Soil is defined as the solid particles formed by disintegration of rock.

 Father of soil Mechanics – Dr. Karl Terzaghi

 Laws of mechanics + hydraulics applied on soil simultaneously.
 The process of formation of roil is called pedogenesis

 Geological cycle

Weathering(1)
Upheaval(4) Transportation(2)
Deposition(3)

Weathering

Mechanical/physical Chemical
e.g. Cohesion less soil e.g. Cohesive soil
sand clay
Types of soil
1). Aeolian Soil Deposit - by Wind
2). Alluvial Soil Deposit - by Water
3). Colluvial Soil Deposit - by Gravity
4). glacial Drift or Drift - by Ice
5). Lacustrine - At the bottom of still water body
6). Marine Soil Deposit - At Coastal Area
7). Cumulose soil Deposit - Presence of Organic Matter
i. Muck – fully decomposed
ii. Peat
Partially decomposed
iii. humus

Muck – fully decompose organic Matter

Peat – The Deposit of high depth which contains partially decomposed organic
matter.
Humus – The soil deposit of very small depth which contains partially decomposed
organic matter.
Black Cotton Soil
 Inorganic clay
 black in color & used for cotton crops
 Excessive shrinkage & swelling
 Pile Foundation (Under reamed pile)
1. It is a type of inorganic clay
2. It is black in color & useful for cotton crops
3. It has excessive Shrinkage & swelling properties
4. Load bearing Capacity of this soil is very low & under-ream pile foundations
are used for construction in clack cotton soil.
5. It is found in central part of India e.g. Maharashtra, Orissaetc.

Bentonite Clay
It is a small sized volcanic ash has high plasticity & compressibility.
Tuff – It is small sized volcanic ash with movement from wind or water.
Marl - Marine soil deposit which contains CaCO 3
Loess – It is the silt deposit which is formed by movement of pure silt by wind.
Talus– It is the soil particles present in Colluvial soil deposit

Properties of Soil
BASIC PROPERTIES
1). Density or Mass Density
δ =
𝑀𝑀
𝑣𝑣
Unit  g/cm3 or kg/m3
a). Bulk Density
δ =
𝑀𝑀
𝑉𝑉
b). Dry density
δd=
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑉𝑉
c). Submerged Density
δ1 = δ sat – δ w
δw = Density of water
= 1g/cm3 at 4oC
2). weight Density
𝛾𝛾 = Unit N/cm3, KN/m3
𝑊𝑊
𝑉𝑉
𝛾𝛾 = δg

a). Bulk unit weight

𝛾𝛾 =
𝑤𝑤 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

Density of Solids is always greater than dry density of soil.

δ s >δ d

Specific Gravity
G=M s Volume = Constant (v d =W w =V)
Ww Temp = Constant (27oC)

G = δs G = Ms
δw Mw

• It is the ratio of mass of soil solids to mass of water at constant volume &
under constant temp (27oC)
• Specific gravity is unit less quantity.
• The value of specific gravity for soil varies from 2.65 to 2.68 (inorganic soil)
& 1.2-1.4 ( organic soil)
• An average Value of 2.67 may be considered.

1). Water Content

%w = x 100 *100
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

 Unit less quantity( by Nikhil sir 9560969640)

 w>,o (it has no upper limit)
 24 hours at 105oc – 110oc – Oven drying method.
2). Void Ratio (e)
e = Vv Volume of voids
Vs Volume of solids
  Unit less Quantity
 e>o (it has no upper limit)
 expressed as fraction
The void ratio of fine soil is always greater then coarse soil because fine should
contains large mo of voids

3). Porosity/%Voids
Porosity is also known as % voids
%n = x 100 *100
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

 Unit less quantity

 Value 0<n<100%
n =
𝑒𝑒
1+𝑒𝑒

e =
𝑛𝑛
1−𝑛𝑛

4). Degree of Saturation (S)

S = V w /V v
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 *100

 Unit less Quantity

 Value
For dry soil, V w =0  S = 0
For fully saturated soil, V a = 0 ,S=1

For partially saturated soil, O<S<1

Overall value O≤S≤1
Degree of Saturate Soil Type
0 Dry soil
0-0.25 Humid soil
0.25-0.50 Damp soil
0.50-0.75 Moist soil
0.75-10 Wet soil
1.0 Fully saturated soil
5). Air Content (ac)
ac =
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑉𝑉𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
 Unit less Quantity
 For dry soil, V w = 0

a c =1
 fully saturated soil, V a = 0
a c =0
 Partially saturated  O<a c <1
 Overall valueO≤a c ≤1
S+a c =1

6). % Air voids (na)

%n a = x 100
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉

 Unitless quantity
 O≤n a ≤100%
na=0 (Fully saturated soil)
∵V a =0
1). e = ; n = V =
𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉
1−𝑛𝑛 1+𝑒𝑒 s 1+𝑒𝑒

2). Se=wGW s =
𝑊𝑊
1+𝑤𝑤

3). δ d = 𝛾𝛾 d =
𝑑𝑑 𝑟𝑟
1+𝑤𝑤 1+𝑤𝑤
R

4). 𝛾𝛾 d = 𝛾𝛾 d = (1-n a ) G𝛾𝛾 w

(𝐺𝐺+𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆)
dw
1+𝑒𝑒
R R R

1+wG
 For Dry soil , S=o
𝛾𝛾 d
R = G𝛾𝛾 w R

1+e
 Fully saturated soul, S=1

𝛾𝛾 sat = ( )
𝐺𝐺+𝑒𝑒
𝛾𝛾 w
1+𝑒𝑒
R R
  Submerged soil
𝛾𝛾 1 = 𝛾𝛾 sat – 𝛾𝛾 w
P R R

𝛾𝛾 = ( )
1 𝐺𝐺−1
𝛾𝛾 w
1+𝑒𝑒
P R

If in question, 𝛾𝛾=g/cm3, 𝛾𝛾 w = 1g/cm3 R

𝛾𝛾 = kN/m3𝛾𝛾 w = 10 kN/m3 or 9.81 kN/m3

PR

Laboratory Determination

1) Specific Gravity
Pycnometer bottle Method

Capacity = 900ml (exact)

≈ 1L (approx)
M 1 = Mass of empty pycnometer bottle
M 2 = Mass of empty pycnometer bottle + Dry soil
M 3 = Mass of empty pycnometer bottle + Dry soil + Water
M 4 = Mass of empty pycnometer bottle + Water Only

G = M 2 -M 1
(M 2 -M 1 )-(M 3 -M 4 )

• This method is used for coarse soil.

 • If Density bottle is used then the specific gravity can be determined for
coarse sail & fine soil. (In Density bottle, only a pipe is attached to the hole
to fill water.

2). Water content

a). Pycnometer Bottle Method
w = M 2 -M 3 G-1
-1 x 100
M 3 -M 4 G
M1 = Mass of empty pycnometer bottle
M2 = Mass of empty pycnometer bottle + Soil
M3 = Mass of empty pycnometer bottle + soil + water
M4 = Mass of empty pycnometer bottle + Water only
The method is used for coarse soils only

b). Oven Drying Method

%w = mw
x 100
ms
%w = M 2 -M 3
x 100
M 3 -M 4
M1 = Mass of empty container
M2 = Mass of Empty container
Oven Drying (24 hours @ 105oC-100oC)
M 3 = Mass of empty container + dry soil
i. This method is the most accurate method.
ii. For inorganic soils, the temp should be 105-110oC
iii. For the organic soils, the temp should be 60oC
iv. For the soil containing Gypsum (CaSO.2H 2 O), the temp should not be more
than 80oc

c). Sand Both Method

M1 = Mass of empty container
M2 = Mass of empty container + soil
After heating the soil @ 30 min to 45 min
M3 = Mass of empty container + dry soil
%w = M 2 -M 3
x 100
M 3 -M1
I. This method given the rough value of water content.
II. There is no control of temperature in this method.
III. This method is used for inorganic soils.

d) Alcohol method
Methylated Spirit It gets evaporated when it comes in contact withO 2
M1 = Mass of empty container
M2 = Mass of empty container + Soil
Add methylated spirit
M3 = Mass of empty container + Soil
%w = M 2 -M 3
x 100
M 3 -M 1

i) This method is used for inorganic soils.

ii). this method given fairly accurate results

e). Calcium carbide method.

(CaC 2 )
CaC 2 +H 2 o  Cao +C 2 H 2
I. 5-10min∴ this is the least time consuming method
II. It can be used for any type of soil.
III. The results are fairly accurate
IV. This is also a field method

f). Radiation method

I. This method is an on –site or in-situ method
II. in-this method, the collection of sample is not Required
III. This method is very costly method. And have uneconomical
IV. In this method, the water molecules present in soul gets disturbed.
V. In this method, the results are higher than expected.
In this, neutrons get emitted & react with water, then there is loss of energy. Then
detector detects this
g). Torsion Balance method
 It is used for fine soil.

consistency
Consistency it is the external work done required to convert the soil from one state
to another.

Consistency limit
I. It is the water content at which soil changes form one state to another
II. It is also known as Atterberg’s limit
a) Liquid limit
b) Plastic limit
c) Shrinkage limit

Liquid Limit
I. It is the minimum water content at which the soil converts from plastic state
to liquid state
II. At liquid limit, all the soils containsvery small shear strength

Plastic limit
I. This minimum water content at which the soil is converted from semi solid to
plastic state.

Shrinkage Limit
i. it is the min water content at which a soil is convert from semi-soils state to
solid
ii. it is the water content below which volume of soil is constant
iii. At shrinkage limit & above water content, the soil is fully saturated.
iv. Below shrinkage limit ,the soil is partially saturated hence lies b/w 0 to 100.

1). Plasticity Index

Plasticity index represents the range of water content in which soil contains plastic
properties.
 I P = W L -W P
i. W L = W P  I P =O  Non-plastic soil e.g. sand
ii. W L > W P  I P = +Ve
iii. W L < W P  I P ≠ -Ve  I P =0

I p = plasticity index
W L = liquid limit

W p = plastic limit
W = natural water content

IP Soil type Example

0 Non-plastic soil sand
0-7 Low plastic soil Silt
7-17 Medium plastic Salty clay
>17 Highly plastic soil Clay

2). Consistency Index

I c =W L -W W L -W
=
IP W L -W P
i. I C = o  W L = W  Soil is at liquid Limit
ii. I C = 1  W P = W  Soil is at plastic limit
iii. o<I C <1  soil is at plastic state
iv. I C >1  W<W P  Semi-solid/solid
v. I C <O  W>W L  Liquid state

3). Liquidity Index or Water plasticity Ratio

I L = W-W p W-W p
=
IP W L -W p

• I C +I L =1

Activity of Clay
• Activity of Clay is the ratio of plasticity index to percentage particle less than
2µ.
 • This term is defined only for clay particle
• Activity of clay is the slope of curve b/w plasticity index & percentage
particles less than 2µ.
• A= IP/ (%C)
• Unit unit less

Activity
0-0.75 Inactive
0.75-1.25 Normal
>1.25 Active (max shrinkage & swelling)(black cotton soil)

IP
tanϴ=A=slope

%C

Sensitivity of clay – It is the ratio of shear strength of soil for undisturbed condition
to the shear strength of soil for disturbed condition

S undisturbed = Sr
S disturbed
Sensitivity of soul is always greater than 1
If S r = 1  Insensitive soil.

Thixotropy of clay
Thix To touch
• The process of strength loss & strength gain without any change in water
content of soul is known as Thixotropy.
• The gain in strength is due to reformation of molecular crystals & structures.
Laboratory Determination

1). Plastic limit

1). 8g to 30g own dried soil is considered

2). some water is added in soil to make soil paste
3). this paste is converted form soil ball to cylindrical thread.
4). If at the crumbling of thread
i. diameter > 3 mm Add some water
ii. Diameter = 3mm Water content in soil = plastic limit of soil.
iii. diameter < 3mm Remove some water by kneading action

2). Liquid Limit

Soviet liquid Device method
Or
Cone penetration method

Indian standard (I.S) ASTM

 Stainless steel cone  Stainless steel cone
 Central angle = 31o  Central angle = 30o
 Sliding mass = 80g  Sliding mass = 75G
 5 sec  20mm Penetration  5 sec  1cm

Density index or relative Density

 Cohesion less Soil
ID = e max – e
X100
e max - e min
e max = void ratio of soil in loosest state = 0.91

e min = void ratio of soil in densest-slate = 0.35

e = void ratio of soil in natural state
 i. This term is used for cohesion less soils only
ii. Density index of soil represent relative compactness (%compaction)

 I D = 0 e max = e soil is in loosest state

 I D = 100% e min = e Soil is in deepest state
 Overall value 0≤I D ≤100 Theoretical value
 For sand particles Id = 94% Practical value
Id= 1 1
𝛾𝛾 dmin
R 𝛾𝛾 d
R

1 1
𝛾𝛾 dmin
R 𝛾𝛾 dmax
R

CASARGRANDE’S METHOD

i. A/c To this method liquid limit is the water content at which soil groove
come in contact with reach other in 25 revolutions.
ii. This liquid limit is calculated on the basis of flow curve.
iii. This slope of flow curve is known as flow index.

log N1/w1

%W WL
log N2/w2

N=25 tanϴ

log10N

IP = - (W 2 -W 1 )
Log 10 N 2 -log 10 N 1

IF = W 1 -W 2
log 10 (N 2 /N 1 )

Flow index Represents the rate of loss of shear strength with increase in water
content.
Toughness Index
i. The ratio of plasticity index to flow index is known as toughness index
ii. Toughness Index represents the gain of shear strength with decrease in
water content of soil.
IT = IP
IF

Shrinkage Index (I s )

I S = W P –W S
 IS = o Wp = Ws Practically not exist
 I S = +V e W p >W s Exist
 I S –V e W p <W S Practically not exist
IS = 0
Volumetric Shrinkage

Vi

Vsoil

WS WP WL Wi

V.S= V i – V soil
x 100
V soil
Shrinkage Ratio
S.R = V.S
W i -W f

Wi = Initial water content

Wf = final water content

Note:- The shrinkage ratio of soil is numericallyequal to mass specific gravity when
equal to dry condition
SR = 𝛾𝛾 d R

𝛾𝛾 w
R

Clay minerals
Mineral units

Silica unit (s) Octahedral unit(G)

Tetrahedral unit A1, 60- gibbsite
(Si, 40- ) Fe, 60-Ferrisite

1). Kaolinite Minerals

I. Unit Ratio 1:1
S G

II. Maximum strength & stability because hydrogen bond is strongest

III. Least plastic minerals (Ip=Min)
IV. Minimum shrinkage & minimum swelling
 V. Least active mineral  A = 0.4 to 0.5
VI. Particle Size = 500 to 1000 A0
e.g.China clay

2). Montmorillorite Mineral

I. Unit Ratio  2:1
S G

Unit SIZE 9.6Ao≈10A0

H 2 O Molecule bond
II. Minimum strength & stability
III. Maximum activity  A = 1to 7
IV. Maximum Plastic (I P = Max)
V. Particle size = 30 Ao
E.g. black cotton soil, Bentonite clay
3). ILLite Mineral
I. Unit ratio  2:1
S G

9.6Ao≈10Ao
Potassium ions
Sodium ions
Magnesium ions

II. Cation Bond

III. Activity  0.5 to 1.0
IV. Particle size = 300 AO
e.g. Talcum powder alluvial soil
1. Strength & stability  Kaolinite>ILLite>Montmorillonite Particle size
2. Activity/plasticity indexMontmorillonite>ILLite>Kaolinite
OR
Shrinkage, Swelling

Particle Size Distribution

Mechanical analysis
1). Sieve Analysis (dry analyses  for coarse soil (size > 75µ)
2). Sedimentation Analysis/Wet analysis  for fine soil (size<75µ)

Sieve Analysis
 Sieve is used

Sieve Number – It is the no of opening in 1 inch length of sieve

Sieve Size -
1. It is the size of opening in given sieve.
2. For sieve size 75U, sieve no is 200.
3. As per Indian standard, max. Size of sieve. Is 100mm & min. size of sieve
available is 45µ.
4. Min size of sieve used in sieve analysis is 75µ

Sieve analysis (Particles retained over 75µ sieve)

 Gravel Fraction (Particles Retained over 4.75mm)
 Fine Fraction (Particles Passing through 4.75mm Sieve)
Gravel Fraction – Particle size > 4.75 mm
Sieves used  IS 100, 63, 20, 10, 4.75mm

Particle size distribution curve.

%N

Particle Size
Fine fraction – (Particle size < 4.75mm)
Sieves used 2mm, 1mm, 600µ, 425µ, 300µ, 212µ, 150µ, 75µ
For five fraction analysis, the sample is washed using
Sodium Hexa Meta phosphate (2g/L). This sample is then oven dried & used for
sieve analysis like previous method only.
Prevents clays particles to stick together.

Sedimentation Analysis
Stokes law

Assumptions
1). All the soil particles are spherical in nature.
2). the density &specific gravity of soil particles is constant.

Definition of stake’s law

1. A/c to this law the particles Settle down with a const. velocity known as terminal
velocity
2. At this velocity, acceleration of particles is zero.
a=V/Δt = 0
3. With increase in viscosity of water, terminal velocity decrease
Vs = g(𝛾𝛾 s -𝛾𝛾 w )D2
R R

18µ
𝛾𝛾 s =density of soil particles
R

𝛾𝛾 w = density of water
R

D = dia. of particles
µ = Dynamic viscosity of water
Limitations
1. All the soil particles are not completely spherical
2. Density & specific gravity of soil particle is not constant
3. This law is valid for particle size 0.2 mm to 0.0002mm
4. Walls of the jar also of for some resistance during settlement of soil particle

Sedimentation analyses

Pipette Analysis Hydrometer Analysis

1. Preparation of soil suspension

a) 12g – 30g soil + 1 liter water  Soil solution
b) 33g sodium Hexa Meta phosphate + 7g sodium carbonate + 1liter water
Dispersing Agent.
c). Soil solution + 25ml dispersing Agent10minΔsoil suspension
15 min cooling
Pipette Analysis
1. In pipette analysis, a glass pipette is used having capacity of 10mL.
2. Samples are collected at intervals of 30 sec, 1 min, 2 min, 4 min, 8 min, &
15min.
3. These samples are then oven dried & used for particle size distribution.

Hydrometer Analysis
Density (ρ) = 1+R/1000

Corrections
1). Due to temperature
The hydrometers are designed as 27oc temp.
I. If temperature > 270C Viscosity of mercury decreases reading will
decrease. Hence correction will be +ve.
II. If Temperature <27oC Viscosity increases hence correction will be –ve.

2). Dispersing Agent

Due to dispersing agent, the density of soil suspension increases & correction will
be
–ve.
3). Due to meniscus
Correction will be +ve

R C = R + T – D.A + M
Corrected Reading on hydrometer. Temp Dispersion Agent, Meniscus

Particle Size Distribution Curve

D 10 
1. It represents the size such that 10% particles are finer than this size.
2. It is also known as effective size or effective diameter.
D 30 It represents the size such that 30% particles are finer than this size.
D 60  It represents the size such that 60% particles are finer than this size.
Uniformity Coefficient
Cu = D 60
D 10
For gravels  C u > 4
for sand  Cu> 6
for uniformly graded soil  C u ≈1
for poorly graded soil  C u > 10Uniformity coefficient Represents the particle size
range of distribution curve.

Coefficient of curvature
CC = D 30 2
D 10 xD 60 Well graded soil 1<C c <3
• Represents shape of particle size distribution curve.

Well graded Soil

The soil in which good representation of all the particle sizes exist (Quantity almost
constant)

Poorly graded soil

In this soil, some particles are in excess & some particles are deficient.

Uniformly graded soil

In this soil, most of the particles are of same size&other particles are negligible

Note:-
1. Uniformly graded soil has min strength & stability.
2. Well graded soil has max strength & stability

Soil Structures
• The arrangement of soil particles w.r.t each other is known as soil structure.
• soil structure depends upon types of forces on soil particles
 1. Gravitation Force: - It is the force exerted by particles in direction of gravity.
2. Surface force:- It is the type of force present on surface of soil particles.
These forces are decided by a term known as specific surface.
Specific surface – It is the ratio of surface area of particular
Ss = A 6
=
M d
Where D= Dia of soil particles
• The value of specific surface is high in fine soil as compared to coarse
soil fine> coarse)
• Due to high specific surface, clay particle contains high surface forces.
• Silt particles contain both gravitational & surface forces
1). Coarse grained structure/single grained structure
 sand, gravels
 Gravitational forces
2). Honeycomb structure
 silt
 gravitational + surface
 high void ratio
 Piles are used to break arches from structures
3). Flocculated structure
 clay
 surface forces (in the form of electric charges)
 Edge to edge orientation
 Face to face orientation
 Max void ratio
4). Dispersed Structure
 Clay
 Edge to edge orientation
 External forces are applied on flocculated structure.
 low void ratio
5). Composite
 Combination of any two structures.
A). coarse matrix structure
Coarse particle > Fine particles
 high strength & stability
  Low void Ratio
b). Clay matrix structure
Quantity of five > Quantity of coarse particles
 low strength & stability
 High void ratio
Shapes of Soil particles
1). Spherical freshly prepared sand particles
2). Angler  Transported sand
3). Flaky Clay particles
4). Elongated/Needle Bentonite clay

Classification of Soil
Particle size classification system
0.002mm 0.425mm 2mm 4.75mm 20mm 80mm 300 mm
Clay silt Fine medium coarse fine coarse cobbles boulder
Sand Gravels
0.0750mm
Fine Coarse aggregate
Aggregates
Fine soil
Coarse soil

2). Unified soil classification system

Group Subgroup
Soil – type symbol Soil-type Symbol
Gravel G Well-graded W
Sand S Uniformly or P
Silt M poorly graded soil M
Clay C Salty M
Organic O Clayey C

W L < 50% - Low Plastic (L)

W L > 50% - High Plastic(H)
SM

 When writing the name always write subgroup first then group
 When writing symbol, always write group then subgroup.

Coarse soil classification

Coarse soil More than Gravel GW
50% (retained over 0.075 (More than 505 retained GP
mm sieve) over 4.75 mm sieve) GM
GC
Sand (more than 50% SW
passing through 4.75 mm SP
sieve) SM
SC

For fne soil

Boundary soil
This soil which contains properties of more than 1 group is called boundary soil.
Indian standard classification system (ISCS)
Coarse soil
symbol Size
boulders - Size > 300mm
Cobbles - 80-300mm
Gravels G Coarse (20-80mm)
Fine (4.75 -20mm)
Sand S Coarse (2-4.75 mm)
Medium (0.425-2 mm)
Fine (0.075-0.425mm)

Fine soil
Groups Sub-groups
Silt M Low plastic (w L <35%) L
Clay C Intermediate Plastic (35% < W 50%) I
Organics O High Plastic (W L > 50%) H
If plasticity index above A line  clay
If plasticity index below a- Line  silt
If plasticity index 4-7%  CL – ML

I Pgiven > I Pcal  Clay

I Pgiven < I pcal  Silt/ Organic
I pgiven = I Pcal  Boundary soil

Determination of dry density & void ratio

1. Core – cutter method
2. Water displacement
3. Sand replacement
1). Core – Cutter Method

M 1 = Mass of empty cutter

M 2 = Mass of empty cutter + soil

γd = γ
1+w
γd = Gγ w
1+e
 This method can be used for cohesive soil or cohesion less soil.
 It can be used for disturbed or undisturbed sample
 It can be used in laboratory or field

2). Water Displacement

 Cohesive soil only
 Laboratory method

 Wax is used (ρ wa x = 0.902g/cm3)

Vsoil = Vw – M wax

γ wax
γ = M soil d Gγ w
,dd= ,dd=
V soil 1+w γd
3). Sand replacement Method
Field method
 Standard ennor sand is used

Unit 2
Soil hydraulics
Permeability
Gravels > sand > silt > clay
Stiff clay is impermeable
Permeability
1. The property of movement of water from soil voids is known as permeability.
2. The process of movement of water is known as seepage.
3. Seepage can act in any direction.

Infiltration
The movement of water under Gravitational forces &-this water joins the water
table. this process is known as infiltration

Porous/Permeable material
In this material, the movement of water is possible through its interconnecting
voids.
Non-Porous/impermeable material
In this material there is no seepage of water e.g. stiff clay
Note: - The printability of soil depends upon size of voids
Gravels > Sand > Silt > clay
Darcy’s Law

A/c to this law, the velocity of flowing water through soil sample is directly
proportional to hydraulic gradient.
V α i
q = KiA
V αi  Darcy’s Law
Unit m/s m/day, cm/sec
Seepage velocity
1). In Darcy’s law

V d = u/n

V s >V
K/n = K p Coefficient of Percolation
Vs = KPi  Vsα i

Validity of Darcy’s law

1. this lay is valid only for laminar flaw
2. For fine soils, this law is completely valid
3. For coarse soils as the particle size increase there will be more chances of
law to become invalid
Factors Affecting Permeability of soil

Poiseulli’s Law
q = C 𝛾𝛾 w e3 D2
IA
R

m 1+e

C = Shape factor (const)

𝛾𝛾 w = Unit weight of water
R

m = Viscosity of water
e = Void ratio
D = Diameter of soil sample

1). Effect of Size particle

K x D2
Allen Hazen  K= CD 10 2
C = constant (=100)
D 10 = Effective size (in cm)
K = Permeability (in cm/sec)

2). Effect of void ratio

Effect of void Ratio
kα e3
1+e
k1 e13
k2 = 1+e 1
e23
1+e z
For approx. value
∴ k1 e12
=
k2 e22
3). Unit weight of water
k α𝛾𝛾 w R
4). Viscosity of water (µ)
kα1µ
kαT

k1 𝛾𝛾w 1
k2 = m
𝛾𝛾w 2
m2

5. Presence of organic matter/ Impurity

Due to increase in presence of organic matter in soil voids, the permeability of soil
decreases because the organic matter try to block the soil voids.

Determination of co-efficient of permeability

Laboratory
1). Constant head permeability test
 Used for coarse-grained soil.
 Discharge through soil is high
K=VL/ThA
A = area of soil sample
H =head
L= length of flow
V= vol. of flow

2). Variable/falling Head permeability Test

 Used for tine – grained soil
 Discharge through soil is low

K = 2.3 aL Log 10 h 1
A t h2
A= area of soil sample
T = time of flow
A= area of standpipe
H 1 = height in t 1 time
H 2 = height in t 2 time

. In falling head permeability cost equal time intervals were noted down when the
head of water decreases from h 1 to h 2 & from h 2 to h 3 . then
 h 2 2=h 1 h 3

Permeability of stratified soil deposit

Strata = Layers
a. When flow is parallel
i = Constant
K H = K 1 Z 1 +K 1 Z 2 +------------ +K n Z h
Z 1 +Z 2 +Z 3 +Z 4 --------
b). When flow in normal
Q = constant V = q ( flow) v = Constant
A = Constant A( area)

KV = Zt
(Z 1 /K 1 ) + (Z 2 /K 2 ) + _ _ _ _ _ + (Z n /K n )

K H> K V

Pumping out tests

(well hydraulics)
Aquifer
 • It is a geological formation which contains some water& this water can be
extracted by pumping.
• Aquifers are of 2 types:
1. Unconfined Aquifer.
I. The acquirers in which atmospheric pressure is exerted over
water table
II. It is also known as free Aquifer or non-artesian aquifer
2. Confined Aquifer
I. the aquifers in which overburden pressure of impermeable rock
layer is exerted over water table.
II. It is also known as artesian aquifer.
Unconfined Aquifer

q = 1.36k((H2-h2)
log 10 (R/r)

Confined Aquifer

q = 2.75 kB (H-h)
 log 10 (R/r)

Transmissibility (T)
It represents the discharge of water through acquirer under 1m height of acquirer. it
is calculated by product of coefficient of permeability & thickness of acquirer.

T = Coeff. of Permeability X Thickness of Aquifer

For Confined,
T=kB
For unconfined, Units m2/s
T = kH

Soil Water

Gravity water Capillary water Adsorbed Structural

water
Ground water Water
Gravitation water
Free water Hygroscopic
Film water

Soil Water
• The Water present in soil void is known as soil water
• Soil water is of 4 types
1. Ground water/gravity/ Gravitation/ Free
I. this water is subjected to gravitational forces only.
II. This water lies below water table.
III. It follows all the laws of hydraulics in any condition.

2. Capillary water
• The water lifted by surface tension in these tubes in knows as
capillary water.
 • The height up to which capillary water exists is known as height
of capillary.
• The max height up to which capillary water rises is known as
zone of capillary saturation.
• Soil suction is the deficiency of pressure below water table
when capillary rise takes place.
• The height of capillary is inversely proportional to void size.
Height of Capillary  Clay > silt > sand
• This water is responsible for growth of plants.
• NOTE – in capillary case water above ground is in tension AND
BELOW WATER IS IN compression
•
3. Adsorbed water
• This water Exist on soil surface due to any surface forces
• This water is of 2 types:
I. Hygroscopic water – the first layer of water on soil
particles due to any physical forces is known as
Hygroscopic water.
II. Film water –
• This water is attached to the soil surface in the
form of no of layers over hydroscopic water.
• The quantity of both waters depends upon specific
surface of soil particles.
Clay > Silt > Sand
(16%) 6% 1%

4. Structural water
• This water is in the form of chemically combined crystals
• This water can be removed by breaking the crystals of water at
temp of about 350oC
Effective Stress & Seepage
1). Total Stress (σ)
It is the stress exerted by solid particles at water on a given soil surface.
σ = rh
2). Pore water Pressure (u)
 • It is the stress exerted on soil surface due to water only.
• This stress does not change the void ratio of soul. hence it is known as
neutral stress
u = rw hw

3). Effective stress ( σ )

• It is the stress exerted on the soil surface due to soil particles only.
• It decreases the void ratio of soil & I increases its engine rive Properties of
soil(compaction, consolidation & shear strength).
• It is also known as inter granular stress.
σ = σ – u
Seepage
Seepage Pressure (P s )
P s = 𝛾𝛾 w iZ
R

Seepage force (j)

J = 𝛾𝛾 w iv
R

• Seepage Pressure:- is the energy transfer related to soil particles due to

movement of pore water.
• Seepage pressure depends upon formation of hydraulic Gradient.
• Seepage pressure is taken as positive when mo0vement of water is
downward & effective stress on soil increases
• seepage pressure is taken as negative when movement of water is upward &
the value of effusive Stress decreases.
σ t = σ i + +Ps  LEARN
Application of seepage
Quick condition
Or
Quicksand
Or
Boiling condition
Or All are Some
Boiling Sand
 or
Liquefication of Soil
Or
Liquefication of sand
• Due to movement of water in upward direction when effective stress on soil
decreases & becomes Zero, this condition is known as Quick condition.
• At this condition, soil loses all its shear strength & behaves like Liquid, it is
known as liquefication of soil.
• In this condition, the soil particles try to move in upward direction which is
known as roiling condition.
• this condition exists in cohesion less soils only.
i C = r1/r W

iC = G-1
1+e

Piping Failure & flow Net

Piping failure
1. The progressive removal of soil particles from downstream to upstream direction
due to movement of water from upstream to downstream direction is known as
piping failure.
2. The failure exist due to formation of hydraulic gradient.
3. The hydraulic gradient at which piping failure takes place in known as exit
hydraulic Gradient or Critical Hydraulic gradient
To avoid piping exit gradient should < 1/6 – 1/7 fine sands & 1/3 – ¼ for coarse
sands for 6-7
4. The Formation of piping failure can be prevented by increasing
the length of impervious floor.

Flow Net.
q = kh N f
Nd

Where, N f = no of flow channels

 N d = No of drop channel

Flow net used to find

1). Exit Ground
2). Hydrostatic Pressure
3). Seepage Pressure/ Force

flow Lines
• They are the lines which represent the path of the water from u/s to d/s
side.
Equipotential lines
• they are the lines which joins the point of equal potential head
• Both lines intersect with each other at 90o angle.
• The field of flow net is almost square
• The discharge through each field is constant
• If soil is isotropic, then discharge per unit length of hydraulic structure is
given by
q = kH Nf
Nd

if Soil is anisotropic,
k res = √k x k y
k res = (k x k y k z )1/3
 UNIT 3-COMPRESSIBILITY & STRENGTH
Compression
• The Process of decrease in volume of soil due to application of compressive
loads is known as compression. This property of decrease in volume
compressibility.
• Compression is soil is divided into 2 Parts:
1) Consolidation
2) Compaction
Consolidation
• The process of removal of water voids from soil under natural compressive
load is known as consolidation.
• Consolidation exist in fully saturated soil.
• It is a long-term process.
• Consolidation is done in 3 stages.
1) Initial
2) Primary
3) Secondary/20

Initial Consolidation
The initial decrease in volume of soil due to sudden application of load.

Primary consolidation (10)

When the volume of soil decreases to removal of water with increase in
compressive load.
Secondary Consolidation (20)
• Under constant load, the decrease in the volume of soil due rearrangement
of solid particles is known as secondary.
• Creep is the effect of secondary consolidation.

Process of Consolidation
The process uses the process of spring- Analogy Modal.

Hydrodynamic Lag
• It is the time difference between application of load & removal of water from
soil voids (in initial condition.)
• Hydrodynamic lag represents the time req. for initial consolidation

Consolidation Curve

Terzaghi’s curve in terms of coefficient of compressibility.

Coefficient of Compressibility.
• It is the slope of compression curve drawn between void ratio & effective
stress.
• It is the change void ratio per unit increase in effective stream.
 -∆σ
∆e
LEARN = a v = -( e 2 – e 1 ) / 𝜎𝜎2 – 𝜎𝜎1 =
R

-ve sign  void ration is decreasing

Units  m2/KN

e 2 = Final vid ratio

e 1 = Initial void ration
𝜎𝜎2 = Initial effective stress
R

𝜎𝜎1 = Final effective stress

R

Compression Index
It is the slope of compression curve drawn between void ration &logarithmic of
effective stress.

C C = - (e 2- e 1 )

log 10 ( )
𝜎𝜎2
𝜎𝜎1

Coefficient of Volume Change (m v )

mv =
Volumetric Strain
Change in eff . stress
-ve sign  change in volume is –ve
volume of soil is decreasing
Units  m2/KN

= − =
∆𝐻𝐻 ∆𝑒𝑒
• aV
𝐻𝐻 1+𝑒𝑒
1+e
∆𝜎𝜎 ∆𝜎𝜎

av
mv =
1+e

Where, e = initial void ratio.

NCC – Normally consolidated clay:-

The soil which has existing stress max as compressed to past stress is known as
NCC.
• This soil is being consolidated at present time. Hence the soil is loose (High
void Raito)
OCC – Over/Pre-Consolidated Clay
• The soil which has past stress max. as compared to existing stress.
• It has low void ratio due to dense behavior of soil.

OCR – Over consolidation Ration

max stress
OCR =
existing stress

For NCC, OCR = 1

for OCC, > 1
for UCC, OCR < 1 (not exist)
Compression Index according to skempton

C c = 0.007 (W L -7%) for remolded soil.

 C C = 0.0009 (W L - 10%) for undisturbed soil

Settlement in soil

• Due to application of load during consolidation, the change in thickness of

soil is known as settlement.
• Settlement is of 2 types:

1) Total Settlement
• When the complete structure settles down due to self-weight of building. The
settlement is known as Total settlement.

2) Differential settlement
• When some part of structure settles down due to its self-weight.
• Structure is always designed w.r.t. differential settlement.
 𝜎𝜎2
∆H = C C H log 10
𝜎𝜎1
1+e

Note: -
1. The settlement in soil depends upon increase with rate of loading.
2. If increase in rate of loading is const, the settlement will be constant.
3. If increase in rate of loading is not constant, the settlement in soil will be
multiple of change in increase in rate of loading.

Terzaghi’s Theory of Consolidation

Assumptions
1) Soil is homogeneous & Isotropic.
2) Soil is fully saturated.
3) Soil solids & water Both are incompressible.
4) The decrease in volume of soil is due to removal of water from voids only.

5) Darcy’s law is valid (V× 𝑖𝑖). (k= const.)

6) Load is applied only in vertical direction.
7) The removal of water takes place only from downward direction.

This is for clay only.

• With increase in temp., the Coeff. of consolidation increases.

Units of coefficient of consolidation

m2

s
Degree of consolidation (U)
1) It is the ratio of change in thickness of soil at any time to the final change in
thickness of soil after 100 % consolidation.

U = ∆H t / ∆H f × 100 R

2) 50% and 90% degrees are considered as standard valued.

DH t = change in thickness of soil at any time. ‘t’.
DH f = Final in thickness of soil after 100% consolidation.

Time Required for Consolidation (t)

t = T v d2 / C V

�2
𝜋𝜋 𝑈𝑈
T V = Time Factor = �
4 100

For single drainage  d = H

H
For Double drainage  d =
2

𝐻𝐻
For Triple drainage  d = 3

Measurement of Consolidation
 1) Consolidation is measured by consolidometer or Oedometer.
2) Consolidometer consist of a ring cell which has 2 parts.
3) Ring call is of 2 types:

1) Floating Type or Free type Ring Cell

• In this cell, upper & lover parts both are removable.
• In this cell, pore pressure measurement is not possible.

2) Fixed Type Ring cell

• In this cell, lover part is fixed & upper part is removable.
• In this cell, pore water pressure can be easily measure.

NOTE: -
1) After 100% consolidation of soil, there will be no charge in thickness of soil.
2) After removal of 100% water voids, the settlement of soil is known as
secondary settlement which is due to rearrangement of solid particles.

Compaction

1) The mechanical process of removal of air voids from soil due to application
of external compressive load is known as compaction is soil.
2) It is an Artificial process& can be done in laboratory easily.
3) After compaction, the void ratio of soil decreases & dry density of soil
increases.
4) This can be done in Dry Soil.

Standard Proctor Test

 3 kg dried sand.
  4% by weight water is added.
 3 layer @ 25 blows each.

M 1 = mass of empty mould.

M 2 = mass of empty mould + soil
V = 𝜋𝜋 D2H
4

𝛿𝛿
𝛿𝛿 = M 2 – M 1 , 𝛿𝛿 d =
1+𝑊𝑊
R

V
 In standard Proctor Test, the soil is filled in 3 layers with 25 blows in each
layer.
Zero Air void Line
• The line which represents the relation b/w water content & day density of
soil at zero Air voids.
• This line is also known as saturation line.

Constant Air Void Line

It is the line which represents the relation b/w dry density & water content at const.
air voids.

Result

With increase in compactive effort of soil high value of max dry density can be
attained at low value of optimum moisture content.

Factors Affecting Compaction in Soil

1) Water content

i) Lubrication Theory
• When water content of soil is increased, this water act as lubricant & try to
reduce frictional resistance. Hence, volume of soil decrease & dry density of
soil increases.

ii) Electrical Double diffuse layer Theory

• When soil is dry or at very low water content, attractive forces in soil
particles exists.
• When water content of soil increases, diffused layer of water expands & the
attraction forces reduces. When load is applied, these attractive bond
breakdown & particles come in contact with each other. Hence-the volume of
soil decreases & dry density of soil increases.
• When water content is increased beyond OMC, the volume of soil increases
& dry density decreases.

2) Compactive Effort
 • With increase in compactive efforts in soil, high value of max. dry density
can be attained at low value of.
• The line which joins the points of max. dry density represents line of
optimum.
• At line of optimum, all the points represent max. dry density at diff.
compactive efforts.

3) Types of Soil
i) Fine Soil
• Hence OMC of fine soil is more than OMC of coarse soil.
• Dry density of fine soil is less than dry density of coarse soil.

OMC  Clay > Silt > Sand > Gravel

𝜌𝜌 d  Gravel > Sand > Silt > Clay
R

• With increase in Fine content of soil in coarse soil, the value of OMC
increases, & dry density decreases.
• With increase in Plasticity of soil, the OMC of soil increases & dry density of
soil decreases.

plasticity ↑ OMC ↑ 𝜌𝜌 d
R ↓
 OMC  High Plastic > Intermediate > Low
Plastic

𝜌𝜌 d
R  Low Plastic > Intermediate > High
Plastic

4) Method of Compaction
Compaction depends upon:
(i) Weight of equipment
(i) Time of Loading
(iii) Area of Contact

1) With increase in weight of equipment & time of loading, the compaction in soil
increases.
2) With increase in Area of contact, the compaction in soil decreases.

5) Cohesionless Soil

1) Max. Bulking takes place at 4% - 5% of water content

2) Above this water content, the lubrication theory of soil is valid.
3) Bulking of sand represents the increase in volume of soil due to formation of
water layer on sand particles.

NOTE: -
With increase in compaction of soil, the permeability of soil decreases, due to
decrease in void ratio of soil.
Conditions of Compaction

Dry of optimum  W < OMC

wet. of optimum  W > OMC

1) Dry of optimum
In this condition, the soil is compacted at water content less than OMC.
W < OMC

2) Wet of Optimum
• In this condition, the soil is compacted at water content more than OMC.
W < OMC

• At wet of optimum condition, swelling in soil may exist. Hence, this condition
is avoided.

Field Compaction Method

1) Rammer 30N-150N
2) Roller
a) Smooth Wheeled Roller
b) Sheep Footed Roller
c) Pneumatic Tyred Roller
3) Vibrator

Relative Compaction

RC = (γ) d field

( γ)
d Max.× 100

RC > 80%

RC< 100%

RC = 100 (In theoretical conditions)

4) It can be equal to 100% in theoretical conditions.

Types of Compaction

Light weight compaction Heavy weight compaction

 Weight of Rammer 2.5 Kg 4.9 Kg.
 Free Drop 31 cm 45 cm
 No. of layers 3 5
 No. of blows 25 25

Compactive energy = Wt. of Rammer × Free Drop × No. of layers × No. of blour
````` Volume of Soil
 Heavy weight compactive Energy = 4.55 × light weight compactive energy

VANE SHEAR TEST

 End portion are used for shearing the soil.

+ )
𝐻𝐻 𝐷𝐷
S = nD2(
2 6

 End + sides are used for shearing the soil

S = T
𝐻𝐻 𝐷𝐷
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2( + )
2 12
P

1) This test is the Field Test.

2) This test is used for cohesive soils.

 Shear Strength of Soil
Shear Strength
1) It is the max. resistance offered by soil particles to resist shear stress.
2) Shear strength of soil depends upon 3 parameters.
i) Structural resistance.
It is the max. resistance offered by bond b/w soil particles.
ii) Frictional Resistance
• It is the resistance b/w soil particles in terms of frictional forces.
• It exists in sand particles.
• It is circulated in terms of angle of internal friction

∅ = tan- (𝜇𝜇)  LEARN

Where, 𝜇𝜇 = coefficient of friction.
∅ = angle of internal friction.

(iii) Cohesion b/w Particles

• It is the resistance offered by surface forces on clay particles.
• The value of cohesive force is max. in clay & min in sand (zero)

𝛽𝛽
Q f = 450 +
2

Mohr’s Columb Theory

Assumptions
1) All the materials fail by shear only.
2) Intermediate Principal stress doesn’t have only effect on soil.

1) Columb Theory

s = 𝜏𝜏 f = f
R (𝜎𝜎)
Shear strength = function of total stress

2) Mohr’s Theory

s = f (𝜎𝜎

3) Mohr’s coulomb Theory

s = 𝜎𝜎 tan ∅ + c

∅
c

4) Pure Clay
∅ = o
s = c

5) Pure Sand

C = O
 s = 𝜎𝜎 tan ∅ c

𝜎𝜎
6) Revised Mohr’s coloumb Theory

s = 𝜎𝜎′tan∅ 1 + C1 given by Terzaghi

P

c’= cohesion

∅1
P
= effective internal friction angle

𝜎𝜎′ = effective stress

Measurement of Shear Strength

Stages
1) Consolidation stage
In this stage, the soil is consolidation under min. const. lead.

2) Shear Stage
In this stage, the shear strength of soil is calculated due to increase in shear
loading.

Conditions of shear Test

1) UU – Test – Unconsolidated Undrained.
• The drainage of water is not allowed in this test in any stage.
• It is a quick test or Q- Test.
• It is used for low permeable soil (clay).

2) CU –Test- Consolidated undrained

• When drainage of water is allowed only in consolidation stage.
• Pore Water Pressure is measured in Consolidation stage.
• It is K – Test.
3) CD – Test – Consolidated Drained
• The drainage of water is allowed in both stages.
• It is S – Test or slow Test.
• It is used for High Permeable soil.

(1) Direct Shear Test

Shear Box (Circular or Square) (60 mm to 90 mm).

• Shear Box is used to collect soil sample which is circular or square in shape
(60 mm to 90 mm)
• In this test, the soil is under undrained condition.
• This test is used for sand under UU – Test.

2) Tri – axial Shear Test

any type of soil

 any condition of soil

all pressure
confining pressure  𝜎𝜎 3
R

• This test is used for any type of soil.

• This test is used for any condition of soil.
• In this test, intermediate & minor principal stress are equal: [𝜎𝜎2 = 𝜎𝜎3].
• In this test, the soils subjected to stress from 3 directions,it is known as
Triaxial Test.
• In this test, the cell pressure or confining pressure is known as minor
Principal stress.
Consolidation Stage

Shear Stage

𝜎𝜎 = 𝜎𝜎 d + 𝜎𝜎 3
R R

 LEARN
Merits
 1) Pore pressure measurement can be done using skempton’s Device.
2) The removing water can be collected & measured easily.
3) Stress distribution on soil sample is uniform.
4) Failure plane is not pre – determined. It can occur in any direction.

Relation B/W Principal Stresses at Failure

NOTE:It has been observed that at drained conditions, all the type of sails behave
like purely frictional soil (c=o)

𝜎𝜎 1 = 𝜎𝜎 3 tan2 ( 45 + ) + 2 c tan (45 + )

∅ ∅
2 2
R R

At Drained condition c= 0 ∅ can also calculated by

𝜎𝜎 1 = 𝜎𝜎 3 tan2 ( 45 + )
∅
sin ∅ = 𝜎𝜎 1 – 𝜎𝜎 3
2
R R R R

𝜎𝜎 1
R

+ 𝜎𝜎 3
R
3) Unconfined Compression Test
1) This test is a special cast of triaxial shear Test in which 𝜎𝜎 2 &𝜎𝜎 3 0 (Zero). (No
R R

confining pressure).
2) This test can be used for pure clay or clayey soil.

imp (1) 𝝈𝝈 2 = 𝝈𝝈 3 = 0
R R

𝜎𝜎 1 = 2c tan (45 + 2 )
∅
R

Imp (2) 𝝈𝝈 1 R

= 𝝈𝝈 d + 𝝈𝝈 3
R R

𝜎𝜎 1 = 𝜎𝜎 d = 2c tan (45 + ∅2 )
R R

∅1 = ∅d
R R

Imp Unique Mohr’s Stress circle

(a) For Pure Clay

c = 𝜎𝜎 d /2 R

(b) Pure Sand

C=0
𝜎𝜎 1 = 𝜎𝜎 d =0
R R
 Point Mohr’s Stress Circle

To calculate Deviator stress

𝑝𝑝
𝜎𝜎 d =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
R

A t = Area at failure = A 0 / 1-∈ R

L

A 0 = Original Cross-Sectional Area

𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
∈ L =Linear strain =
𝐿𝐿
R

VANE SHEAR TEST

  End portion are used for shearing the soil.

+ )
𝐻𝐻 𝐷𝐷
S = nD2(
2 6

 End + sides are used for shearing the soil

S = T
𝐻𝐻 𝐷𝐷
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2( + )
2 12
P

1) This test is the Field Test.

2) This test is used for cohesive soils

 BEARING CAPACITITY OF SOIL

Foundation
The part of structure which is in direct contact with ground & soil.

Footing
It is the part of foundation which is used to transmit load of structure to soil.

Gross Pressure Intensity (GPI) (q)

It is the pressure intensity at the base of footing due to the weight of
superstructure, substructure & surrounding soil.
Net Pressure Intensity (NPT) (q n or q net) )
It is the difference b/w Gross Pressure Intensities before & after construction.

q n = q – γD

GPI Pressure before construction

D = DEPTH OF FOUNDATION

It represents the increase in pressure intensities at footing level after construction.

Ultimate Bearing capacity

It is the min. Gross pressure Intensity at which the soil fails in shear.

Net ultimate Bearing Capacity

1) It is the min Net Pressure Intensity at which the soil fails in shear.
2) It represents the min. increase in pressure at which shear failure in soil take
place.

q nu = q u – r D  LEARN
Net ultimate
Bearing capacity Ultimate Bearing
Capacity

Safe Bearing Capacity

1. It is the max gross pressure intensity that the soil can carry just before the
shear failure.
2. All the foundations are designed on the basis of safe Bearing capacity.
3. The safe bearing capacity of soil in general cases.

Types of Shear failure.

General Shear Failure Local shear Failure Punching shear failure

∅> 360 ∅≤290 No bulging of soil

Max. bulging of soil takes
place
Max tilting of footing takes
place
min. bulging of soil takes No support from
place surrounding soil
Some tilting of footing No tilting of footing.
may exit.
Sudden Failure
Foundations are Punching
shear.

Terzaghi’s Analysis

Assumptions
1) Soil is Homogeneous & isotropic.
2) The failure in Soil is General Shear Failure.
3) Footing is Strip Footing.
4) Footing has Rough base.
5) Ground surface is Horizontal.
Zone –I
1) In this zone the max. settlement in soil takes place.
2) The max. stress due to applied load also exist in this zone.
Zone – II –Zone of Radial Shear
1) The soil in this zone support the soil of zone – I by shear forus in Radial
direction.
Zone – III – Zone of linear Shear
1. In this zone, the soil present supports the soil of zone – II.
∅
2. The direction of forces in this zone is 450 -
2

1
qu = cN c + q N 2 + B γNγ  LEARN
2

Wherec = cohesion
q = Effective stress in soil
B = Width of footing
r = unit weight of soil
N c , N q , Nγ = capacity factors (depends upon Angle of internal friction)

Pure Clay
∅ = 0
N c = 5.7
Nq = 1
Nr = 0

IMP q u = 5.7c + q

Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity of Soil

 1. Cohesion b/w soil particles (c)
2. Angle of Internal friction (∅)
3. width of footing (B)
4. Unit weight of soil (r)
5. Depth of footing (D f )
6. Effect of water table

x
y

Case – i) Water Table > (D f + B)

No effect on q u of soil

Case – ii) D f < water Table < (D f + B)

’
q u = CN c + qN q + N r [ γx + γ (B-x)]
1
2
Case – iii) Water Table < D f

1
q u = CN c + N q [ γy + γ1 (D f -y)] + B γ1 Nr
2

Note:
1) For pure clay, the value of ultimate Bearing capacity does not depend upon
width of footing.
2) For pure clay, case (i) & case (iii) of water Table effect are applicable.

1
Strip Footing q u = cN c + q.N q + BrN r
2

Circular Footing  q u = 1.3 cN C +qN q +0.3 BrN r

Square Footing  q u = cN C [1+ 0.3 ]

𝐵𝐵
𝐿𝐿

Rectangular Footing  q u = cN C [ 1 + 0.3 ] + qN q + 0.5B γNγ[1-0.2

B B
]
L L
B = width of Footing
L = Length of footing

Penetration Tests

SPT CPT
Standard Penetration Test Cone Penetration Test

SPT
1. This test is the measurement of penetration resistance of sampling spoon.
2. This penetration resistance is used to calculate Bearing capacity of soil &
Relative Density of Soil.
3. Split tube sampler or spoon sampler is used to calculate penetration
resistance.
4. Outer Diameter = 50.8mm
 5. Inner Diameter = 35mm
6. Load = 63.5 Kg.
7. Free fall =75 cm
8. sampler is allowed to penetrate 15cm below initially & further 30 cm
penetration is considered.
9. Penetration resistance is the total no. of blows req. to penetrate the sampler
in final 30 cm penetration.

No. of penetration Rest Soil Type Ultimate Bearing capacity

(KN/m2)
0-2 Very self < 25
2-4 Self 25-50
4-8 Medium 50-100
8-15 Stiff 100-200
15-30 Very stiff 200-400
Above 30 Hard >400

Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

600

1) Stairless steel cone is used

2) Central Angle = 600
3) Base Area of Cone = 10 cm2
4) Load = 63.5 Kg.
5) Free Drop = 75 cm
6) Initial Penetration = 8 cm
7) Total Penetration = 20 cm

Correction for dilatancy

If No. of penetration > 15
 1
N C = 15 + (N-15)
2
N = observed Penetration Resistance
N C = Corrected penetration Resistance
Plate Load Test
This test is used to calculate ultimate bearing capacity of soil and probable
settlement in soil.

i) Base Plate
 Stainless steel.
 Circular / square.
 Size  30 cm -90 cm
 If soil is dense  small sized plates
 Thickness = 1 cm
ii) Test Pit
Depth of pit = Depth of foundation
Width = 5 x width of plate
iii) Load Arrangement
• The load is increased at a constant rate from 0.7g/cm2 to 1 kg/ cm2.
• The load is increased until the failure of plate or 25 mm settlement of plate
whichever is earlier.
• Gravitational Method.
• Reaction truss Method.

Limitations
 1. This test is a short duration test. (15 – 20 min.)
2. The effect of size of foundation is not considered during the test.
3. The properties of soil & its nature is not considered.

Settlement in Foundation

𝑆𝑆𝑓𝑓 𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓
For clay soil, =
𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝 𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝

𝑆𝑆𝑓𝑓
For sand soil or = W F (W p +0.3) 2
𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝
clay+sand soil W P (W F +0.3)

S F = Settlement in foundation
SP = Settlement in plate
W F = Width of foundation
W P = Width of plate
Bearing capacity in Foundation

𝑞𝑞 𝑓𝑓 𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓
=
𝑞𝑞 𝑝𝑝 𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝

qf= Bearing capacity in Foundation.

qP = Bearing capacity in plate.

TYPES OF FOUNDATAION

Shallow Foundation Deep Foundation  Pile Foundation

B> D B<D
or or
𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵
> 1 < 1
𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷
Function of Strap beam
1) To distribute the load of column equally to foundation

Condition
 C/C distance b/w column is High
 Bearing capacity is low.

Mat foundation / Raft

 C/c distance b/w no. of column is low.

Pile Foundation
Load transfers through
i) End Bearing pile
ii) Friction pile

End Bearing Pile

• The pile in which transfer of load takes place through particle to particle
contact.

Friction pile
• The pile foundation in which transfer of load takes place by frictional forces.
NOTE:
1) Minimum 3 piles are used under 1 pile group.
2) C/C spacing in end bearing piles = 2 x Dia of pile.
C/C spacing in friction pile = 3x Dia of pile.

Under reamed pile

 Cast in situ pile.

 Dia of bulb = 2.5 x dia. of main pile.
 Clear spacing b/w bulb = 2x dia of main pile to 3 x dia of main pipe.
 For Black cotton soil
 VERTICAL STRESSES
Boussinesq Equation

Valid for point load.

Resultant stress  R =�𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑍𝑍 2

Stress Distance  r = �𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2
  With constant Radial distance the value of vertical stress will be same at
given depth.
 The line which joins the points of equal vertical stresses is known as Isobar
lines.
 When depth of point considered is zero. The vertical stress is that plane will
be infinite theoretically.

Newmark’s Influence

 10 circles

1
I, =
10 𝑋𝑋 20

I C = Influence coefficient = 0.005

 Total 10 circles
 each circle is divided into 20 parts.

𝜎𝜎 V
R

= N X 0.005 X q
 SOME IMPORTANT POINTS

𝛾𝛾 s>𝛾𝛾 sat >𝛾𝛾 bulk >𝛾𝛾 dry >𝛾𝛾 submerged

R R R R R

(1) G α mineral content (like iron + Mica) α 1

Amount of organic content
(2) G fine grained >G coarse grained soil

G T o C = G 27 o C x 𝛾𝛾 w at 27oC
R

𝛾𝛾 w at ToC
R

(a) When particles are arranged in cubical array

e max = 91%, n max = 47.6 %
(b) When particles are arranged in prismoidal array (Rhombohedral array)
e min = 35%, n min = 25.9%

Sand replacement method

• Used in case of hard and gravelly soils.
• A hole in ground is made. The excavated soil is weighed. The volume of
hole is determined by replacing it with sand. Insitu unit weight is obtained by
dividing weight of excavated soil with volume of hole.

• Sands + gravels: Bulky grains

Bulk grains classified as – angular, subangular, sub rounded, rounded, well
rounded
Higher angularity α Higher Shear Strength
• Clay Minerals: Flaky grains
 • Coarse sieves: 4.75 mm, 10 mm, 20 mm, 80 mm.
• fine sieves: 75m, 150m, 212m, 425m, 600m, 1 mm, 2mm.
If ‘h’ the height through which particle falls in time ‘t’, then
= k.D2 D1 h1 t2
ℎ
𝑡𝑡
∴
D2 h2 t1
Note:-
• Stokes law is applicable for spheres of diameter between 0.2 mm and
0.0002mm.
• Spheres of diameter larger than 0.2 mm falling through water cause
turbulence, whereas, for spheres with diameter less than 0.0002 mm, brownie
motion takes place and the velocity of settlement is too small for accurate
measurement.
Gss = 1 + 𝑅𝑅𝐻𝐻 Thus a reading of R H = 25 means, G ss = 1.025
1000 And a reading of R H = -25 means, G ss = 0.975
% finer is given as :

N = G v RH
.𝛾𝛾w. .
G-1 W 10

G = specific gravity
Rh = final value of hydrometer
V= vol. of soil suspension
W = weight of mass dissolved
Note:-
If slope of the curve is steep, soil is poorly graded,
If slope is inclined, soil is well graded.

Consist. Description lc lL
Liquid Liquid <0 >1
Plastic Very soft 0-0.25 0.75 – 1.00
soft 0.25-0.5 0.50-0.75
Medium stiff 0.50-0.75 0.25-0.50
Stiff 0.75-1.00 0.0-0.25
 Semi-solid Very stiff
Or Hard >1 <0
solid Hard OR
Very Hard >1 <0

Properties Relationship Governing Parameters

Plasticity α Plasticity index
Better Foundation α Consistency index
Material
Upon remoulding
Compressibility α Liquid Limit
Rate of loss in shear α Flow index
strength with increase in
water content
Strength of Plastic Limit α Toughness index

Sensitivity Classification
1 No loss in strength on remoulding.
2-4 Soil in normal sensitive
4-8 Sensitive
8-15 Extra-Sensitive
>15 Quick

Note-Black cotton soil is very active.

GI Value ranges between

O (Good sub grade Material) to 20 (poor sub grade Material)
Note: -Higher GI, less desirability of soil as highway material within that subgroup.

Equation of A-Line I P = 0.73 (W L – 20)

Equation of U-Line I P = 0.9 (W L – 8)

Note: - It is valid for particle size of soil 0.1 mm to 3 mm. it is valid for sand.
Lloudens Equation
Log 10 KS2=a+b.n
where, S = Specific surface area
n = Porosity.
a and b are constant.
consolidation Equation K = C V m V𝜸𝜸 W
R

Where, C v = Coefficient of consolidation in cm2/sec

m v = Coefficient of volume compressibility in cm2/N
Specific Yield (Sy)
The specific yield of an unconfined aquifer is the ratio of volume of water which
will flow under saturated condition due to gravity effect to the total volume of
aquifer(v).

Sy = Where,
𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽𝑽
𝑽𝑽
V wy = volume of water yielded under gravity effect and
V = Total volume of water.

Specific retention
The specific retention of an unconfined aquifer is the ratio of volume of water
retained against gravity effect to the total volume of aquifer (v).

SR = Where,
𝑽𝑽𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
𝑽𝑽
V WR Volume of water retained under gravity effect.

Sy + Sr = n
Where, n = Porosity.

Coefficient of transmissiility
T=kH
H = thickness
K = coefficient of permeability
Note:- Consolidation settlement is a function of effective stress and not the function
of total stress.

a). C c = 0.40 (e o – 0.25) For undisturbed soil of medium sensitivity

e 0 = Initial Void ratio
b). For remoulded soil of low sensitivity C c = 1.15 (e o – 0.35)

c). C c = 0.11w where, w = Water content

C r = 1/5 of C c to 1/10 of C c Where, C r = Coef. of recompression

T v = - 0.9332 log 10 (1-u) – 0.0851 …… If U > 60%

Capillary rise
1. hc = 4σcosα
𝜸𝜸 w d
R

2. h c (m) = 0.29
d(mm)
Using σ = 73 N/m (super tension of pure water in glass tube)
3. For sands and silts, d = 0.2 D 10
D 10 = Effective size of particle in (mm)
4). h c (cm) = C
eD 10 C  constant having value 0.1-0.5cm2
D 10  Effective size in (cm)
e  void ratio

Effects of capillary water;

1. Cause soil suction (apparent attractive force between soil particles resulting in
enhanced shear strength.
2. Bulking of sand capillary water results in apparent cohesion, holding particles in
cluster, enclosing honeycomb.

Note:-
• Flow net will remain same if U/s and D/s water levels are interchanged and
direction of flow is reversed provided the flow boundary is not changed.
• flow net is changed if boundary conditions are changed it means flow net is
unique for a given set of boundary conditions.
•
Phreatic line
It is top flow line which follows the path of base parabola. It is a streamline. the
pressure on this line is atmospheric (zero) and below this line pressure is
hydrostatic.

Newmark’s chart method

this method is applicable to semi-infinite, homogeneous, isotropic and elastic soil
mass. it is not applicable for layered structure.
No. of concentric circle = 10 no. of radial line = 20
Influence of area (1) = influence of area (2) = influence of area (3)
Influence of each area = 1/Total no of sectoral area = 0.005
σ z = 0.005qN A

Shear strength of soil

Note: -
failure plane is one at which angle of obliquity is max. and max. and angle of
obliquity = angle of friction
Failure shear stress is one at which difference of shear stress and shear strength
is minimum.
• ϴ= Angle of critical plane (a- a)
• ϴ c = π/4 = β maximum /2
(Direct shear) drained condition  C can’t be modified
(unconfined undrained compressiontest ∅ can’t be modified

Note:-
• unconsolidated undrained test (UU test) suitable for construction of building
over saturated clays.
• Consolidated undrained test (CU)suitable for stability analysis of earthern
dam during sudden drawdown.
• Consolidated drained test (CD) suitable for stability analysis of retaining wall
having sandy fills.
(σ 1) = 2C, for C-soil
‫ = ح‬S = c= q u /2, for clay’s or c-soil.
Lab size Field size
Height of vane (H) 20 mm 10 to 20 cm
Dia of vane(D) 12 mm 5 to cm
Thickness of vane(t) 0.5 to 0.1 mm 2 to 3 cm

Skempton’s pore water pressure parameters

Pore pressure parameter
O≤B≤1
B = 0, for dry soil.
B = 1, for saturated soil.

ΔU=ΔUc+ΔU d

ΔUc = change in pore water due to increase in cell pressure

ΔU d= change in pore water due to increase in deviator pressure