Ethiopians in India

Connect with the Aksum Empire and the Mysterious Kingdom of

Murud Janjira ?

Dr Uday Dokras, PhD Stockholm,SWEDEN

Prof. Dr. Ms Laurence Buzenot,
Docteure en géographie, Professeure d'histoire et géographie,
University of La Reunion
ARCHITECT SRISHTI DOKRAS
Miss Kinjal Shah

PART I

1
NOTE: It is now generally believed that ALL Homo Sapiens migrated north from the Rift
Valley of Africa and then gradually spread all over the world. The impassable barrier of the
great Sahara Desert may have made them go through Ethiopia to the narrow strait in the Red
Sea (that was much shallower at the time ) near Yemen. The first small wave was about
200,000 years ago followed by a bigger wave about 70,000 years ago. These early humans
then scattered all over the world and gradually acquired their distinct ethnic characteristics
shaped by climate and geography.It is rumoured that during the nid 1700’s Arabs used to
import many Habshi or Abbysinnian (Ethiopian) slaves to India and these formed pockets of
local population like the Siddis of Janjira and Gujarat but their numbers were quite small.

Why South Indians may look like Ethiopians: South Indians are a separate race ever since
African and Non African people diverged after the first major human migrations out of
Africa. South Indians DO NOT Have frizzy hair like Abyssinian or Yemeni folks do. I have
lived in Both South India and Middle East and there are SOME superficial similarities
between SOME South Indians and SOME People from Ethiopia, Eritriea, Djibouti and
Yemen and some culinary similarities , but nothing so significant that calls for a direct
relatedness or descent. The Only Exception is the Distribution of Haplogroup T ( Y-DNA )
which originated from Haplogroup K in East Central India and then spread into North East
Africa following a migration route via Middle East in Ice ages when Persian Gulf was just a
swampland, so there is some evidence that backmigration happened from South Asia to
Ethiopia via Middle East, but that happened so far back in the past like 30 to 40K YBP. That
being said there is little other genetic correlation like autosomal or mt DNA where the vast
majority of our Genetics reside.

Nevertheless the Indian Ocean Trade and shipping from at least 2000 BC meant a great
exchange of crops and natural products and some cultural items did happen between the Land
of Punt ( Eritrea, Somalia,Djibouti etc) , Yemen and Western India( Gujarat, Konkan,
Malabar) and Sri Lanka .The Following crops seem to be common to cuisines of both places (
West & Central India as well as East Africa), they could have been deliberately introduced
via trade or accidentally as weeds or spread over by some grazing animals over thousands of
years and independently domesticated - that can never be proven or disproven due to absence
of evidence or written records. The highest species diversity for wild crop relatives of these
occur in Africa , except for Serpent Gourd .

1. Sorghum
2. Pearl Millet

2
 3. Finger Millet
4. Cowpeas
5. Pigeon Peas
6. Okra
7. Nyjer Seeds
8. Serpent Gourd ( Tricosanthes )
9. Calabash/Bottle Gourd ( Lagenaria)
10. Coffee ( Introduced much later in 16th Cent Ad to South India, Karnataka from
Yemen, but its native to Ethiopia )
11. Plus
12. Recently I heard Teff has been introduced in India,but there is no evidence it was
historically cultivated outside Ethiopia or Eritrea .

Having said that the genetic mutation that transformed the apes into sapiens (it means
wise) happened in Africa according to some theory. So we all probably come from there. But
as far written history can tell, there has not been any known migration from Ethiopia. All
Indians are Indians. All Indians are referred to in puranas and Sanskrit texts as Aryans. All
those who inhabit India, Pakistan, Bangaldesh are Aryans. South Indians migrated from
Bengal, Maharashtra and other places after all the forests got cleared and Tamizh culture got
established in fertile lands such as Tanjai, Nellai, Madhurai and Kanchi. It is very very very
old civilization. At that time there was no Ethiopia , nothing. It was Akahnda bhoomi (Total
Universe). Now it is well established doctrine that Ethiopia is cradle of human (homo sapian
branch of it) civilization. So technically speaking all Indian (North & South Indians included)
have settled in the sub-continent from Ethiopia).

Everyone went from Africa. I guess southern Indians went to Africa directly via middle East
to India while northern Indians took a detour to caucus mountains before moving towards
Iran and India. So I guess northern Indians have less diluted m13 Gene compared to southern
Indians and also northern Indians race mix more so the m13 is diluted further.

Ethiopia–India relations have existed for almost two millennia. Modern diplomatic

relations between India and Ethiopia were established at the level of legations in July 1948,
after the independence of India. The relationship was raised to the ambassadorial level in
1952.  India maintains an embassy in Addis Ababa and Ethiopia in New Delhi. The two
countries have enjoyed close and friendly relations with India supporting Ethiopian
developmental efforts while Ethiopia has supported Indian interests such as its claim to a
permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council.  India and Ethiopia share a common
understanding on such issues as cross-border international terrorism, the need and direction
for reform of the United Nations, and the importance of action on climate change.
Historical ties
Trade and people-to-people contacts have existed between India and Ethiopia for almost two
millennia, Hoard of Kushan period coins have been excavated from Debre Damo, northern
Ethiopia. Beginning at the time of the Axumite Empire. Indians traded in silk, spices, gold
and ivory with the Ethiopians in the 6th century. Portuguese assistance to the King of
Ethiopia in the 16th century saw the arrival of people from Goa in Ethiopia. British
interventions in Ethiopia in 1835 to free European diplomats imprisoned by Emperor
Tewodros II under General Robert Napier and in 1941 that ended the Italian occupation both
involved large contingents of Indian soldiers who fought as part of the British commanded
forces.

3
Indian Ocean Trade has been a key factor in East–West exchanges throughout history.
Long-distance trade in dhows and proas made it a dynamic zone of interaction between
peoples, cultures, and civilizations stretching from Java in the East to the city states
of Zanzibar and Mombasa in the West. Cities and states on the Indian Ocean rim focused on
both the sea and the land. Even as far back as thought to have developed during the second
half of 3rd millennium BCE, until they came to a halt with the extinction of the Indus
valley civilization after around 1900 BCE. There was an extensive maritime trade network
operating between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations as early as the middle
Harappan Phase (2600-1900 BCE), with much commerce being handled by "middlemen
merchants from Dilmun" (modern Bahrain and Failaka located in the Persian Gulf). Such
long-distance sea trade became feasible with the development of plank-built watercraft,
equipped with a single central mast supporting a sail of woven rushes or cloth.
Several coastal settlements like Sotkagen-dor (astride Dasht River, north of Jiwani), Sokhta
Koh (astride Shadi River, north of Pasni), and Balakot (near Sonmiani) in Pakistan along with
Lothal in western India, testify to their role as Harappan trading outposts. Shallow harbours
located at the estuaries of rivers opening into the sea allowed brisk maritime trade with
Mesopotamian cities.

The Kingdom of Aksum."  The Kingdom of Aksum (Ge'ez: መንግሥተ አክሱም), also known

as the Kingdom of Axum or the Aksumite Empire, was an ancient kingdom centered in
Northern Ethiopia, and Eritrea. Axumite rulers styled themselves as King of kings, king
of Aksum, Himyar, Raydan, Saba, Salhen, Tsiyamo, Beja and of Kush.  Ruled by the
Aksumites, it existed from approximately 80 BC to AD 825. The polity was centered in the
city of Axum and grew from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period around the 4th century BC
to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD. Aksum became a major player on the
commercial route between the Roman Empire and Ancient India. The Aksumite rulers
facilitated trade by minting their own Aksumite currency, with the state establishing
its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush. It also regularly entered the politics of the
kingdoms on the Arabian Peninsula and eventually extended its rule over the region with the
conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom. The Manichaei prophet Mani (died 274 AD) regarded
Axum as one of the four great powers of his time, the others being Persia, Rome and China. It
ruled the South Arabia of Yemen for half a century in the 6th century. International use of
Aksumite coins seems to have begun early on, as coins of King Ezana and even of King
Aphilas (the second Aksumite ruler to issue coins) have been found in India. Ethiopia has

4
also been home to a sizable Indian diaspora consisting of traders and artisans who settled
down there in the latter half of the nineteenth century.

Trade & Economy : Aksum was an important participant in international trade from the 1st
century AD (Periplus of the Erythraean Sea) until circa the later part of the 1st millennium
when it succumbed to a long decline against pressures from the various
Islamic powers leagued against it.It traded with India amongst other countries.
The state already had a long trade history with Greece, Rome, the Persian Empire, and India
when it started minting coinage. That coinage began so late is in fact a little surprising. The
late use of coinage may be attributed to the lack of a developed economy, required for
coinage to be accepted. Most Aksumite coins were found in the large trade centres with very
few in remote villages, where trade would be more through barter and not coinage based. In
fact, the motivation for Aksum's initial minting of coins was for foreign trade and markets, as
evidenced by the use of Greek on most of its coins. Moreover, gold coins seem to have been
intended primarily for external trade, while copper and silver coins probably mainly
circulated within the Aksumite empire, as the gold issues generally specified "king of the
Aksumites" as title of the Aksumite king, whereas the title of silver and copper issues
generally only read "king." International use of Aksumite coins seems to have begun early
on, as coins of King Ezana and even of King Aphilas (the second Aksumite ruler to issue
coins) have been found in India.

5
An Ethiopian illuminated Evangelist portrait of Mark the Evangelist, from the Ethiopian Garima Gospels, 6th century, Kingdom of
Aksum, influenced by Eastern Roman art (PIC TO RIGHT) The economically important northern Silk Road and southern Spice
(Eastern) trade routes. The sea routes around the horn of Africa and the Indian sub-continent made Aksum an important trading
port for nearly a millennium.

Covering parts of what is now northern Ethiopia and southern and eastern Eritrea, Aksum

was deeply involved in the trade network between India and the Mediterranean (Rome,
later Byzantium), exporting ivory, tortoise shell, gold and emeralds, and importing silk and
spices. Aksum's access to both the Red Sea and the Upper Nile enabled its strong navy to
profit in trade between various African (Nubia), Arabian (Yemen), and Indian states.

The main exports of Aksum were, as would be expected

of a state during this time, agricultural products. The land was much more fertile during the
time of the Aksumites than now, and their principal crops were grains such as wheat
and barley. The people of Aksum also raised cattle, sheep, and camels. Wild animals were
also hunted for things such as ivory and rhinoceros horns. They traded with Roman traders as
well as with Egyptian and Persian merchants. The empire was also rich with gold and iron
deposits. These metals were valuable to trade, but another mineral was also widely
traded: salt. Salt was abundant in Aksum and was traded quite frequently.

Maritime trading system: It benefited from a major transformation of the maritime trading
system that linked the Roman Empire and India. This change took place around the start of
the 1st century. The older trading system involved coastal sailing and many intermediary
ports. The Red Sea was of secondary importance to the Persian Gulf and overland
connections to the Levant. Starting around 100 BC a route from Egypt to India was
established, making use of the Red Sea and using monsoon winds to cross the Arabian
Sea directly to southern India. By about 100 AD, the volume of traffic being shipped on this
route had eclipsed older routes. Roman demand for goods from southern India increased
dramatically, resulting in greater number of large ships sailing down the Red Sea
from Roman Egypt to the Arabian Sea and India.

6
The Kingdom of Aksum was ideally located to take advantage of the new trading
situation. Adulis soon became the main port for the export of African goods, such as ivory,
incense, gold, slaves, and exotic animals. In order to supply such goods the kings of Aksum
worked to develop and expand an inland trading network. A rival, and much older trading
network that tapped the same interior region of Africa was that of the Kingdom of Kush,
which had long supplied Egypt with African goods via the Nile corridor. By the 1st century
AD, however, Aksum had gained control over territory previously Kushite. The Periplus of
the Erythraean Sea explicitly describes how ivory collected in Kushite territory was being
exported through the port of Adulis instead of being taken to Meroë, the capital of Kush.
During the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD the Kingdom of Aksum continued to expand their
control of the southern Red Sea basin. A caravan route to Egypt was established which
bypassed the Nile corridor entirely. Aksum succeeded in becoming the principal supplier of
African goods to the Roman Empire, not least as a result of the transformed Indian Ocean
trading system.
The Aksumite population consisted of Ethiopic-speaking people, Cushitic-speaking people,
and Nilo-Saharan-speaking people (the Kunama and Nara).Aksumites had a modified feudal
system to farm the land. The Aksumite kings had the official title ነገሠ ፡ ነገሠተ ngś ngśt –
King of Kings.
The Aksumites erected monumental stelae, which served a religious purpose in pre-
Christian times. One of these granite columns is the largest such structure in the world, at 90
feet. Under Ezana (fl. 320–360) Aksum adopted Christianity. 
The kingdom's ancient capital, also called Axum, is now a town in Tigray
Region (northern Ethiopia). The Kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the 4th
century. Tradition claims Axum as the alleged resting place of the Ark of the Covenant and
the purported home of the Queen of Sheba.
Ethiopian historiography
Aksum is mentioned in the first-century AD Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an important
market place for the trade in ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world. It states
that the ruler of Aksum in the first century was Zoskales, who, besides ruling the kingdom,
likewise controlled land near the Red Sea: Adulis (near Massawa) and lands through the
highlands of present-day Eritrea. He is also said to have been familiar with Greek literature.
Geographically, Below  Ptolemais of the Hunts, at a distance of about three thousand stadia,
there is Adulis, a port established by law, lying at the inner end of a bay that runs in toward
the south. Before the harbor lies the so-called Mountain Island, about two hundred stadia
seaward from the very head of the bay, with the shores of the mainland close to it on both
sides. Ships bound for this port now anchor here because of attacks from the land. They used
formerly to anchor at the very head of the bay, by an island called Diodorus, close to the
shore, which could be reached on foot from the land; by which means the barbarous natives
attacked the island. Opposite Mountain Island, on the mainland twenty stadia from shore, lies
Adulis, a fair-sized village, from which there is a three-days' journey to Coloe, an inland
town and the first market for ivory. From that place to the city of the people called Auxumites
there is a five days' journey more; to that place all the ivory is brought from the country
beyond the Nile through the district called Cyeneum, and thence to Adulis. Practically the
whole number of elephants and rhinoceros that are killed live in the places inland, although at
rare intervals they are hunted on the seacoast even near Adulis. Before the harbor of that
market-town, out at sea on the right hand, there lie a great many little sandy islands called
Alalaei, yielding tortoise-shell, which is brought to market there by the Fish-Eaters.

7
There are imported into these places, undressed cloth made in Egypt for the Berbers; robes
from Arsinoe; cloaks of poor quality dyed in colors; double-fringed linen mantles; many
articles of flint glass, and others of murrhine, made in Diospolis; and brass, which is used for
ornament and in cut pieces instead of coin; sheets of soft copper, used for cooking-utensils
and cut up for bracelets and anklets for the women; iron, which is made into spears used
against the elephants and other wild beasts, and in their wars. Besides these, small axes are
imported, and adzes and swords; copper drinking-cups, round and large; a little coin for those
coming to the market; wine of Laodicea and Italy, not much; olive oil, not much; for the king,
gold and silver plate made after the fashion of the country, and for clothing, military cloaks,
and thin coats of skin, of no great value. Likewise from the district of Ariaca across this sea,
there are imported Indian iron, and steel, and Indian cotton cloth; the broad cloth
called monache and that called sagmatogene, and girdles, and coats of skin and mallow-
colored cloth, and a few muslins, and colored lac. There are exported from these places ivory,
and tortoiseshell and rhinoceros-horn. The most from Egypt is brought to this market from
the month of January to September, that is, from Tybi to Thoth; but seasonably they put to
sea about the month of September.
Origins
Largely on the basis of Carlo Conti Rossini's theories and prolific work on Ethiopian history,
Aksum was previously thought to have been founded by the Sabaeans, who spoke a language
from the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family. Evidence suggests that Semitic-
speaking Aksumites semiticized the Agaw people, who originally spoke other Afroasiatic
languages from the family's Cushitic branch, and had already established an independent
civilization in the territory before the arrival of the Sabaeans.
Scholars like Stuart Munro-Hay thus point to the existence of an older kingdom known
as Dʿmt, which flourished in the area between the tenth and fifth centuries BC, prior to the
proposed Sabaean migration in the fourth or fifth century BC. They also cite evidence
indicating that Sabaean settlers resided in the region for little more than a few decades.
Sabaean influence is now thought to have been minor, limited to a few localities, and
disappearing after a few decades or a century, perhaps representing a trading or military
colony in some sort of symbiosis or military alliance with the civilization of D'MT or some
proto-Aksumite state.[12] As George Hatke put it:
The most significant and lasting impact of these colonists was the establishment of a writing
system and the introduction of Semitic speech—both of which the Ethiopians modified
considerably. . . . South Arabian culture [was] a foreign commodity from which the
Ethiopians were able to freely pick and chose when they saw fit, rather than an entire
civilization imposed by foreign rulers.
The Ge'ez language is no longer universally thought of, as previously assumed, to be an
offshoot of Sabaean or Old South Arabian, and there is some linguistic (though not written)
evidence of Semitic languages being spoken in Eritrea and Ethiopia since approximately
2000 BC. However, the Ge'ez script later replaced Epigraphic South Arabian in the Kingdom
of Aksum.

8
A 1907 reproduction of the damaged painting Painting of the Six Kings depicting the Ethiopian Emperor of Axum, created by an
Umayyad Caliphate painter in the 8th century AD.An Axumite jar spout. The  King Ezana's Stela, an Aksumite obelisk  in Axum,
Ethiopia

Empire
The Kingdom of Aksum was a trading empire centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. It
existed approximately 100–940 AD, growing from the Iron Age proto-Aksumite period c.
fourth century BC to achieve prominence by the first century AD.
According to the Book of Aksum, Aksum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of
Cush.The capital was later moved to Axum in northern Ethiopia. The Kingdom used the
name "Ethiopia" as early as the fourth century.
The Empire of Aksum at times extended across most of present-day Eritrea,
northern Ethiopia, Western Yemen, southern Saudi Arabia and parts of eastern Sudan.[23] The
capital city of the empire was Aksum, now in northern Ethiopia. Today a smaller community,
the city of Aksum was once a bustling metropolis, cultural and economic center. Two hills
and two streams lie on the east and west expanses of the city; perhaps providing the initial
impetus for settling this area. Along the hills and plain outside the city, the Aksumites had
cemeteries with elaborate grave stones called stelee or obelisks. Other important cities
included Yeha, Hawulti-Melazo, Matara, Adulis, and Qohaito, the last three of which are now
in Eritrea. By the reign of Endubis in the late third century, it had begun minting its own
currency and was named by Mani as one of the four great powers of his time along with
the Sasanian Empire, Roman Empire, and "Three Kingdoms" China. The Aksumites

9
adopted Christianity as its state religion in 325 or 328 AD under King Ezana, and Aksum was
the first state ever to use the image of the cross on its coins.
Around the 3rd century (possibly c. 240–c. 260), the Axumites led by Sembrouthes were
victorious over the Sesea, with Sesea becoming a tributary of the Kingdom of Aksum.
Around 330, Ezana of Axum led his army into the Kingdom of Meroë, conquering and
sacking the town itself. A large stone monument was left there, and the conquest is also
related on Ezana Stone

The Ezana Stone  records negus Ezana's conversion to Christianity and his subjugation of various neighboring peoples,
including Meroë./Axumite Menhir in Balaw Kalaw (Metera) near  Senafe

King Kaleb
Around 525, King Kaleb sent an expedition to Yemen against the Jewish Himyarite king Dhu
Nuwas, who was persecuting the Christian community there. For nearly half a century south
Arabia would become an Ethiopian protectorate under Abraha and his son Masruq. Dhu
Nuwas was deposed and killed and Kaleb appointed a Christian
Himyarite, Esimiphaios ("Sumuafa Ashawa"), as his viceroy. However, around 530 this
viceroy was deposed by the Aksumite general Abraha with support of Ethiopians who had
settled in Yemen. Kaleb sent two expeditions against Abraha, but both were decisively
defeated. Kaleb did not pursue the matter further, and recognized Abraha as his new viceroy. 
After Abraha's death, his son Masruq Abraha continued the Axumite vice-royalty in Yemen,
resuming payment of tribute to Axum. However, his half-brother Ma'd-Karib revolted. After
being denied by Justinian, Ma'd-Karib sought help from Khosrow I, the Sassanid Persian
Emperor, thus triggering the Aksumite–Persian wars. Khosrow sent a small fleet and army
under commander Vahrez to depose the current king of Yemen. The war culminated with
the Siege of Sana'a, capital of Axumite Yemen. After its fall in 570, and Masruq death, Ma'd-
Karib's son, Saif, was put on the throne. In 575, the war resumed again, after Saif was killed
by Axumites. The Persian general Vahrez led another army of 8000, ending Axum rule in
Yemen and becoming hereditary governor of Yemen. According to Munro-Hay, these wars

10
may have been Aksum's swan-song as a great power, with an overall weakening of Aksumite
authority and over-expenditure in money and manpower.

Fresco of king Khosrau I war against Masruq Abraha in Yemen/ According to Ethiopian traditions, Kaleb eventually abdicated and
retired to a monastery. It is also possible that Ethiopia was affected by the  Plague of Justinian around this time. 14th century
illustration showing the king of Aksum declining the request of a Meccan delegation to yield up the Muslims. It is also known as First
Hegira

Aksum, though weakened, remained a strong empire and trading power until the rise
of Islam in the 7th century. However, unlike the relations between the Islamic powers and
Christian Europe, Aksum (see Sahama), was on good terms with its Islamic neighbors and
provided shelter to Muhammad's early followers around 615. Nevertheless, as early as
640, Umar sent a naval expedition against Adulis, the Expedition of Alqammah bin Mujazziz,
but it was eventually defeated. In the 7th century, early Muslims from Mecca sought refuge
from Quraysh persecution by travelling to the kingdom, a journey known in Islamic
history as the First Hijra. However the religion did not established until the arrival of the
Ottomans in the 15th century. 

Aksumite naval power also declined throughout the period, though in 702 Aksumite pirates
were able to invade the Hejaz and occupy Jeddah. In retaliation, however, Sulayman ibn Abd
al-Malik was able to take the occupied parts back and the Dahlak Archipelago from Aksum,
which became Muslim from that point on.
Decline
After a second golden age in the early 6th century,  the empire began to decline in the mid 6th
century, eventually ceasing its production of coins in the early 7th century. Around this same
time, the Aksumite population was forced to go farther inland to the highlands for protection,
abandoning Aksum as the capital. Arab writers of the time continued to describe Ethiopia (no
longer referred to as Aksum) as an extensive and powerful state, though they had lost control
of most of the coast and their tributaries. While land was lost in the north, it was gained in the
south; and, though Ethiopia was no longer an economic power, it still attracted Arab

11
merchants. The capital was moved to a new location, currently unknown, though it may have
been called Ku'bar or Jarmi. Eventually, the Rashidun Caliphate took control of the Red Sea
and Egypt by 646, pushing Aksum into economic isolation. Northwest of Aksum, in modern-
day Sudan, the Christian states of Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia lasted till the 13th century
before being overrun by bedouin tribes and Funj sultanate. Aksum, isolated, nonetheless still
remained Christian.
Under the reign of Degna Djan, during the 10th century, the empire kept expanding south,
and sent troops into the modern-day region of Kaffa, while at the same time undertaking
missionary activity into Angot and Amhara.
Local history holds that, around 960, a Jewish Queen named Yodit (Judith) or "Gudit"
defeated the empire and burned its churches and literature. While there is evidence of
churches being burned and an invasion around this time, her existence has been questioned
by some western authors. Another possibility is that the Aksumite power was ended by a
southern pagan queen named Bani al-Hamwiyah, possibly of the tribe al-Damutah or Damoti
(Sidama). It is clear from contemporary sources that a female usurper did indeed rule the
country at this time, and that her reign ended some time before 1003. After a short Dark Age,
the Aksumite Empire was succeeded by the Agaw Zagwe dynasty in the 11th or 12th century
(most likely around 1137), although limited in size and scope. However, Yekuno Amlak, who
killed the last Zagwe king and founded the modern Solomonic dynasty around 1270 traced
his ancestry and his right to rule from the last emperor of Aksum, Dil Na'od. It should be
mentioned that the end of the Aksumite Empire didn't mean the end of Aksumite culture and
traditions; for example, the architecture of the Zagwe dynasty at Lalibela and Yemrehana
Krestos Church shows heavy Aksumite influence.
Climate change hypothesis
Climatic change and trade isolation have also been claimed as large reasons for the decline of
the culture. The local subsistence base was substantially augmented by a climatic shift during
the 1st century AD that reinforced the spring rains, extended the rainy season from 3 1/2 to
six or seven months, vastly improved the surface and subsurface water supply, doubled the
length of the growing season, and created an environment comparable to that of modern
central Ethiopia (where two crops can be grown per annum without the aid of irrigation). This
appears to explain how one of the marginal agricultural environments of Ethiopia was able to
support the demographic base that made this far flung commercial empire possible. It may
also explain why no Aksumite rural settlement expansion into the moister, more fertile, and
naturally productive lands of Begemder or Lasta can be verified during the heyday of
Aksumite power. As international profits from the exchange network declined, Aksum lost its
ability to control its own raw material sources and that network collapsed. The already
persistent environmental pressure of a large population to maintain a high level of regional
food production had to be intensified. The result was a wave of soil erosion that began on a
local scale c. 650 and attained catastrophic proportions after 700. Presumably complex socio-
economic inputs compounded the problem. These are traditionally reflected in declining
maintenance, deterioration and partial abandonment of marginal crop land, shifts to
destructive pastoral exploitation, and eventual, wholesale and irreversible land degradation.
This syndrome was possibly accelerated by an apparent decline in rainfall reliability
beginning 730–760, with the presumed result that an abbreviated modern growing season was
reestablished during the 9th century

12
Ruins of Al–Qalis Church cathedral built by Abraha in Sana'a between 527 and 560 RIGHT PICS Typical Aksumite
architecture – the monastery of Debre Damo. RIGHT >Coins of king Endybis, 227–235 AD. British Museum. The left one reads
ΑΞΩΜΙΤΩ BICIΔΑΧΥ, possily "man of Dachu, (king) of Axumites", linguistically mixed(?). The right one reads in Greek ΕΝΔΥΒΙC
ΒΑCΙΛΕΥC, "King Endybis".

The Empire of Aksum is notable for a number of achievements, such as its own alphabet,
the Ge'ez script, which was eventually modified to include vowels, becoming an abugida.
Furthermore, in the early times of the empire, around 1700 years ago, giant obelisks to mark
emperors' (and nobles') tombs (underground grave chambers) were constructed, the most
famous of which is the Obelisk of Aksum.
Under Emperor Ezana, Aksum adopted Christianity in place of its
former polytheistic and Judaic religions around 325. This gave rise to the present
day Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (only granted autonomy from the Coptic Church
in 1959), and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church (granted autonomy from the Ethiopian
Orthodox church in 1993). Since the schism with Orthodoxy following the Council of
Chalcedon (451), it has been an important Miaphysite church, and
its scriptures and liturgy continue to be in Ge'ez.
Religion
Before its conversion to Christianity, the Aksumites practiced a polytheistic religion related
to the religion practiced in southern Arabia. This included the use of the crescent-and-disc
symbol used in southern Arabia and the northern horn. In the UNESCO sponsored General
History of Africa French archaeologist Francis Anfray, suggests that the pagan Aksumites
worshipped Astar, his son, Mahrem, and Beher.
Steve Kaplan argues that with Aksumite culture came a major change in religion, with only
Astar remaining of the old gods, the others being replaced by what he calls a "triad of
indigenous divinities, Mahrem, Beher and Medr." He also suggests that Aksum culture was
significantly influenced by Judaism, saying that "The first carriers of Judaism reached
Ethiopia between the reign of Queen of Sheba BC and conversion to Christianity of King
Ezana in the fourth century AC." He believes that although Ethiopian tradition suggests that
these were present in large numbers, that "A relatively small number of texts and individuals
dwelling in the cultural, economic, and political center could have had a considerable
impact." and that "their influence was diffused throughout Ethiopian culture in its formative
period. By the time Christianity took hold in the fourth century, many of the originally
Hebraic-Jewish elements had been adopted by much of the indigenous population and were
no longer viewed as foreign characteristics. Nor were they perceived as in conflict with the
acceptance of Christianity."
Before converting to Christianity King Ezana II's coins and inscriptions show that he might
have worshiped the gods Astar, Beher, Meder/Medr, and Mahrem. Another of Ezana's
inscriptions is clearly Christian and refers to "the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit".
Around 324 AD the King Ezana II was converted to Christianity by his teacher Frumentius,

13
the founder of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Frumentius taught the emperor while he was
young, and it is believed that at some point staged the conversion of the empire. [37][38] We
know that the Aksumites converted to Christianity because in their coins they replaced the
disc and crescent with the cross, the Axumite Jews, however, rejected the new religion and
rebelled by creating the Kingdom of Semien. Frumentius was in contact with the Church of
Alexandria, and was appointed Bishop of Ethiopia around the year 330. The Church of
Alexandria never closely managed the affairs of the churches in Aksum, allowing them to
develop their own unique form of Christianity. However, the Church of Alexandria probably
did retain some influence considering that the churches of Aksum followed the Church of
Alexandria into Oriental Orthodoxy by rejecting the Fourth Ecumenical Council of
Chalcedon. Aksum is also the alleged home of the holy relic the Ark of the Covenant. The
Ark is said to have been placed in the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion by Menelik I for
safekeeping.
Islam came in the 7th century at the reign of Ashama ibn-Abjar when the followers of the
Prophet Muhammed were persecuted by the ruling tribe and begun migrating after the first
followers got asylum from the King many begun to migrate. All of them returned
to Medina in 622.
Ethiopian sources
Ethiopian sources such as the Kebra Nagast and the Fetha Nagast describe Aksum as a
Jewish Kingdom. The Kebra Nagast contains a narrative of how the Queen of Sheba/Queen
Makeda of Ethiopia met King Solomon and traces Ethiopia's to Menelik I, her son by King
Solomon of Israel. In its existing form, the Kebra Nagast is at least 700 years old and is
considered by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church to be a reliable and historic work.
Coinage

Silver coin of Ezana.

The Empire of Aksum was one of the first African polities to issue its own coins, which bore
legends in Ge'ez and Greek. From the reign of Endubis up to Armah (approximately 270 to
610), gold, silver and bronze coins were minted. Issuing coinage in ancient times was an act
of great importance in itself, for it proclaimed that the Aksumite Empire considered itself
equal to its neighbours. Many of the coins are used as signposts about what was happening
when they were minted. An example being the addition of the cross to the coin after the
conversion of the empire to Christianity. The presence of coins also simplified trade, and was
at once a useful instrument of propaganda and a source of profit to the empire.

14
Architecture
Homely architecture

Ruins of the Dungur palace in Axum. Aksumite architecture flourished in the region from the 4th century BC onward. It
persisted even after the transition from the Aksumite dynasty to the Zagwe dynasty in the 12th century, as attested by
the numerous Aksumite influences in and around the medieval churches of Lalibela.

Like other aspects of the culture of Africa, the architecture of Africa is exceptionally

diverse. Throughout the history of Africa, Africans have developed their own
local architectural traditions. In some cases, broader regional styles can be identified, such as
the Sudano-Sahelian architecture of West Africa. A common theme in traditional African
architecture is the use of fractal scaling: small parts of the structure tend to look similar to
larger parts, such as a circular village made of circular houses.
African architecture in some areas has been influenced by external cultures for centuries,
according to available evidence. Western architecture has influenced coastal areas since the
late 15th century and is now an important source of inspiration for many larger buildings,
particularly in major cities.
African architecture uses a wide range of materials, including thatch, stick/wood,
mud, mudbrick, rammed earth, and stone. These material preferences vary by region: North
Africa for stone and rammed earth, the Horn of Africa for stone and mortar, West Africa for
mud/adobe, Central Africa for thatch/wood and more perishable materials, Southeast and
Southern Africa for stone and thatch/wood.
Aksumite architecture flourished in the region from the 4th century BC onward. It
persisted even after the transition from the Aksumite dynasty to the Zagwe dynasty in the
12th century, as attested by the numerous Aksumite influences in and around the medieval
churches of Lalibela. Stelae (hawilts) and later entire churches were carved out of single
blocks of rock. This was later emulated at Lalibela and throughout the Tigray Province,
especially during the early-mid medieval period (c. 10th and 11th centuries in Tigray, mainly
12th century around Lalibela). Other monumental structures include massive underground
tombs, often located beneath stelae. Among the most spectacular survivals are the giant
stelae, one of which, now fallen (scholars think that it may have fallen during or immediately
after erection), is the single largest monolithic structure ever erected (or attempted to be
erected). Other well-known structures employing the use of monoliths include tombs such as
the "Tomb of the False Door" and the tombs of Kaleb and Gebre Mesqel in Axum.
Most structures, however, like palaces, villas, commoner's houses, and other churches and
monasteries, were built of alternating layers of stone and wood. The protruding wooden
support beams in these structures have been named "monkey heads" and are a staple of
Aksumite architecture and a mark of Aksumite influence in later structures. Some examples
of this style had whitewashed exteriors and/or interiors, such as the medieval 12th-century
monastery of Yemrehanna Krestos near Lalibela, built during the Zagwe dynasty in Aksumite
style. Contemporary houses were one-room stone structures, or two-storey square houses,
or roundhouses of sandstone with basalt foundations. Villas were generally two to four

15
storeys tall and built on sprawling rectangular plans (cf. Dungur ruins). A good example of
still-standing Aksumite architecture is the monastery of Debre Damo from the 6th century.
In general, elite Aksumite buildings such as palaces were constructed atop podia built of
loose stones held together with mud-mortar, with carefully cut granite corner blocks which
rebated back a few centimeters at regular intervals as the wall got higher, so the walls
narrowed as they rose higher. These podia are often all that survive of Aksumite ruins. Above
the podia, walls were generally built with alternating layers of loose stone (often
whitewashed, like at Yemrehana Krestos Church) and horizontal wooden beams, with smaller
round wooden beams set in the stonework often projecting out of the walls (these are called
'monkey heads') on the exterior and sometimes the interior. Both the podia and the walls
above exhibited no long straight stretches but were indented at regular intervals so that any
long walls consisted of a series of recesses and salients. This helped to strengthen the walls.
Worked granite was used for architectural features including columns, bases, capitals, doors,
windows, paving, water spouts (often shaped like lion heads) and so on, as well as enormous
flights of stairs that often flanked the walls of palace pavilions on several sides. Doors and
windows were usually framed by stone or wooden cross-members, linked at the corners by
square 'monkey heads', though simple lintels were also used. Many of these Aksumite
features are seen carved into the famous stelae as well as in the later rock hewn
churches of Tigray and Lalibela.
Palaces usually consisted of a central pavilion surrounded by subsidiary structures pierced by
doors and gates that provided some privacy (see Dungur for an example). The largest of these
structures now known is the Ta'akha Maryam, which measured 120 × 80m, though as its
pavilion was smaller than others discovered it is likely that others were even larger.
Some clay models of houses survive to give us an idea of what smaller dwellings were like.
One depicts a round hut with a conical roof thatched in layers, while another depicts a
rectangular house with rectangular doors and windows, a roof supported by beams that end in
'monkey heads', and a parapet and water spout on the roof. Both were found in Hawelti.
Another depicts a square house with what appear to be layers of pitched thatch forming the
roof.
Stelae
The stelae (hawilt/hawilti in local languages) are perhaps the most identifiable part of the
Aksumite architectural legacy. These stone towers served to mark graves and represent a
magnificent multi-storied palace. They are decorated with false doors and windows in typical
Aksumite design. The largest of these towering obelisks would measure 33 meters high had it
not fractured. The stelae have most of their mass out of the ground, but are stabilized by
massive underground counter-weights. The stone was often engraved with a pattern or
emblem denoting the king's or the noble's rank.
The Aksumite Empire is portrayed as the main ally of Byzantium in the Belisarius
series by David Drake and Eric Flint published by Baen Books. The series takes place during
the reign of Kaleb, who in the series was assassinated by the Malwa in 532 at the Ta'akha
Maryam and succeeded by his youngest son Eon bisi Dakuen.
In the Elizabeth Wein series The Lion Hunters, Mordred and his family take refuge in Aksum
after the fall of Camelot. Kaleb is the ruler in the first book; he passes his sovereignty onto
his son Gebre Meskal, who rules during the Plague of Justinian.The Book of Enoch, a pre-
Christian work, is written in Ge'ez.

16
Ethiopia has also been home to a sizable Indian diaspora consisting of traders and artisans
who settled down there in the latter half of the nineteenth century. During Emperor Haile
Selassie's reign a large number of Indian teachers went to Ethiopia which has led to the
development of significant goodwill towards India among the Ethiopians.
The Siddi community on India's western coast are thought to be of Ethiopian descent.
Politics: During the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, Jawaharlal Nehru made a stirring call for
solidarity with Abyssinia, noting that "We in India can do nothing to help our brethren in
distress in Ethiopia for we are also victims of imperialism but we stand with them today in
their sorrow as we hope to stand together when better days come". Upon India's
independence in 1947, it sent a goodwill mission to Ethiopia and diplomatic relations were
established the following year. In 1950, the countries formalised their diplomatic ties and
Sardar Sant Singh was appointed India's first Ambassador to Ethiopia. The two countries
have since exchanged several visits at the level of Heads of State with Emperor Haile
Selassie, Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam and former Prime Minister Meles Zenawi paying state
visits to India. Presidents S. Radhakrishnan and V V Giri, Vice President Zakir Hussain and
former Prime Minister Manmohan Singh have led Indian state visits to Ethiopia.
Ethiopia's ties with India were especially strong under Prime Minister Meles Zenawi who
was supportive of India seeing India's growth as beneficial to Ethiopia's own economic
growth. Ethiopia's former Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn and the country's first lady
have both been educated in India. The second India-Africa Forum Summit was held at Addis
Ababa in May 2011 which was attended by as many as 15 Heads of States of various African
nations. This was also the first time India was hosting such an event abroad.
Economic Relations-Bilateral trade and investment
Trade between the two countries amounted to $660 million in 2011-'12 and is expected to
reach $1 billion by 2015. Indian exports to Ethiopia consists of drugs
and pharmaceuticals, steel, machinery, food items, plastic
and linoleum products, paper, textiles, chemicals, transport equipment and steel. India's
imports from Ethiopia include raw hides and skins, pulses, oil seeds, spices, leather and scrap
metal.[
India is Ethiopia's second largest source of Foreign Direct Investments with investments
amounting to $5 billion. Indian investments in Ethiopia are expected to be worth $10 billion
by 2015 with India approving investments worth $4.78 billion in 2011.
Economic cooperation
India and Ethiopia signed a Bilateral Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement in
2007 and a Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement in 2011 to promote mutual trade and
investments.[13][14] At the Second India Africa Forum Summit, the then Indian Prime Minister
Manmohan Singh announced a $300 million line of credit to help revive the Ethiopia-
Djibouti rail route.[7] This project however went to Chinese construction companies following
delays on the Indian side in sanctioning the funds. The Duty Free Tariff Preference scheme
that was announced at the summit allowing for imports from Least developed Countries into
India has however had a positive impact on bilateral trade with the value of Ethiopian exports
to India now reaching $120 million. The balance of trade however remains in India's favour.
[6]
 India has also extended $710 million in lines of credit to help in rural electrification and the
revival of the sugar industry in Ethiopia.[16]
Technical collaboration of present times-dairy sectors.  To build human resource capacity,
India trains Ethiopian diplomats and trade negotiators under its Indian Technical and
Economic Cooperation Programme. The Indian Army is involved in training and developing

17
a manual for the Ethiopian Army. The Pan-African e-Network project that India has
undertaken to link African nations with each other and to India was launched on a pilot basis
first in Ethiopia in 2007.
Aksumite currency was coinage produced and used within the Kingdom of Aksum (or
Axum) centered in present-day Eritrea and Ethiopia. Its mintages were issued and circulated
from the reign of King Endubis around AD 270 until it began its decline in the first half of
the 7th century. During the succeeding medieval period, Mogadishu currency, minted by
the Sultanate of Mogadishu, was the most widely circulated currency in the Horn of Africa.
Aksum's currency served as a vessel of propaganda demonstrating the kingdom's wealth and
promoting the national religion (first polytheistic and later Oriental Christianity). It also
facilitated the Red Sea trade on which it thrived The coinage has also proved invaluable in
providing a reliable chronology of Aksumite kings due to the lack of extensive archaeological
work in the area.[
Though the issuing of minted coins didn't begin until around 270, metal coins may have been
used in Aksum centuries prior to centralized minting. The Periplus of the Erythraean
Sea mentions that the Aksumite state imported brass, "which they use[d] for ornaments and
for cutting as money", and they imported "a little money (denarion) for [use by] foreigners
who live there." It can be inferred, therefore, that early Aksumite kings, located on the
international trading waters of the Red Sea, recognized the utility of a standardized currency
for facilitating both domestic and international trade.
Influences
Though Aksumite coins are indigenous in design and creation, some outside influences
encouraging the use of coins is undeniable. By the time coins were first minted in Aksum,
there was widespread trade with Romans on the Red Sea; Kushana or Persian influence also
cannot be ruled out. Roman, Himyarite, and Kushana coins have all been found in major
Aksumite cities, however, only very small quantities have been attested and the circulation of
foreign currency seems to have been limited.[5] Though South Arabian kingdoms had also
minted coins, they had already gone out of use by the time of certain Aksumite involvement
in South Arabia under GDRT, and only very rarely produced electrum or gold denominations
(silver mainly in Saba' and Himyar, while bronze in Hadhramaut), making influence unlikely.
The major impetus, however, was not emulation but economical; the Red Sea and its coasts
had always been an international trade area and coins would greatly facilitate trade and
wealth in the now "world power." Despite these influences, the coins were of genuinely
indigenous design, and foreign influences were relatively weak and few in number.
Pre Christian Period: Aksumite currency were first minted in the later stages of the growth of
the empire, when its Golden Age had already begun. The minting of coins began around 270,
beginning with the reign of Endubis.
Gold

18
Gold coin of Endubis.
Gold seems to have been acquired from a number of sources. Gold probably came
from Sasu (southern Sudan), as well as more nearby Ethiopian sources, though the latter isn't
well documented for the north. A gold trade from the southern areas of Ethiopia such as the
medieval province/kingdom of Innarya has been attested from the 6th century (i.e. from the
writings of Cosmas Indicopleustes) and continued through James Bruce's day (18th century).
Ethiopian Trade with modern Zimbabwe for gold was also a source.Gold also came from
more northerly sources such as Gojjam, Beja lands, and what is now Eritrea, though the latter
two are less certain. However, a recent gold exploration assay in Eritrea has found significant
gold deposits at Emba Derho, and deposits are also attested at Zara in central-western Eritrea.
Silver and others

While local sources of gold are attested during the Aksumite era, silver seems to have been
rarer in Aksum. No mention of silver mines in the region exist until the 15th and 16th
centuries. Though silver was imported as attested by the Periplus of the Erythraean
Sea, given the preponderance of silver coins, it could not have been the only source of silver
in Aksum. Furthermore, a significant number of the silver coins contain gold inlays
(presumably to increase the value), which would have been unnecessary if silver were so rare
that it had to be mainly imported. [7] Silver may have been obtained from the refinement of
gold, which sometimes occurs naturally with silver in an alloy called electrum.
Copper and bronze do not seem to have existed locally in the Aksumite empire, though they
were noted as imports in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
Value: Though the gold coins were certainly the most valuable issue, followed by the silver
one, the exact relationship between the three issues (gold, silver, and bronze) is not known.
The supply of gold was closely controlled by the Aksumite state, as noted by Cosmas
Indicopleustes, and other precious metals were undoubtedly also closely controlled, allowing
the Aksumite state to ensure the usage of its currency.
The quality of the Aksumite coins were also closely controlled, usually of high purity. For
example, the lowest purity of gold recorded thus far for Aphilas is 90 percent. Early issues
were often very close to their theoretical weights, and some were even over) However, the
weight of the coins tended to decrease over time (though not continuously or uniformly). This
may have reflected a desire to conform to the Diocletian monetary reform of 301, when

19
the aureus was decreased from 1/60 of a pound to 1/72. Despite decreases in weight, the
purity of the gold was largely maintained, even by later kings. The relative abundance of
Aksumite coins as well as the many that have yet to be found [13] indicate that Aksum must
have had access to large quantities of gold.

Sketch of gold coin of Wazeba using the Ge'ez script and language.

The coins were often inscribed in Greek, as much of its trade was with the "Graecised
Orient." Later inscriptions made more use of Ge'ez, the language of the Aksumites, perhaps
indicating a decline in its use for more international trade (i.e. with Rome and India). The
obverse of the coins would always feature an image of the king (almost always in profile)
wearing either a crown or helmet/regnal headcloth. The headcloth had some image perhaps
representing pleats, rays, or sunburst in the front, as well as the tied end of a cloth or fillet to
hold the helmet or headcloth in place. Most coins also included an inscription (usually in
Greek) meaning "King of Aksum" or King of the Aksumites" (Basileus AXWMITW).
However, many coins were also minted anonymously (or even posthumously), especially
during the 5th century. Inscriptions on the coins could include a bisi name ("man of," Ge'ez:
bə'əsyä ብእስየ) or an epithet (beginning with Əllä, Ge'ez: እለ "he who") in addition to the
king's personal name. Bisi names were used more often in conjuncture with personal names
on earlier coins, while the epithets were more common in later years, being the only inscribed
name in a few sources.[3] Greek text was used in conjunction with Ge'ez script inscriptions,
but was the only language used on the gold coins, with the exception of the Ge'ez language
coins of Wazeba and MHDYS. Over time, the Greek used on the coins (gold, silver and
bronze) deteriorated, indicative of Aksum's decline. Moreover, beginning with MHDYS for
bronze coins and Wazeba for silver coins, Ge'ez gradually replaced Greek on the legends.
Mottoes
Aksumite coins used a number of mottoes throughout the period in which they were minted,
beginning in the early 4th century. Around this time, numerous anonymous bronze coins with
simply Βασιλεύς (Basileus, "King") on the obverse were minted by either King Ezana or one
of his successors. The coins bore the first example of an Aksumite motto on the reverse,
"May this please the people" (Greek: ΤΟΥΤΟΑΡΕΣΗΤΗΧΩΡΑ). It was later written in
unvocalized Ge'ez as "ለሐዘበ ፡ ዘየደአ" LʾḤZB ZYDʾ and under King Kaleb also "ለሀገረ ፡
ዘየደአ" LHGR ZYDʾ, "may this please the city [country]." Similar mottoes were used by other
kings. Coins of the early 7th-century Emperor Armah had inscribed on the back "ፈሰሐ ፡ ለየከነ
፡ ለአዘሐበ" FŚḤ LYKN LʾḤZB (vocalization: ፍሥሓ ፡ ለይኲን ፡ ለአሕዛብ ፡ fiśśiḥā la-yikʷin
la-'aḥzāb, "Let the people be glad," lit. "Gladness let there be to the peoples").
Coins were struck in the name of eighteen Aksumite kings from c. 295 until c.
620: Endybis, Aphilas, Ousanas
I, WZB, Ezana, Ouazebas, Eon, MHDYS, Ebana, Nezana, Ousanas II, Kaleb, Armah, Ella
[17]
Gabaz, Israel, Gersem, Joel, and Hethasas.

20
Endybis

Coins of king Endybis, 227-235CE. British Museum. The left one reads in Greek

"BACIΛEYC AΧWMITW", "Emperor of Axum". The right one reads in Greek: ΕΝΔΥΒΙϹ
ΒΑCΙΛΕΥϹ, "King Endybis".
Endubis, the first known Aksumite king to mint coins, focused almost entirely on his
image on both the obverse and reverse. The images were of his head and upper half of his
chest in profile, wearing a regnal headcloth or helmet and abundant jewelry. In addition to
inscribing his regnal name, Endybis also noted his "bisi name, a practice continued by his
early successors, but often missing in later coins. The bisi name was a sort of tribal affiliation
or "ethnikon" (i.e. a reference to the king's lineage) that was different for every king.
[10]
 Endybis also emphasized his religion through the pre-Christian symbol of the disk and
crescent as a propaganda method (a purpose which the coins already served). A second motif
used by Enybis and continued by following coins was that of two (though sometimes one in
later years) ears of barley or wheat around the image of his head in profile. Though no
inscriptional evidence exists, given its prominent position around the image of the king, the
two ears of barley (or wheat) may have been representative symbols of the Aksumite state.
Though later coins would be smaller, Endybis chose the Roman aureus to standardize
Aksumite coin weights against, with gold issues at half-aureus around 2.70 grams (more
precisely, the theoretical weight may have been 2.725g).
Aphilas

Silver coin of Aphilas with gold inlay.

Whereas all of Endubis's coins feature the king with a headcloth or helmet, Aphilas's coins
show the king wearing an impressive high crown on top of the headcloth. The crown featured
colonnades of arches supporting high spikes, on top of which rested large discs of
unidentified composition. In addition to the crown and headcloth, Aphilas's coins included
further images of regalia, such as a spear, a branch with berries, the depiction of the arms, the
addition of tassels with fringes to the imperial robe, and more jewelry, such as amulets and
bracelets. Despite this innovation, Aphilas continued to use the image of himself in the regnal
headcloth in some coins, sometimes as the reverse, while his crowned image is only found on
the obverse

21
One of his issues included his frontal image on the obverse, which ended with his reign and
was only revived by the late kings. Two other minting features of Aphilas were also
abandoned by later rulers. One of these was the use of just the inscription "King Aphilas" as
the reverse of a coin, the only purely epigraphical side ever used on an Aksumite coin. The
other was his use of a single ear of barley or wheat as a reverse, though his use of two ears
circling around the king's image continued.
Aphilas introduced a number of different standards for all three metals, some of which lasted
through to the 7th century, while the use of others ended with his reign. His new gold coins
(issued in conjunction with the older) of a quarter aureus and eighth aureus were soon
abandoned (each are known from only one specimen), and 1/16 aureus coins have been
found, though these are more likely to be deliberate debasements to increase profit (Aksumite
gold was generally very pure, however). Aphilas's silver coin, however, issued at half the
weight of the former, became the new Aksumite standard for silver up until the end of
coinage. The older coin was presumably more valuable than needed, and the new coin
remedied the problem. Aphilas's bronze issue, however, was instead doubled to 4.83 grams.
The coin's rarity may attest to its quick withdrawal from the market, as is assumed with his
quarter-aureus. These two issues are the only one of Aphilas's issues to portray him frontally,
rather than in profile
Ezana

Silver coin of Ezana.

During Ezana's reign a major change in both the Aksumite kingdom and its coinage took
place as a result of the change of the official religion to Christianity, one of the first states
ever to do so. While Ezana's coins in the first half of his reign are almost identical to those of
Aphilas, barring minimal weight reductions, those of his second half employ revolutionary
designs. With his conversion to Christianity, Ezana began to feature the Cross on his coins,
the first time the Christian cross had ever been featured in coinage in the world. Some of his
gold Christian coins are of the weight before Constantine I's weight reform in 324, indicating
a conversion before this date or perhaps a few years after, as the Aksumite coinage may not
have changed weights immediately. Along with the adoption of the Cross on his coins came,
of course, the abandonment of the star and crescent symbol on the coins. Later Christian
coins reflect the adoptment of the 4.54 g standard by Constantine, with theoretical weights in
Aksumite coins likewise dropping to 1.70 g for the gold coins.
Coins of Ezana without any symbol at all have also been found, along with similar symboless
coins of his father, Ousanas. These may reflect a transition in the religion in Aksum
when Frumentius was influencing Ezana's father and gathering Christians in the country,
giving weight to the writings of Rufinus. The lack of symbol altogether may reflect an
uncertainty as how best to exhibit the change in religion of the Aksumite state.
Weight Standards: Gold The gold coin weighed on average 2.5-2.8 grams and was 15–
21 mm in diameter at the start of issue, in 270-300. This would make it half an Aureus which

22
weighed 4.62-6.51 grams at the time of Probus. The issue of Israel (570-600) weighed
1.5 grams and was 17 mm in diameter. The Roman solidus of Maurice Tiberius was 4.36-
4.47 grams. A majority of these coins were found in South Arabia and not Aksum. The name
is unknown so it is referred to as an AU Unit.
Silver coinage
Also starting with Endubis these coins were 2.11-2.5 grams in weight which is half the
weight of a Roman antoninianus of 3.5-4.5 grams. A Denarius in the early 3rd century was
2.5-3.00 grams of 52 percent or less of silver, but the Aksum coins were almost pure silver at
first later debased. The name is unknown so it is referred to as an AR Unit.
Base coinage
Most bronze and silver coins have mainly been found in Aksum territory, with very few
pieces found in Judea, Meroë and Egypt. They are based roughly on the size of older
Roman As and Sestertius in shape and thickness. The design also developed like Roman
coins in first being good but then the pictures turn archaic and non recognisable. The name is
unknown so it is referred to as an Æ diameter in mm Unit, like Æ17 for a coin of 17 mm.
At the time of Aksum's minting of currency, the state already had a long trade history with
Greece, Rome, the Persian Empire, and India. That coinage began so late is in fact a little
surprising. The late use of coinage may be attributed to the lack of a developed economy,
required for coinage to be accepted. Most Aksumite coins were found in the large trade
centres with very few in remote villages, where trade would be more through barter and not
coinage based.[5] In fact, the motivation for Aksum's initial minting of coins was for foreign
trade and markets, as evidenced by the use of Greek on most of its coins. [10] Moreover, gold
coins seem to have been intended primarily for external trade, while copper and silver coins
probably mainly circulated within the Aksumite empire, as the gold issues generally specified
"king of the Aksumites" as title of the Aksumite king, whereas the title of silver and copper
issues generally only read "king.
Decline: During the 7th century, Aksumite power began to fail, and Ethiopian society began
to withdraw further into the highland hinterlands, with the coastal areas becoming peripheral
areas (whereas Adulis on the coast was once the second city of Aksum). The coins continued
circulation, but were restricted to more local areas such as Nubia, South Arabia and the Horn
of Africa.
Due to the nature of the coins (e.g. providing kings' names), they have proved essential in
constructing a chronology of the Kings of Aksum. An estimated 98 percent of the city
of Aksumremains unexcavated, and other areas even more so. Through analysis of the
number of coins produced and the style of coins, archaeologists have been able to construct a
rough chronology, generally agreed upon until the late 6th- and 7th-century kings. Of the 20
Aksumite Kings attested by their coins, inscriptions corroborate the existence of only two,
who happen to be the most famous kings: Ezana and Kaleb, both of whose reigns were
periods of exceptional prosperity during the height of the Aksumite kingdom.
Many coins have been found in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, the central region of Aksum,
though Aksumite coins are reported to have been found in Arato and Lalibela. Many coins
have been also found further afield. Numerous hoards of coins (always gold save one silver
coin) have been found in Southern Arabia, much more than in Aksum itself, attesting perhaps
to an Aksumite presence in parts of the region (perhaps supporting the use of titles claiming
control over parts of South Arabia from GDRT's time). The hoards may be the remnants of
hoards left in Kaleb's time (perhaps used to pay soldiers), when it was under an Aksumite
governor. Outside of the Horn of Africa and Arabian Peninsula, coins have been found as far

23
as Israel, Meroe, Egypt, and India. Silver and copper coins are mainly found in Aksum,
though some can be traced to Palestinian pilgrim centers.
In addition to historical evidence, the coins' use of Ge'ez provides valuable linguistic
information. Though rarely used, the vocalization of Ge'ez sometimes employed on Aksumite
coins allows linguists to analyze vowel changes and shifts that cannot be represented in the
older Semitic abjads such as Hebrew, Arabic, South Arabian, and earlier, unvocalized Ge'ez.

24