, thus contributing to accelerate the process of crystallization. crystallization.
crystallization.
After ◦ C).
After 11 min
min 30
30 ss an
an increase
increase inin temperature
temperature of of the
the beaker
beakerexterior wall
exteriorwall is
wallis measured
ismeasured
measured(25(25
(25 °C).
°C).

Figure
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Snapshots
2. Snapshotsof
Snapshots ofan
of anundercooled
an undercooledXylitol
undercooled Xylitolsample
Xylitol sample in
sample aa glass
inin aglass beaker
glass beaker
beaker at
at aat
a starting temperature
a starting
starting temperature
temperature of
of T0
of
T0
=T0 ◦ C (∆T ◦ C) after
= 50 °C (ΔT = 45 °C) after mechanical agitation. Observation of its crystallization after 5, 92, and 215 s.
50=°C
50(ΔT = 45 °C)
= 45 after mechanical agitation.
mechanical Observation
agitation. Observationof its crystallization
of its after
crystallization 5, 92,
after and
5, 215
92, ands.
215 s.
The
The obtained
obtained results
results suggest
suggest that that mechanical
mechanical agitation
agitation could could be be an an efficient
efficient solution
solution forfor
The
discharging obtained
the results
storage system suggestwhen that mechanical
necessary and at agitation
appropriate could
speeds.be an efficient
However, solution
this techniquefor
discharging the storage system when necessary and at appropriate speeds. However, this technique
discharging
shows the storage system whenhomogeneous
necessary and at appropriate speeds. However, this technique
shows aa solidification
solidification whichwhich is is less
less homogeneous from from aa spatial
spatial viewpoint
viewpoint than than the
the bubbling
bubbling one one
shows a2 solidification
(Figure which is lessthe homogeneous from a spatial viewpoint than the bubbling one
(Figure 2 versus Figure 3). Besides, the mechanical agitation is intrusive, and would require aa specific
versus Figure 3). Besides, mechanical agitation is intrusive, and would require specific
(Figure 2design
reactors versus Figure 3). Besides, the mechanical agitation is intrusive, and would require a specific
reactors design and and would
would probably
probably lead lead to
to aa significant
significant extra-cost.
extra-cost.
reactors design and would probably lead to a significant extra-cost.
2.3.2.
2.3.2. Stirring
Stirring by
by Bubbling
Bubbling
2.3.2. Stirring by Bubbling
As
As mechanical
mechanical agitation,
agitation, bubblebubble stirring
stirring allows
allows activating
activating the the nucleation
nucleation of of highly
highly undercooled
undercooled
XylitolAs mechanical agitation, bubble stirring allows activating the nucleation of highly undercooled
Xylitol in extended area. To this purpose, bubble columns are widely employed within
in extended area. To this purpose, bubble columns are widely employed within chemical
chemical
Xylitol inasextended
industry area. To this and purpose, bubblereactors.
columnsExamplesare widely employed within chemical
industry as gas–liquid contactors and multiphase reactors. Examples of applications of this reactor
gas–liquid contactors multiphase of applications of this reactor
industry
type as gas–liquid contactors and multiphase reactors. Examples of applications of this reactor
type include
include oxidations,
oxidations, hydrogenations,
hydrogenations, fermentations,
fermentations, and and thethe production
production of of synthetic
synthetic fuels
fuels [20].
[20].
typeof
One include oxidations,of hydrogenations, fermentations, and the production of synthetic fuels [20].
One of the
the main
main features
features of bubblebubble column
column operation
operation is is that
that gasgas and
and liquid
liquid or or suspended
suspended solid solid phases
phases
Onebrought
are of the main features of bubble column additional
operation is that gas and liquid or suspended solid phases
are brought in in contact
contact without
without the the need
need forfor additional mechanical
mechanical stirring
stirring equipment,
equipment, makingmaking bubble
bubble
are brought
column in contact without the need for additional mechanical stirring equipment, making bubble
column design
design andand operation
operation appear appear easiereasier than
than that
that ofof other
other gas–liquid
gas–liquid reactors.
reactors. The The gas
gas distributor
distributor
column
is design andatoperation appear easier thanwhilethat of other gas–liquidcan reactors. The gas distributor
is usually
usually located
located at the the bottom
bottom of of the
the column,
column, while the the liquid
liquid phase
phase can either either bebe distributed
distributed co- co-
is usuallyorlocated
currently at the bottom ofrespect the column, while the liquid phase phase.can either be distributed
currently or counter-currently
counter-currently with with respect to to the
the flow
flow direction
direction of of the
the gasgas phase.
co-currently
Bubbling or counter-currently with respect an to the flow direction of the gas phase.to induce Xylitol
Bubbling with
with airair has
has beenbeen considered
considered as as an alternative
alternative to to mechanical
mechanical agitation
agitation to induce Xylitol
Bubbling with
crystallization. air has been considered asagitation,
an alternative to mechanical agitation to induce Xylitol
crystallization. Contrary to mechanical agitation, bubbling is a low-intrusive technique,
Contrary to mechanical bubbling is a low-intrusive technique,
crystallization.
consequently, Contrary to mechanical agitation, bubbling is a low-intrusive technique, consequently,
consequently, easyeasy to to implement
implement in in standard
standard storage
storage containers
containers and and hence
hence cost cost effective
effective [21].
[21].
easy The
to implement in standard storage containers and hence cost effective [21].
The same previous conditions (glass beaker, Xylitol and protocol to prepare the
same previous conditions (glass beaker, Xylitol and protocol to prepare the undercooled
undercooled
The samebeen
Xylitol) previous conditions (glass beaker, Xylitol and protocol to preparefrom the undercooled
Xylitol) have
have been used. used. Only Only the the technique
technique of of nucleation
nucleation triggering
triggering is is different
different from the the previous
previous
Xylitol)
tests. have been used. Only the technique of nucleation triggering is different from the previous
tests. The air distributor is a flexible pipe of 3 mm inner diameter which is connected to a small pump.
The air distributor is a flexible pipe of 3 mm inner diameter which is connected to a small pump.
tests.air
The The airisdistributor
inlet located at isthe
a flexible
bottom pipe
of ofcolumn
the 3 mm inner and diameter
the air which
flow is of is80connected
L·h −1. to a small pump.
The air inlet is located at the bottom of the column and the air flow is of 80 L·h−1. −1
The air inlet ismin,
After located at the bottom of the column and the air flow is of 80 L·h . the beaker. The
After 3030 min, an an increase
increase in in Xylitol
Xylitol temperature
temperature is is measured
measured (35 (35 °C)°C) within
within the beaker. The
snapshots
snapshots in in Figure
Figure 33 show
show that that air
air injection
injection at at the
the bottom
bottom of of the
the beaker
beaker fosters
fosters Xylitol
Xylitol nucleation
nucleation as as
 Appl.
Appl.Sci. 2018,9,8,267
Sci.2019, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 5ofof1010
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 11
well the crystallization progress over time in a complete different way than that◦ from the one obtained
well the After 30 min,progress
crystallization an increase in Xylitola complete
temperature is measured (35 that
C) within thethe beaker.
using mechanical agitation. over
In thistime
case,incrystals different
form around air way than
bubbles all overfrom
the stirredone
area.
The snapshots in Figure 3 show that air injection at the bottom of the beaker fosters Xylitol
obtained using mechanical agitation. In this case, crystals form around air bubbles all over the stirred nucleation as
area. well the crystallization progress over time in a complete different way than that from the one obtained
using mechanical agitation. In this case, crystals form around air bubbles all over the stirred area.

Figure 3. Snapshots of the undercooled Xylitol crystallization induced by air bubbling in a glass
beaker3.at Snapshots
Figure different times (airundercooled
of the flow rate = 80Xylitol
L/h; Starting Temperature
crystallization T0 = 50
induced by°C,
airundercooling
bubbling in degree
a glass
Figure 3. Snapshots of the undercooled Xylitol crystallization induced by air bubbling in a glass
ΔT = 45
beaker different times (air flow rate = 80 L/h; Starting Temperature T0 = 50 ◦ C, undercooling degree
at °C).
beaker at different times (air flow rate = 80 l/h; Starting Temperature T0 = 50 °C, undercooling degree
∆T = 45 ◦ C).
ΔT = 45 °C).
The possibility to induce the undercooled Xylitol crystallization by bubbling using a simple and
costThe possibility
effective technique to induce
has beenthe proven
undercooledthrough Xylitol crystallization
this experiment. The byfurther
bubbling using a carried
researches simple out
and
The
cost possibility
effective to inducehas
technique thebeen
undercooled
proven Xylitol crystallization
through this experiment. byThebubbling
further using a simple
researches and out in
carried
in order i/ to understand the effect of bubbling on crystallization, ii/ to identify the key related
cost effective
order i/technique
to and
understand has been proven
the effect through this experiment. The further researches keycarried
related out
variables iii/ to improve air of bubbling
injection on crystallization,
operating conditions ii/ areto identify
presented the
in next section. variables
in order i/ to understand the effect of bubbling on crystallization,
and iii/ to improve air injection operating conditions are presented in next section. ii/ to identify the key related
variables and iii/ to improve
3. Undercooled Xylitolair injection operating
Crystallization Induced conditions
by Bubbling are presented in next section.
3. Undercooled Xylitol Crystallization Induced by Bubbling
3. Undercooled A significant amount of research
Xylitol Crystallization Induced works on bubble columns regarding bubble formation and
by Bubbling
A significant
bubble rise velocity amount
aspects, of flow
research works
patterns on bubble columns
characteristics regarding
and parameters, bubble
heat formation
and mass and
transfers,
Abubble
significant
rise amount
velocity of research
aspects, flow works
patternson bubble columns
characteristics and regarding
parameters,
columns design, and operating conditions has appear in literature in the last few decades (see e.g., bubbleheat formation
and mass and
transfers,
bubblecolumns
rise velocity
recent design,
reviews aspects, flow
and operating
[22–24]), patterns
including characteristics
conditions
experimental and and
has appear inparameters,
literature
numerical studies.inheat and few
the last mass transfers,
decades (see e.g.,
columns design,
recentHowever, and operating
reviews [22–24]),
to the best conditions
including has appear
experimental
of knowledge, the useand in literature
numerical
of bubbling in the last few decades (see
studies.the nucleation of undercooled
to trigger e.g.
recent reviews [22–24]), including
the best of experimental
knowledge, and
the usenumerical
melts and to accelerate their crystallization rates has never beentrigger
However, to of bubbling studies.
to studied. the nucleation of undercooled
However, to the best of knowledge, the use of bubbling
melts and to accelerate their crystallization rates has never been studied. to trigger the nucleation of undercooled
melts and to accelerate
3.1. Air Lift Reactors their crystallization rates has never been studied.
3.1. Air Lift Reactors
Two different liquid/gas reactors have been used to achieve an overall understanding of the
3.1. Air Lift Reactors
Twocrystallization
Xylitol different liquid/gas by bubbling, reactors have
as can beenin
be seen used
Figureto achieve
4: an overall understanding of the
Xylitol
Two crystallization
different liquid/gas by reactors
bubbling,have as canbeenbe seen
used in toFigure
achieve 4: an overall understanding of the
● Reactor n°1. The reactor is a cylindrical glass beaker with a diameter of 85 mm and a height of
Xylitol crystallization ◦ by bubbling, as can be seen in Figure 4:
• Reactor
105 mm, n 1.filledThewithreactorthe ismolten
a cylindrical glass beaker
sugar alcohol (SA) up withto a60diameter
mm of height. of 85 mm Air and a height
bubbles are
● Reactorofgenerated
105 The
n°1. mm,reactor
atfilled with the
of molten
is a cylindrical
the bottom sugar
glass
the vessel aalcohol
bybeaker
singlewith (SA)
tube up to 60 of
a connected
diameter mm
to85 of
mm
a pump.height.
andTheaAir bubbles
height
inner of are
diameter
105 mm, generated
filled
of the tube atisthe
with bottom
3 the
mm. Theofpump
molten the vessel
sugar by a single
canalcohol
provide (SA) tube
an air toconnected
upflow 60 mm
rate toL·h
of
of 80 aheight.
pump.
−1. Thebubbles
Air inner diameter
are of
the tube is 3bottom
mm. The pump canby provide antube
air flow rate ofto 80aLpump. − 1
·h . The inner diameter
generated at the of the vessel a single connected
● Reactor n°2. The reactor is a cylindrical glass crystallizer with -1a diameter of 140 mm diameter
tube is n3◦mm.
of• the Reactor 2. The The pump
reactor is can provide an
a cylindrical air crystallizer
glass flow rate ofwith 80 L·h .
a diameter of 140 mm diameter and
and a height of 105 mm, filled with the molten SA up to 60 mm of height. As in reactor n°1, air
a height of 105 mm, filled with the molten SA up to 60 mm of height. As in reactor n◦ 1, air bubbles
● Reactorbubbles
n°2. Theare reactor is a cylindrical
generated at the bottom glass of crystallizer
the vesselwith by aa single
diameter tube of (3
140mmmminnerdiameter
diameter)
are generated at the bottom of the vessel by a single tube (3 mm inner diameter) connected to a
and a height
connectedof 105 to mm,
a pump filled
(80with
L·h−1the
). molten SA up to 60 mm of height. As in reactor n°1, air
pump (80 L·h−1 ).
bubbles are generated at the bottom of the vessel by a single tube (3 mm inner diameter)
connected to a pump (80 L·h-1).

Figure4.4.Pictures
Figure Picturesofofthe
the33used
usedair
airlift
liftreactors (diameter×× height
reactors(diameter n◦ 1 (85
height mm): n°1 (85 ××105
105mm)
mm)and n◦ 2.
andn°2.
(140×× 105
(140 105 mm).
mm).
Figure 4. Pictures of the 3 used air lift reactors (diameter × height mm): n°1 (85 × 105 mm) and n°2.
(140 × 105 mm).
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 267 6 of 10
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The same
The same preparation
preparation protocol protocol described
described in in Section
Section 22 isisapplied
appliedto toXylitol.
Xylitol. Once
Once the the desired
desired
starting
starting The temperature
same preparation
temperature is is reached,
reached, thethe
protocol bubbling
described
bubbling is Section
in
is started started
and its2and its impact
isimpact
applied on to on
SA the
theXylitol. SA crystallization
Once the desired
crystallization process
starting
process is temperature
visualized by is reached,
using
is visualized by using a high speed CDD camera. a the
high bubbling
speed CDD is started
camera. and its impact on the SA crystallization
process is visualized by using a high speed CDD camera.
3.2. Bubbles Observation
3.2. Bubbles Observation into into Molten
Molten Xylitol
Xylitol
3.2. Bubbles Observation into Molten Xylitol
Numerousexperiments
Numerous experiments have have
beenbeen performedperformedin order intoorder
get anto get view
overall an overall view of the
of the crystallization
process Numerous
crystallization
by bubbling. experiments
process Most by bubbling. have
of them were been
Most performed
of them
carried outwere in order
carried
in reactor ◦
n 1. outto
The get
in air an
reactor overall
flow n°1.The view
is still ofair
80flowL·hof−is1the
still
and
thecrystallization
of 80 L.h and
starting-1 process
the starting
temperature by bubbling.
temperature
of the Most
melt (To) varies of them
of thefrom melt30were ◦ carried
(To)Cvaries ◦
to 75 from out in reactor
C. The30snapshots n°1.The
°C to 75 °C. air flow
The snapshots
in Figure 3 showis stillin
the
of
Figure80 L.h
3
−1 and the starting temperature of the melt (To) varies from 30 °C to 75 °C. The snapshots in
show the different stages of bubbling from the side
different stages of bubbling from the side whereas the top views are shown in figure 4. The initiation whereas the top views are shown in
Figure
figure
and 3Theshow
the4.progress the
initiation different
of the and the stages
crystallization ofinbubbling
progress from the
of experiment
the the crystallization side in
carried whereas
outthe 50the
at experimenttop views
◦ C (i.e., carriedareout
undercooling shown 50in°C
atdegree
∆T figure 4.
◦ The
(i.e=undercooling initiation
45 C) is the degree and the
ΔT = 45 °C)
same whatever progress
the is of the
the same
applied crystallization
whatever
initial thermalthe in
applied initial thermal conditions.°C
the
conditions. experiment carried out at 50
(i.e.,The
undercooling
The crystallization
crystallization degree ΔT = follows
process
process 45 °C) isthe
follows thenext
the samesteps:
next whatever the applied initial thermal conditions.
steps:
The crystallization process follows the next steps:
Bubblesare
•●● Bubbles areformed
formedcontinuously
continuously at the
at the submerged
submerged orifice.
orifice. First
FirstFirst they grow,
theythey
grow, detach detach
from from from
the the
orifice
Bubbles are formed continuously at the submerged orifice. grow, detach the
orifice
and riseandin therisemelt
in the upmelt
to theup to thefree-surface.
liquid liquid free-surface.
The bubbles The bubbles
generation generation
is periodic is periodic
and induces and
orifice and rise in the melt up to the liquid free-surface. The bubbles generation is periodic and
induces
aninduces an
oscillatory oscillatory
motion ofmotionmotion of
the liquid, the liquid, with a major circulation cell which fills the entire
an oscillatory of thewith a major
liquid, with circulation cell which
a major circulation cellfills
which thefills
entirethecolumn.
entire
column.
Snapshots Snapshots in Figure
in Figure 5inillustrates 5 illustrates
the beat of thethebeat of the
free-surface free-surface
of the liquid.of the liquid.
column. Snapshots Figure 5 illustrates the beat of the free-surface of the liquid.
•●● At Atthe
At thefree-surface
the free-surfaceof
free-surface ofthe
of theliquid,
the liquid, the the bubbles
bubbles burst
bubbles burst in in aa very
very short
veryshort time
shorttimetimeandand generate
andgenerate
generatesmallersmaller
smaller
bubbles
bubbles(see
bubbles (seeFigure
(see Figure666(colored
Figure (coloredcircles)).
(colored circles)). PartPart of
Part of these smaller
thesesmaller bubbles
smallerbubbles
bubblesare are caught
arecaught
caughtby by the
bythe fluid
thefluid
fluid and
and
and
dragged
draggedby
dragged bybythetheflow
the flowcell
flow cellasasshown
cell showninin Figure
Figure
Figure 6. 6.
AsAs
6. Asit it
can
itcanbebe
can seen
be in in
seen
seen Figure
inFigure 7, 7,
Figure the small
7,the
the bubbles
small
small bubbles
bubbles are
then
are dispersed
then dispersedwithin
are then dispersed within the the
within liquid
the and
liquid their
and amount
their amountincreases
increases
and their amount increases with time.with time.
with time.
• ● After Afteranan average
average stirring
stirring timetime
of 5 minof 5ofmin of the mixture
the mixture “bubbles/Xylitol”,
“bubbles/Xylitol”, Xylitol
Xylitol starts starts to
to crystallize.
● After an average stirring time of 5 min of the mixture "bubbles/Xylitol", Xylitol starts to
crystallize. Crystallization
Crystallization begins on the begins
surface onof thethesurface
bubble, of the bubble,
at the at the
interface interface air/Xylitol,
air/Xylitol, then it
then it progresses
crystallize. Crystallization begins on the surface of the bubble, at the interface air/Xylitol, then it
progresses in the outward direction
in the outward direction forming a spherical solid shell. forming a spherical solid shell.
progresses in the outward direction forming a spherical solid shell.

Figure 5. Oscillation(up
(up anddown
down motion)ofof the free-surface
ofof the liquid with time produced
byby
Figure5.5.Oscillation
Figure Oscillation (upand
and downmotion)
motion) ofthe free-surface
the free-surface the liquid
of the with
liquid time
with produced
time produced the
by
the periodic bubbling.
periodic bubbling.
the periodic bubbling.

Figure6.6.Pictures
Figure Picturesofofthe
theinitial
initialstages
stages ofof bubbling
bubbling when the small
small bubbles
bubblescreated
createdatatthe
thefree
freesurface
surface
are
arecaptured
capturedby bythe
theliquid
liquidand
andentrained
entrained in in its
its movement. Bubbles dragged
movement. Bubbles draggedbybythe
theliquid
liquidflow
floware
are
highlighted
highlightedby byyellow
yellowandandred
redcircles.
circles.
Figure 6. Pictures of the initial stages of bubbling when the small bubbles created at the free surface
are captured by the liquid and entrained in its movement. Bubbles dragged by the liquid flow are
highlighted by yellow and red circles.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 267 7 of 10
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 11
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 11

Figure7.7.Top
Figure Topview
viewpictures
picturesof
ofbubbles
bubbles reaching
reaching the free-surface of
of the
the liquid
liquid at
atdifferent
differenttimes
timesofofthe
the
Figure 7. Top view
crystallization pictures
process. The of bubbles
bubbles reaching
burst and the free-surface
generate
crystallization process. The bubbles burst and generate small of the
daughters.liquid at different times of the
crystallization process. The bubbles burst and generate small daughters.
Different
Differentstages
stagesofofthethecrystallization
crystallization process from
process thethe
from bubbling in the
bubbling in undercooled
the undercooled meltmelt
to a quite
to a
Different
quite advanced
advanced stages
stage ofstage of the crystallization
of the crystallization
the crystallization process process
process from the bubbling
are presented
are presented in
in Figure
in Figure the undercooled
8a. Numerous
8a. Numerous melt to a
spherical
spherical solid
quite
solidadvanced
white particles stage
white particles
can of the
becan crystallization
be observed
observed process are presented in Figure 8a. Numerous spherical
in suspension.
in suspension.
solidSix
white particles
Sixofofthem
themwith
withcana be observed
diameter in
inferiorsuspension.
a diameter inferior 0.5 mm have
to have been
been extracted
extractedas ascan
canbe beseen
seenininFigure
Figure8b.
8b.
Six of pictures
Magnified
Magnified them with
pictures athe
ofofthediameter inferior
cross-section
cross-section totwo
ofoftwo 0.5 mm have
particles
particles been extracted
showing
showing as can
thepresence
the presence ofofabe seen
ahole
hole in
inin Figure
the
the 8b.
center
center of
Magnified
of each
each sphere pictures
sphere areofpresented
are presented the in
cross-section
Figurein 8c. of two
Figure
The 8c. particles
hole The holeshowing
corresponds to thethe
airpresence
corresponds to theon
bubble ofwhich
air abubble
holecrystallization
inonthewhich
center
ofcrystallization
has each
been sphere arebeen
has
initiated. presented
initiated.in Figure 8c. The hole corresponds to the air bubble on which
crystallization has been initiated.

Figure 8. Xylitol crystallization pictures: (a) small air bubbles are dragged by the liquid circulation
cell then
Figure 8. white crystallization
8. Xylitol
Xylitol solid particles pictures:
crystallization are formed
pictures:(a) by
(a)smallcrystallization
small airair
bubbles
bubbles of
are Xylitol
dragged
are on
draggedby the air liquid
thethe
by bubbles
liquid surface.
circulation cell
circulation
Finally,
then whitenumerous
solidsolidsolid
particles particles
are formedcan be observed in
by crystallization suspension;
of Xylitol (b) Pictures
on the on of 6
air bubblesparticles extracted
surface.surface.
Finally,
cell then white particles are formed by crystallization of Xylitol the air bubbles
from the beaker
numerous and measured
solid particles using a caliper
can be observed (dimensions
in suspension; are givenofin
(b) Pictures millimeters);
6 particles (c) magnified
extracted from the
Finally, numerous solid particles can be observed in suspension; (b) Pictures of 6 particles extracted
pictures
beaker andof the cross-sections
measured using a of particles
caliper cut in
(dimensions half.
are given in millimeters); (c) magnified pictures of
from the beaker and measured using a caliper (dimensions are given in millimeters); (c) magnified
the cross-sections
pictures of particles of
of the cross-sections cutparticles
in half. cut in half.
An air injection allows the occurrence of air bubbles and of a flow cell into the molten Xylitol
bothAnobserved for reactors 1theand 2. These phenomena participate to the formation and theXylitol
spreading
An air
air injection
injectionallows
allows theoccurrence
occurrence ofofairair
bubbles
bubbles andand
of aofflow cell
a flow into into
cell the molten
the molten Xylitolboth
of crystallized
observed Xylitol
for reactors particles.
1 and1 2. These phenomena participate to the formation andandthethe
spreading of
both observed for reactors and 2. These phenomena participate to the formation spreading
The bursting
crystallized Xylitol of the primitive air bubbles at the free liquid surface with production of small
particles.
of crystallized Xylitol particles.
bubbles
The acting as nucleation sites appear, indeed, as a necessary conditionwith for the crystallization of
The bursting
bursting of of the
the primitive
primitive air air bubbles
bubbles at at the
the free
free liquid
liquid surface
surface with production
production of of small
small
undercooled
bubbles Xylitol.
acting as as nucleation sites appear,
appear, indeed,
bubbles acting nucleation sites indeed, as as aa necessary
necessary condition
condition for for the
the crystallization
crystallization ofof
The efficiency
undercooled Xylitol. of the crystallization process depends thus on i) the number of the produced
undercooled Xylitol.
nucleation
The sites; as well as ii) the extent and the homogeneity of their(i)dispersion within the melt.
The efficiency
efficiency of of the
the crystallization
crystallization process
process depends
depends thusthus on on i) thethe number
number of the
of the produced
produced
Next
nucleation section is consequently dedicated to the preliminary thermal study of the
theprevious
nucleation sites;
sites; as
as well
well asas (ii) theextent
ii) the extentandandthe
thehomogeneity
homogeneity of of their
their dispersion
dispersion within
within the melt.
melt.
described
Next experiments but the glass beaker filled with undercooled Xylitol is, this time, thermally
Next section
sectionisis consequently
consequently dedicated
dedicatedto thetopreliminary thermalthermal
the preliminary study ofstudythe previous
of the described
previous
insulated.
experiments but the glass beaker filled with undercooled Xylitol is, this time,
described experiments but the glass beaker filled with undercooled Xylitol is, this time, thermally thermally insulated.
insulated.
4.4.Preliminary
PreliminaryThermal
ThermalAnalysis
Analysis as as aa Proof
Proof of
of Feasibility
Feasibility
Bubblingis
4. Preliminary
Bubbling isstarted
startedAnalysis
Thermal once the
once the desired
desired
as starting
a Proof temperature is
of Feasibility
starting temperature is reached.
reached. TheThe thermal
thermalresponse
responseofof
Xylitol during bubbling is recorded by two thermocouples: one close to the tube injectingair
Xylitol during bubbling is recorded by two thermocouples: one close to the tube injecting airand
andthe
the
Bubbling
other one is started
placed on the once the side.
opposite desired
Thestarting
air is temperature
injected at roomistemperature
reached. The (20thermal
°C).
◦
response of
other one placed on the opposite side. The air is injected at room temperature (20 C).
Xylitol during bubbling is recorded by two thermocouples: one close to the tube injecting air and the
other one placed on the opposite side. The air is injected at room temperature (20 °C).
 estimated the following equation:

df s  c p   dT 
=   + k (T − T∞ )  (1)
dt  Lm   dt 
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 267 8 of 10
c L
where p is the specific heat of Xylitol, m is the latent heat and k the thermal exchange coefficient.
c p Lm thermal df / dt is
A typical
Once, , and k parameters
response of high undercooled Xylitol during bubbling
are known, the crystallization rate ( s in Figure 9 where three
) can be determined.
different periods can be clearly distinguished:
An example of the estimated time evolution of the crystallization rate as well the solid fraction
•corresponding
The inductionto period,
temperature
from the databeginning
recorded by both thermocouples
of bubbling are depicted
to the beginning in Figure 9. In a
of crystallization.
It can be seen that the crystallization progresses slowly at the beginning, then accelerates up to
perfectly adiabatic reactor, the temperature of the melt should be constant during this period.
a maximum crystallization rate, and the rhythm of crystal production reduces afterwards. At the end
In practice, it slightly decreases due to thermal losses. Thermal losses take place both, by
of the recalescence period t ≈ 2500 s in Figure 9), the crystallization rate is such that power delivered
conduction through the( reactor wall and by convection due to air bubbling at ambient temperature.
•by solidification equals the thermal losses.
The recalescence period, where Xylitol is crystallizing and its temperature raises. In a perfectly
These results
thermally confirm
insulated system,the Xylitol
possibility
shouldof reach
usingthe
Xylitol as point
melting phaseand
change material for process
the crystallization seasonal
thermal energy
should stopstorage
at thatdespite
moment. its high viscosity
However, dueand
toby using alosses,
thermal simple,the
non-intrusive
maximum and thus cost-
temperature
effective bubbling technique.
reached by Xylitol is inferior to its melting point and the crystallization can progress beyond this
Further
point. We works
considerwill consist
in the in studying
following the bubblingperiod
that the recalescence performances
ends whenfor thermal
Xylitol storage
reaches its
applications. Quantitative
maximum temperature. analyses will be performed to estimate the thermal properties influencing
the discharge process and to evaluate the reachable performances.
• The end-period, where crystallization (if any) is driven by heat extraction due to thermal losses.

(a) (b)

Figure 9. Time evolution of the solid fraction (a) and time behavior of the crystallization rate (b)
calculated from the temperature data obtained using both thermocouples.

From the recorded temperature data, the evolution of the solid fraction over time as well as the
total crystallization rate can be estimated. It has been shown in [19] that the solid fraction (fs ) can be
estimated the following equation:

cp
  
d fs dT
= + k( T − T∞ ) (1)
dt Lm dt

where cp is the specific heat of Xylitol, Lm is the latent heat and k the thermal exchange coefficient.
Once, c p , Lm and k parameters are known, the crystallization rate (dfs /dt) can be determined.
An example of the estimated time evolution of the crystallization rate as well the solid fraction
corresponding to temperature data recorded by both thermocouples are depicted in Figure 9.
It can be seen that the crystallization progresses slowly at the beginning, then accelerates up to a
maximum crystallization rate, and the rhythm of crystal production reduces afterwards. At the end of
the recalescence period (t ≈ 2500s in Figure 9), the crystallization rate is such that power delivered by
solidification equals the thermal losses.
These results confirm the possibility of using Xylitol as phase change material for seasonal thermal
energy storage despite its high viscosity and by using a simple, non-intrusive and thus cost-effective
bubbling technique.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 267 9 of 10

Further works will consist in studying the bubbling performances for thermal storage applications.
Quantitative analyses will be performed to estimate the thermal properties influencing the discharge
process and to evaluate the reachable performances.

5. Conclusions
Xylitol high and stable undercooling allows long-term thermal energy storage at low to
medium temperatures with reduced thermal losses and with negligible risk of spontaneous energy
discharge. However, its nucleation triggering (energy discharge triggering) and hence, its subsequent
crystallization rates (discharge power delivery) have been recognized as major obstacles to its use as
PCM for applications below 200 ◦ C such as building applications.
Using an air lift reactor is a very promising technique to discharge the storage system at the
required power when needed.
In this paper, the proof of the concept was achieved by using pure Xylitol, i.e. without adding
any additives. This paper provides a better understanding of the effect of primitive bubbles burst
and small bubbles transportation on nucleation triggering of the whole highly undercooled Xylitol
in a small container. Indeed, it has been shown that Xylitol nucleation occurs on the surface of the
small bubbles generated at the liquid surface when primitive bubbles burst. Once dispersed within
the reactor by the liquid flow, they act as nucleation sites. The bursting of the primitive bubbles at
the free liquid surface with production of smaller bubbles is hence a necessary condition for Xylitol
crystallization. As mechanical agitation, stirring by bubbling is able to trigger the nucleation of Xylitol
in extended and highly spatially resolved areas. The efficiency of the crystallization process will
be obviously dependent on the number of nucleation produced sites as well as the extent and the
homogeneity of their dispersion within the melt. Besides, this technique is a low intrusive technique
and, consequently, easy to implement in standard storage containers. The feasibility of nucleation
triggering thanks to an air lift reactor bubble stirring being proven in this paper, further works will
consist in providing an in-depth understanding of highly undercooled Xylitol crystallization induced
by air injection, including bubbles formation and characteristics, nucleation sites generation, nucleation
sites dispersion, and crystallization on the liquid/gas interfaces. Further works will also consists in
studying the air injection performances for thermal energy storage applications to pave the way for
bubbling conditions optimization.

Author Contributions: All authors contributed to this work. Conceptualization, M.D., A.G. and E.P.D.B.;
methodology, M.D. and A.G.; investigation, M.D., A.G. and E.P.D.B.; data curation, M.D., A.G. and E.P.D.B.;
writing—original draft preparation, E.P.D.B.; writing—review and editing, M.D. and A.G.; visualization, M.D.
and A.G.; supervision, E.P.D.B.; project administration, E.P.D.B.
Funding: This research was funded by the European Community’s Seventh Framework Program (FP7/2007-2013),
grant number 296006.
Acknowledgments: The research leading to these results has received funding from the European
Community’s Seventh Framework Program (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement 296006. The authors
acknowledge them as well the financial support of Region Nouvelle Aquitaine for subsidizing BioMCP project
(Project-2017-1R10209-13023).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to
publish the results.

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