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Hydraulic Structures
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7th Sem

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Civil Engineering

By Ankit

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Hydraulic Structures

Reservoir
 water storage reservoirs may be created by constructing a dam across a river, along with suitable
appurtenant structures.
 reservoirs are also meant to absorb a part of flood water and the excess is discharged through a
spillway.

Reservoir storage zone

These specific levels and parts are generally defined as follows:

Full Reservoir Level (FRL): It is the level corresponding to the storage which includes both inactive and active
storages and also the flood storage, if provided for. In fact, this is the highest reservoir level that can be maintained
without spillway discharge or without passing water downstream through sluice ways.

Minimum Drawdown Level (MDDL): It is the level below which the reservoir will not be drawn down so as to
maintain a minimum head required in power projects.

Dead Storage Level (DSL): Below the level, there are no outlets to drain the water in the reservoir by gravity.

Maximum Water Level (MWL): This is the water level that is ever likely to be attained during the passage of the
design flood. It depends upon the specified initial reservoir level and the spillway gate operation rule. This level is
also called sometimes as the Highest Reservoir Level or the Highest Flood Level.

Live storage: This is the storage available for the intended purpose between Full Supply Level and the Invert Level of
the lowest discharge outlet. The Full Supply Level is normally that level above which over spill to waste would take
place. The minimum operating level must be sufficiently above the lowest discharge outlet to avoid vortex formation

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and air entrainment. This may also be termed as the volume of water actually available at any time between the
Dead Storage Level and the lower of the actual water level and Full Reservoir Level.

Dead storage: It is the total storage below the invert level of the lowest discharge outlet from the reservoir. It may
be available to contain sedimentation, provided the sediment does not adversely affect the lowest discharge.

Outlet Surcharge or Flood storage: This is required as a reserve between Full Reservoir Level and the Maximum
Water level to contain the peaks of floods that might occur when there is insufficient storage capacity for them
below Full Reservoir Level.

Some other terms related to reservoirs are defined as follows:

Buffer Storage: This is the space located just above the Dead Storage Level up to Minimum Drawdown Level. As the
name implies, this zone is a buffer between the active and dead storage zones and releases from this zone are made
in dry situations to cater for essential requirements only. Dead Storage and Buffer Storage together is called
Interactive Storage.

Within-the-Year Storage: This term is used to denote the storage of a reservoir meant for meeting the demands of a
specific hydrologic year used for planning the project.

Carry-Over Storage: When the entire water stored in a reservoir is not used up in a year, the unused water is stored
as carry-over storage for use in subsequent years.

Freeboard: It is the margin kept for safety between the level at which the dam would be overtopped and the
maximum still water level. This is required to allow for settlement of the dam, for wave run up above still water level
and for unforeseen rises in water level, because of surges resulting from landslides into the reservoir from the
peripheral hills, earthquakes or unforeseen floods or operational deficiencies.

Uses of reservoirs

 Water supply
 Hydroelectric power
 Flood control
 Irrigation
 Navigation

Water supply
Reservoir water can be used to supply water to our homes and factories. Reservoirs are designed to store
the rain that falls during the wetter parts of the year, so that there is a continuous supply of water for the
drier periods.
The water from reservoirs must be cleaned before it is used. This is done at a water treatment
works. Chemicals are added to help remove unwanted naturally occurring mineral particles and harmful
bacteria. Dirt and other small particles are usually removed by filtering the water through beds of sand and
gravel, or by adding chemicals that cause the particles to stick together so that they can be separated off
from the water.
Once the water is treated, it is transferred to a service (or storage) reservoir ready for
distribution. Service reservoirs are covered reservoirs. In the UK, there is a network of tens of thousands of
kilometres of underground pipes that carry billions of litres of clean water every day to homes, offices,
schools, factories and hospitals.

Hydroelectric power
Reservoirs can be used to store water to feed hydroelectric power stations. Hydroelectric power is
generated by using the energy from falling water to drive water turbines that in turn drive electric
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generators. The reservoir water is stored at a higher level than the turbines, which are housed in a power
station. Sometimes, the power station is directly in front of a dam, and pipes through the dam feed water
directly to the turbines. In other cases, the power station is some distance downhill from the reservoir, and
the water is fed to it through long pipes or tunnels called penstocks.

Flood Control
Water from snow and rainfall will find its way into stream and rivers and eventually into the sea. After
severe storms, or heavy snow or rain over a number of days, the water level in rivers can rise dramatically.
Sometimes, the water flows over riverbanks or walls causing flooding of farmland, property, and in the
worst cases, loss of life.
A reservoir can be used to control the amount of water flowing in a river after heavy rain. The water level
in the reservoir is kept low during the rainier periods of the year. When heavy rain occurs, it is stopped by
the dam and held back in the reservoir. When the reservoir gets too full, the floodwater can be passed
downstream over a spillway.
Sometimes, floodgates are used on top of spillways, and they can be fully or partly opened to control the
amount of water let out into the river downstream.

Irrigation
Plants will grow naturally on fertile soil that is watered by rain. However, in regions of the world where the
climate is very dry for some seasons, the soil becomes so dry that it restricts the growth of vegetation. This
problem can be overcome by irrigation, a man-made system for watering the land.
Irrigation water can be
stored in reservoirs during the rainy season, then in the drier seasons it can be released from the reservoir
and distributed over the land through a system of canals. Usually, the water flows under the influence of
gravity to the areas requiring it, or the water can be pumped out of the canals onto the land.

Navigation
The construction of a dam across a river forms a reservoir that raises the water level upstream, stores the
water, and slows down its rate of flow. This improves the navigation conditions upstream of the dam for
ships and boats. Dangerous areas of rocks and sandbanks, previously in shallow water, become well
covered, and rapids in the river disappear. Also, water from the reservoir can be released into the river
downstream during the drier seasons of the year to make sure that it is deep enough for navigation all the
year round.
Classification
Storage Reservoirs:
Storage reservoirs are also called conservation reservoirs because they are used to conserve water.
Storage reservoirs are constructed to store the water in the rainy season and to release it later when the
river flow is low.
Flood Control Reservoirs:
A flood control reservoir is constructed for the purpose of flood control. It protects the areas lying on its
downstream side from the damages due to flood.
Retarding Reservoirs:
A retarding reservoir is provided with spillways and sluiceways which are ungated. The retarding reservoir
stores a portion of the flood when the flood is rising and releases it later when the flood is receding.
Detention Reservoirs :
A detention reservoir stores excess water during floods and releases it after the flood. It is similar to a
storage reservoir but is provided with large gated spillways and sluiceways to permit flexibility of
operation.

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Distribution Reservoir: A reservoir connected with distribution system a water supply project, used
primarily to care for fluctuations in demand which occur over short periods and as local storage in case of
emergency such as a break in a main supply line failure of a pumping plant.
Balancing Reservoirs:
A reservoir downstream of the main reservoir for holding water let down from the main reservoir in excess
of that required for irrigation, power generation or other purposes.
Multipurpose Reservoir:
A reservoir constructed and equipped to provide storage and release of water for two or more purposes
such as irrigation, flood control, power generation, navigation, pollution abatement, domestic and
industrial water supply, fish culture, recreation, etc.

Investigations
 Engineering surveys
 Geological investigations
 Hydrological investigations
Engineering surveys
 Conducted for dam, reservoir and other associated work.
 Topographic survey of the area is carried out and the contour plan is prepared
 The horizontal control is usually provided by triangulation survey, and the vertical control by precise
levelling.
Geological investigation
Geological investigations of the dam and reservoir site are done for the following purposes.
1. Suitability of foundation for the dam.
2. Watertightness of the reservoir basin
3. Location of the quarry sites for the construction materials.
Hydrological investigations
The hydrological investigations are conducted for the following purposes :
1. To study the runoff pattern and storage Capacity.
2. To determine the maximum discharge at the site.
Site selection
 Large storage capacity
 River valley should be narrow, length of dam to constructed is less.
 Watertightness of reservoir.
 Good hydrological conditions
 Deep reservoir
 Small submerged area
 Low silt inflow
 No objectionable minerals
 Low cost of real estate
 Site easily accessible
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Mass Curve of Inflow

A mass curve of inflow (or mass curve) is a plot of accumulated flow in a stream against time. As indicated
below a mass curve of inflow can be prepared from the flow hydrograph of a stream for a large number of
consecutive previous years.

Figure 3.13 (a) shows a typical flow hydrograph of a

stream for six consecutive years. The area under the
hydrograph from the starting year (i.e., 1953) upto any
time t1 [shown by hatching in Fig. 3.13 (a)] represents
the total quantity of water that has flown through the
stream from 1953 upto t1 time and hence it is equal to
the ordinate of the mass curve at time t1

The ordinates of the mass curve corresponding to

different times are thus determined and plotted at the
respective times to obtain the mass curve as shown in
Fig. 3.13 (b). A mass curve continuously rises as it shows accumulated flows.

*The slope of the curve at any point indicates the rate of flow at that particular time. If there is no flow
during certain period the curve will be horizontal during that period. If there is high rate of flow the curve
rises steeply. Thus relatively dry periods are indicated as concave depressions on the mass curve.

Mass Curve of Demand

A mass curve of demand (or demand curve) is a plot between accumulated demand and time (Fig. 3.14). If
the demand is at a constant rate then the demand curve is a straight line [Fig. 3.14 (a)] having its slope
equal to the demand rate. However, if the demand is not constant then the demand curve will be curved
[Fig. 3.14 (b)] indicating a variable rate of demand.

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YIELDS OF RESERVOIR

 It is the amount of water that can be supplied by the reservoir in a specified interval of time.
 The specified time interval may vary from a day for a small distribution reservoir to a month or year for
large conservation reservoirs.
 If we say that three million cubic metres of water can be supplied from a reservoir in a year then its
yield is 3000000 m3/year.
 The yield of the reservoir is dependent upon the inflow and thus varies from time to time.

Safe Yield
 It is also known as firm yield.
 It is the maximum quantity of water that can be supplied from the reservoir with full guarantee during
the worst dry period.

Design Yield
 The critical period for a reservoir is generally considered, when natural flow in the reservoir is
minimum.
 There is possibility that sometimes the minimum natural flow in the reservoir may even fall short of
guaranteed yield.
 Hence a lower value than the guaranteed yield or safe yield may be taken for design purpose.
 This yield whose value is smaller than the safe or firm yield is known as design yield.
 The value of design yield for a reservoir to be used for water supply is taken less than the safe yield.
 In the case of reservoirs used for irrigation purpose the design yield may be taken slightly more than
the safe yield as crops can tolerate some deficiency of water during exceptionally dry season.

Secondary Yield.
 The quantity of water available in excess of safe yield is known as secondary yield.
 This yield is available during period of high inflows.
 This secondary yield of the reservoir can be used either to generate extra hydroelectric power or for
irrigation of extra lands.

Average Yield.
 The arithmetic average of the safe yield and the secondary yield considered for a number of years is
known as average yield.
 The storage capacity of the reservoir and its yield are very much interdependent.
 The water is stored in the reservoir to fulfill the safe yield requirements.
 If capacity of the reservoir is more it can certainly provide more water and hence yield is more.
 The reservoirs are designed to meet a specific demand of water.
 The capacity of the reservoir and the yield are governed by the following storage equation:
Inflow – outflow = Increase in storage.

Life of a Reservoir

 The ultimate density of a reservoir is to be filled with silt deposits.

 To allow for siliting certain percentage of storage is usually left unutillized and called ”dead
storage”.
 More silt will also reduce the ‘life of useful storage ‘.

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 The useful life of reservoir is terminated when its capacity is reduced to 20 % of the designed
capacity.
 While reservoir planning must include the considration of probable rate of silting to determine life
of reservoir .
 The reservoir is sedimentation is measured in term of trap efficiency ( ).
 Trap effeciency of reservoir is the percentr of imflowing sediment which retained in reservoir .
 Trap efficiency is a function of ( )
 The rate of sliting is higher in the initial stages an d it decreases as silting takes place .
 The complete filling of a reservoir with silt may take a very long time.
 At the same time , a small reservoir on a large stream has a very small ratio.
 Trap effecienty for such a reservoir is extremely small and the stream passes most of its inflow so
quickly that the finer sediments do not settle but are dischgarged downstream. Such a reservoir
has smaller trap effeciency .
 Large reservoir constructed on small stream has greater ratio .Such a reservoir has greater trap
effeciency .
 Such a reservoir may retain water for several years .