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Guidelines for Instrumentation of Large Dams September 2016
Guidelines for Instrumentation

of Large Dams
Doc. No. CDSO_GUD_DS_02_v1.0

June 2017
Central Water Commission

Ministry of Water Resources,
River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation
Government of India
Guidelines for Instrumentation of Large Dams June 2017
Front Cover Photograph: Idukki Dam across the Periyar River in Kerala is the first and only arch
dam in India. The 169-meter high double curvature concrete dam is founded on massive hyper-
sthene granite.
Dam Safety Rehabilitation Directorate

Central Dam Safety Organization
3rd Floor, New Library Building (Near Sewa Bhawan)
R. K. Puram, New Delhi – 110066.
Email: dir-drip-cwc@nic.in
Government of India
Guidelines for Instrumentation of

Large Dams
June 2017
New Delhi

3rd Floor, New Library Building
R. K. Puram
New Delhi - 110066
Doc. No. CDSO_GUD_DS_02_v1.0 Page i

Government of India
The Guidelines for Instrumentation of Large Dams has been published for the first time in January 2017.
This is the second in a series of several dam safety guidelines being developed under the Dam
Rehabilitation and Improvement Project (DRIP)
Disclaimer
The Guidelines for Instrumentation of Large Dams in no way restricts the dam owner in digressing from
it. The Central Dam Safety Organization or the Central Water Commission cannot be held re-
sponsible for the efficacy of the Instrumentation developed based on these guidelines. Appropriate
discretion may be exercised while preparing and implementing an instrumentation program.
For more information, please contact:

The Director
3rd Floor, New Library Building (Near Sewa Bhawan)
R. K. Puram, New Delhi – 110066.
Email: dir-drip-cwc@nic.in
Doc. No. CDSO_GUD_DS_02_v1.0 Page ii

FOREWORD
Almost 80 percent of about 4900 large dams in India are more than 25 years old, and their health
and safety are of paramount importance for the sustainable use of these valuable assets, besides
protecting people, property, and the environment. The Central Water Commission (CWC) en-
courages and facilitates dam safety practices that will help reduce the risk to life and property from
the consequences of potential dam failures.
Dam instrumentation plays a fundamental role providing an understanding of the foundation and
structural behavior through observation techniques both during construction and in operation in
subsequent years. The monitoring program provides the information that is needed to develop a
better understanding of the performance of the dam. Knowing that the dam is performing as
expected is reassuring to dam owners, and the ability to detect a change in this performance is
critical for the dam owner who is directly responsible for any consequences of a dam failure. With
performance information, dam owners can improve their ability to operate and maintain their
dams in a safe manner.
The means and methods available to monitor phenomena that can lead to a dam failure include a
broad spectrum of instruments and procedures, ranging from simple to complex. Any program of
dam safety instrumentation must be properly designed and consistent with other project compo-
nents, based on prevailing geotechnical conditions at the dam, and must consider the hydrologic
and hydraulic factors present both before and after the project is in operation. Every instrument
should have a specific purpose and expected design response.
Instruments designed for monitoring potential deficiencies at existing dams must take into account
the possible development of any movement in the foundation which can be a threat to life and
property. Therefore, the extent and nature of the instrumentation depend on not only on the
complexity of the dam and the size of the reservoir but also on the potential it may have on the
human life and its surroundings. The instrumentation program should involve instruments and
evaluation methods that are as simple and straightforward as the project will allow. Thereafter, the
dam owner has a responsibility and an absolute commitment to an on-going monitoring program
to draw the many benefits.
The present Guidelines for Instrumentation of Large Dams describe all elements of instrumentation pro-
gram for large dams and will hopefully be quite useful to dam engineers for planning, installation
and data processing for ensuring the safety of dams. I compliment all the individuals and organi-
zations who have contributed to the development of these guidelines and hope that all dam owners
make use of these guidelines for instrumenting their new and existing dams.
(Narendra Kumar)
New Delhi Chairman
15th June 2017 Central Water Commission
Doc. No. CDSO_GUD_DS_02_v1.0 Page iii

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Doc. No. CDSO_GUD_DS_02_v1.0 Page iv

PREFACE
Design, construction, operation, maintenance, and inspection of dams are intended to minimize
the risk of dam failures. Despite adequacies of these programs and their implementations, situa-
tions may develop sometimes leading to dam failures – structural or operational. The Central Water
Commission (CWC) encourages and helps dam safety practices that will contribute to reducing
the risk to lives and property from the consequences of potential dam failures.
Dam instrumentation plays a fundamental role in understanding the foundation and structural
behavior both during construction and in operation in later years. The monitoring program pro-
vides the information that is needed to develop a better understanding of the performance of the
dam. Knowing that the dam is performing as expected is reassuring to dam owners, and the ability
to detect a change in this performance is critical as the dam owner is directly responsible for any
consequences of a dam failure. With performance information, dam owners can improve their
ability to operate and maintain their dams in a safe manner.
The means and methods available to measure phenomena that can lead to dam failure include a
broad spectrum of instruments and procedures, ranging from simple to complex. Any program of
dam safety instrumentation must be designed properly and be consistent with other project
components, it must be based on prevailing geotechnical conditions at the dam, and it must con-
sider the hydrologic and hydraulic factors present both before and after the project is in operation.
Every instrument should have a specific purpose and expected design response.
Instruments designed for monitoring potential deficiencies at existing dams need to take into ac-
count the threat to life and property that the dam presents. Thus, the extent and nature of the
instrumentation depend not only on the complexity of the dam and the size of the reservoir but
also on the potential for loss of life and property downstream. An instrumentation program should
involve instruments and evaluation methods that are as simple and straightforward as the project
will allow. Beyond that, the dam owner needs to make a firm commitment to an ongoing moni-
toring program, or the installation of instruments will be of little use.
These Guidelines discuss deficiencies in dams that may be discovered and the types of instruments
that may be used to monitor those shortcomings. Increased knowledge of these deficiencies ac-
quired through a monitoring program is useful in figuring out both the cause of the deficiencies
and the necessary remedies. Continued monitoring is essential to make sure that the remedy stays
effective. Involvement of qualified personnel in the design, installation, monitoring, and evaluation
of an instrumentation system is of prime importance to the success of the program.
CWC embarked on the Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project (DRIP), with financial as-
sistance from the World Bank, to enable rehabilitation of about 250 large dams in seven States.
Revision of two of the existing dam related guidelines and development of 11 new guidelines,
along with three dam design review manuals, has been undertaken by DRIP. Guidelines for the De-
velopment of Emergency Action Plans for Dams was the first of these documents to be released. The
present Guidelines for Instrumentation of Large Dams is the second in this series. Use of the guidelines
will improve the health monitoring of dams in India.
Doc. No. CDSO_GUD_DS_02_v1.0 Page v

Doc. No. CDSO_GUD_DS_02_v1.0 Page vi

CONTENTS
Foreword ............................................................................................................................................................iii
Preface..................................................................................................................................................................v
Contents ........................................................................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................................................x
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................................. xii
List of Acronyms .......................................................................................................................................... xiii
Chapter 1. Overview of Dam Instrumentation .......................................................................................1
What Is Instrumentation? ............................................................................................................1
Purpose of Instrumentation ........................................................................................................1
Proving Behavior Is as Expected ..................................................................................2
Warning of a Problem .......................................................................................................2
Defining and Analyzing a Problem ...............................................................................2
Evaluating Remedial Actions ..........................................................................................2
Need for Instrumentation ............................................................................................................2
Inspector's role ................................................................................................................................2
Frequency of Monitoring .............................................................................................................3
Maintenance and Performance of Instrumentation .............................................................3
Automated Instrumentation Systems .......................................................................................4
Instrumentation System Planning ..............................................................................................4
Publication and Contact Information ......................................................................................4
Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................4
Chapter 2. Instrument Types and Their Uses .........................................................................................5
Water Pressure .................................................................................................................................5
Open-type Hydraulic Piezometers ................................................................................6
Closed-type Hydraulic Piezometers ..............................................................................7
Electric Piezometers ..........................................................................................................9
Monitoring Frequency ......................................................................................................9
Seepage and Leakage .................................................................................................................. 10
Measurement Using Weirs ............................................................................................ 11
Measurement Using Parshall Flumes ........................................................................ 11
Measurement Using Velocity Meters ........................................................................ 12
Doc. No. CDSO_GUD_DS_02_v1.0 Page vii

Measurement Using Calibrated Containers ............................................................. 12

Detection by Visual Inspection ................................................................................... 13
Detection using Fiber-optic Cable ............................................................................. 13
Movement ...................................................................................................................................... 14
Types of Movement ....................................................................................................... 15
Surface Movement .......................................................................................................... 15
Internal Movement ......................................................................................................... 18
Joint or Crack Movement ............................................................................................. 21
Reservoir/Tailwater Elevations ............................................................................................... 22
Staff Gauge ........................................................................................................................ 22
Weather Conditions .................................................................................................................... 23
Precipitation ...................................................................................................................... 23
Evaporation ....................................................................................................................... 24
Local Seismic Activity ................................................................................................................ 25
Accelerometers ................................................................................................................. 25
Seismometers .................................................................................................................... 26
Stress and Strain ........................................................................................................................... 26
Types of Pressure (Stress) Measuring Devices ....................................................... 27
Temperature .................................................................................................................................. 29
Summary of Critical Physical Data to be Monitored ........................................................ 29
Data Evaluation ......................................................................................................................... 29
Chapter 3. Instrumentation System Planning: Embankment Dams ............................................. 35
Instrumenting Existing Embankment Dams ...................................................................... 36
Monitoring Seepage and Water Pressure ............................................................................. 37
Monitoring Soil Stresses ............................................................................................................ 38
Chapter 4. Instrumentation System Planning: Concrete and Masonry Dams ............................ 39
Monitoring by Precise Survey Methods ................................................................................ 40
Surveillance with Embedded Instruments ........................................................................... 41
Automatization and Computerization of Monitoring ...................................................... 44
Chapter 5. Instrumentation System Planning: Seismic Monitoring ............................................... 47
5.1 Specifications ................................................................................................................................ 49
Maximum Acceleration .................................................................................................. 49
Bandwidth .......................................................................................................................... 49
Resolution .......................................................................................................................... 49
Doc. No. CDSO_GUD_DS_02_v1.0 Page viii

Noise ................................................................................................................................... 49
Recording Mode .............................................................................................................. 49
Timing ................................................................................................................................. 50
Power .................................................................................................................................. 50
Network.............................................................................................................................. 50
Chapter 6. Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 51
Need for Dam Instrumentation .............................................................................................. 51
Managing Risks ............................................................................................................................. 51
Data Acquisition and Management ........................................................................................ 52
References ........................................................................................................................................................ 53
Appendix A. Checklist for Instrumentation Planning ....................................................................... 57
Appendix B. Indian Standards Related to Dam Instrumentation .................................................. 63
Appendix C. Suppliers of Geotechnical Instrumentation for Dams ............................................. 65
Appendix D. Suppliers of Hydrological and Meteorological Instrumentation for Dams ...... 67
Appendix E. Suppliers of Seismic Instrumentation for Dams ........................................................ 69
Appendix F. Glossary of Terms for Instrumentation of Dams ..................................................... 71
Doc. No. CDSO_GUD_DS_02_v1.0 Page ix

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1. An observation well used to measure groundwater levels. ........................................... 6
Figure 2-2. An open standpipe piezometer, also called a Casagrande-type piezometer, placed
in a borehole. ........................................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 2-3. Diagram of the Gletzl-type closed hydraulic piezometer. (1) Plastic box, (2) porous
ceramic tile, (3) elastic membrane, (4) supply tube, (5) offtake tube, (6) pressure gauge, (7)
pump for circulating oil, (8) oil vessel. ................................................................................................. 7
Figure 2-4. Bishop-type twin-tube hydraulic piezometer. ................................................................. 8
Figure 2-5. Illustration of an electric piezometer with a pneumatic sensor. .................................. 9
Figure 2-6. The three types of thin-plate weirs normally used to measure seepage flows: (a)
rectangular, (b) triangular (V notch), and (c) trapezoidal (Cipolletti) ............................................ 11
Figure 2-7. Parshall flume for measuring stream flow. ................................................................... 11
Figure 2-8. USGS portable Parshall flume weighing about 5.4 kg. ............................................... 12
Figure 2-9. Standard propeller-type velocity meter. ......................................................................... 12
Figure 2-10. Laser-Doppler velocity meter with ultrasonic depth sensor measuring discharge
in a drainage collection channel. ......................................................................................................... 13
Figure 2-11. Hydraulic point-settlement cell. .................................................................................... 14
Figure 2-12. Layout for collimation measurements used for an arch dam. ................................. 16
Figure 2-13. Layout for triangulation measurement: (1) Measuring targets on dam surface; (2)
theodolite piers; (3) measured base line; (4) computed base line; (5) sight lines. ........................ 17
Figure 2-14. The two types of plumblines in use: (a) Weighted plumbline, and (b) float-
supported plumblines (also called an inverted plumblines) ............................................................ 18
Figure 2-15. Mechanical measuring table for plumbline wire with removable microscope
frame. ...................................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 2-16. Schematic diagram of a laser plumbline installed in an arch dam: (1) Dam body
(concrete); (2) mounting fixture; (3) laser tube; (4) modulating and focusing element; (5)
receiver. ................................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 2-17. Schematic diagram of an inclinometer showing (a) cross section of the casing, (b)
inclination of a single vertical increment of the borehole, and (c) final summation of
incremental displacements. .................................................................................................................. 20
Figure 2-18. Extensometer mounted horizontally. .......................................................................... 21
Figure 2-19. A simple epoxy patch used to monitor development of a structural crack in
concrete. ................................................................................................................................................. 22
Figure 2-20. A two-plate mechanical crack meter. ........................................................................... 22
Figure 2-21. Illustration of an electronic crack meter with a vibrating wire transducer. ........... 22
Figure 2-22. Illustration of a dial gauge crack meter showing ports 1, 2, and 3. ......................... 23
Figure 2-23. A staff gauge and crest-stage gage installed next to a stream. ................................. 23
Doc. No. CDSO_GUD_DS_02_v1.0 Page x

Figure 2-24. Types of rain gauges: (a) Cutaway of a standard non-recording gauge; (b) a
weighing-type recording gauge with its cover removed to show the spring housing, recording
pen, and storage bucket........................................................................................................................ 24
Figure 2-25. Schematic diagram of a typical tipping bucket rain gauge. ....................................... 24
Figure 2-26. U.S. Weather Bureau Class-A Evaporation Pan. ....................................................... 25
Figure 2-27. A long-period vertical seismometer (left) and a long-period horizontal
seismometer (right). .............................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 2-28. A typical resistance strain gauge earth pressure cell: (1) Upper plate; (2) space
filled with mercury; (3) diaphragm, 0.75 mm thick; (4) measuring plate; (5) opening for
mercury filling; (6) rubber waterstop; (7) lower plate; and (8) welded end. ................................. 27
Figure 2-29. Carlson stress meter (after Golzé 1977). (1) Internal plate; (2) external plate;
(3) mercury film; (4) stress being measured; (5) compressible material; (6) steel bar; (7) ceramic
spool; (8) glass insulated terminals; (9) fabric cover; (10) conductor cable. ................................. 28
Figure 3-1. Illustration of parameters to be measured at the major cross section of an
embankment dam.................................................................................................................................. 35
Figure 3-2. Instrumentation layout of the water pressure in embankment dams. (a)
Homogenous; (b) sloping core; (c) broad central core; (d) narrow central core. ........................ 36
Figure 3-3. Layout for the bypass seepage and groundwater monitoring in an embankment
dam. ......................................................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 3-4. Application of a fiber-optic temperature measuring system at embankment dams,
(a) dam with waterproof facing; (b) dam with an internal earth core; (c) dam with an internal
artificial core: (1) filter zone;(2) fiber-optic cable. ............................................................................ 37
Figure 3-5. Monitoring layout for the stress in an embankment dam. 1) core; 2) dam shell, 3)
dam body. ............................................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 4-1. Planview of a gravity dam showing uplift pressure measuring points. ..................... 39
Figure 4-2. Layout of measuring points to monitor vertical movement of dams: (a) Arch dam,
(b) embankment dam. .......................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 4-3. Joint meters used to measure(a) horizontal deformations, and (b) vertical
deformations. ......................................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 4-4. Layout of the temperature monitoring for a gravity dam. .......................................... 42
Figure 4-5. Layout of the temperature monitoring for an arch dam. (a) Cantilever section; (b)
arch section. ........................................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 4-6. Layout of foundation temperature monitoring points for a gravity dam. ............... 43
Figure 5-1. Recommended dam seismic instrumentation. .............................................................. 48
Doc. No. CDSO_GUD_DS_02_v1.0 Page xi

LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1. Parameters to be Monitored at Dams and the Suggested Instruments or
Observation Techniques to be Used. ................................................................................................. 31
Table 2-2. Suggested Frequencya, b of Readings for Specified Instruments ............................ 32
Doc. No. CDSO_GUD_DS_02_v1.0 Page xii

LIST OF ACRONYMS
The following acronyms are used in this publication:
ADAS Automatic Data Acquisition
ADCP Automatic Data Collection Platform
ARG Automatic Rain Gauge
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
AWLR Automatic Water Level Recording
AWS Automatic Weather Station
AWWA American Water Works Association
BIS Bureau of Indian Standards
CDSO Central Dam Safety Organization
CWC Central Water Commission
DDMS Dam Deformation Monitoring System
DRIP Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project
DTM Digital Terrain Model
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
FMIS Flood Management Information System
GNSS Global Navigational Satellite System
GPS Global Positioning System
GPS Global Positioning System
ICOLD International Commission on Large Dams
IMD India Metrological Department
LIDAR Light Detection and Ranging
PGA Peak Ground Acceleration
PGD Peak Ground Displacement
PGV Peak Ground Velocity
Doc. No. CDSO_GUD_DS_02_v1.0 Page xiii

RCC Roller Compacted Concrete
RTD Resistance Temperature Detector
SDSO State Dam Safety Organization
SMA Strong Motion Accelerograph
USACE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
USBR U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
USGS U.S. Geological Survey
WMO World Meteorological Organization
Doc. No. CDSO_GUD_DS_02_v1.0 Page xiv

Chapter 1. OVERVIEW OF DAM INSTRUMENTATION
The primary purpose of a dam is to store wa- draulic principles. Some instruments are ca-
ter safely. However, the storage reservoir cre- pable of instant response; others need a pe-
ated by a dam presents a potential hazard to riod to obtain readings. Some devices are de-
downstream inhabitants and property. The signed for continuous operation, while oth-
floodplain at risk in case of uncontrolled ers only produce readings periodically. In-
breaching of a dam may be extensive, densely struments may be mounted in one place or
populated, and of considerable economic im- movable and may give readings at one point,
portance. In such instances, a dam failure can on a line or axis, or over a particular area.
result in many deaths and tremendous eco- Some instruments are read remotely; oth-
nomic loss. A period of progressively increas- ers are read at or near their sensors. The sig-
ing structural distress within a dam and its
nal may be transmitted by a rod, wire, a liquid
foundation normally precedes catastrophic column, an electrical cable, light or laser
failure of a dam from causes other than ex- beam, a line-of-sight, or a radio signal. The
treme floods or earthquakes. data recording may be done by hand, chart
Symptoms of dam distress can be de- recorder, film recorder, digital printout, or
tected by a monitoring scheme designed with magnetic recorder, and in some cases, may be
the right instrumentation. Instrumentation con- transmitted directly to computer storage.
sists of the various electrical and mechanical
devices used to measure pressure, water flow, Purpose of Instrumentation
movement, stress, strain, and temperature at
a dam and its appurtenant structures. Moni- Dam safety monitoring is a common statu-
toring is the collection, reduction, presenta- tory requirement. The long-term perfor-
tion, and evaluation of the instrumentation mance of a dam is a necessary factor in the
data. An effective surveillance program then evaluation of dam safety. Diurnal and sea-
relates the identified symptoms to specific sonal effects, changes in hydrostatic pressure
problems at an early stage of development by and related water seepage affect the health of
ongoing examination of the collected instru- dams. Wall deflection, settlement and
mentation data combined with a review of heaving, the rate of water flow, seepage, tem-
operation and maintenance records to decide perature, vibration, stress, strain and other
if a dangerous trend is developing or appears significant parameters require monitoring to
likely to develop. detect changes in the performance of the
dam.
What Is Instrumentation? The primary purpose of instrumentation
is to supply data to aid in evaluating the safety
Instrumentation is the use of special devices of a structure by collecting quantitative data
to obtain critical scientific measurements of on its performance and by detecting prob-
engineered structures. A typical instrument lems at an early and preventable stage. Cata-
arrangement consists of one or more of three strophic dam failure will threaten life and
basic elements: property downstream. The safe functioning
• a sensor; of a dam is an important matter of economic
benefit and public safety. A secondary pur-
• a signal conducting media; and pose is to enable comparison of actual behav-
• a readout/recorder. ior with predicted behavior, which verifies
design adequacy and helps gather useful in-
Instruments may operate mechanically,
formation for refining the design of similar
optically, electrically, or via pneumatic or hy-
structures in the future.
Doc. No. CDSO_GUD_DS_02_v1.0 Page 1 of 79

Proving Behavior Is as Ex- Need for Instrumentation

pected
Every structure creates certain risks, and
Instruments installed at a dam may infre- dams are no exception. Most dam failures
quently (or never) show that an anomaly (ab- that have occurred could have been avoided
normality) or problem exists. However, this if the structure's behavior had been in-
information is valuable because it says that a spected, monitored, and analyzed continu-
certain aspect of the darn is performing as de- ously, and if proper corrective measures had
signed. These data serve to verify design as- been taken in a timely fashion.
sumptions. Also, although a problem may ap- Structural displacements, deformations,
pear to exist or be developing, instrument settlements, seepages, the piezometric pres-
readings may indicate that the deficiency sure within the structure and its foundation
(e.g., increased seepage) is normal (merely the are items that are the focus of a monitoring
result of a higher reservoir level), and was ex- system. Seismic or microseismic vibrations
pected in the dam's design. from operation, maintenance work, and con-
Warning of a Problem struction activity may cause damage such as
cracking of the structure or liquefaction of
Instrumentation data can detect unusual the dam foundation
changes or trends (such as fluctuations in wa-
ter pressure) that are not visible. In other There are many reasons for installing in-
cases, gradual progressive changes (e.g., slow strumentation in both new and existing
seepage flow increases) that might go unno- dams. Each dam is a unique situation and re-
ticed visually can be detected by monitoring quires an individual solution for its instru-
on a regular basis. This control can warn of mentation requirements. The fact that some
the development of a serious problem. existing dams have only minimal or no in-
strumentation at all is not an adequate reason
Defining and Analyzing a for installing instrumentation. Nevertheless,
Problem effective instrumentation can play a vital role
in the ongoing assessment of a dam's perfor-
Instrumentation data often help to identify mance, can provide valuable information
and analyze the extent of a problem. For ex- concerning the safety of the dam, and can
ample, downstream movement of a dam be- help to improve dam design in the future.
cause of high reservoir water pressure must
be analyzed to figure out whether the move- Inspector's role
ment is distributed uniformly along the dam,
whether the movement is in the dam, the The instrumentation responsibilities assigned
foundation, or both, and whether the move- to inspectors vary from agency to agency. In
ment is increasing, decreasing, or remaining some organizations, inspectors handle re-
constant. Such information then helps to de- cording and interpreting instrumentation
velop proper corrective measures. data. In other agencies, specialists record and
interpret instrumentation data. However, all
Evaluating Remedial Ac- inspectors should summarize significant in-
tions strumentation data in their inspection reports
and use the information to develop conclu-
Many dams, particularly old dams, are modi- sions about the performance of the dam.
fied to allow for a change in purpose, for in-
creased reservoir capacity, or to correct a de-
ficiency. Instrument readings taken before
and after the changes allow for analysis and
evaluation of the performance of the modi-
fied structures.

Frequency of Monitoring • Initial readings for a new problem,

such as a new crack or seep, should be
Proper monitoring is imperative in evaluating
the performance of a dam. The frequency of frequent until a trend becomes
monitoring depends upon applicable regula- evident.
tory requirements and other factors, includ- The following chapter will describe the
ing: actual mechanics involved in taking the vari-
• the hazard to life and property that the ous readings and will present specific fre-
quency requirements and guidelines as they
dam presents;
apply to instruments.
• the height or size of the dam;
• the volume of water impounded by Maintenance and Perfor-
the dam; mance of Instrumentation
• the seismic risk at the site; For instrumentation data to be of any value,
• the age or condition of the dam; the instruments must be calibrated and main-
tained properly. Proper care of the equip-
• the frequency and amount of water ment is essential to ensure correct readings.
level fluctuation in the reservoir; and Inaccurate readings are worse than no read-
• the history of problems or abnormal ings at all because they can mislead one about
behavior at the dam. the performance of a dam and can allow se-
rious problems to develop undetected.
In general, as each of the above factors Proper care should be taken of all instrumen-
increases, the frequency of monitoring tation and devices at the site as well as all re-
should also increase. For example, readings lated equipment taken to the site. Listed be-
should be taken more often during and after low are some general guidelines to help en-
higher than normal water levels and after sig- sure the best operability and accuracy of in-
nificant storms and earthquakes. Specific strumentation equipment:
reading schedules should be arranged by ex-
perienced dam inspectors and qualified engi- • Make sure permanent survey points
neers. These schedules will need instrumen- are fixed in place and have not been
tation readings on a regular basis. In addition disturbed.
to the prescribed schedules, use the following • Make sure all equipment is kept clean
general guidelines: and operable.
• Make visual observations during each • Follow all manufacturers' instructions
visit to the dam, and preferably not and guidelines as given in the operat-
less than once a month. ing manuals, including instructions for
• Take frequent readings (daily or proper care of the equipment.
weekly) during the first reservoir fill- • Replace all caps and covers after they
ing because this is a critical time. The have been removed or are found miss-
readings should be taken based on di- ing from the instruments.
rections from the designer and on ob-
• Exercise caution when driving or
served behavior as the filling
walking near instrumentation to pre-
progresses.
vent damage to the instrumentation.
• Take readings during or after a flood
• Ensure adequate protection from van-
or after an earthquake. Significant
dalism and other damage.
changes in seepage or movement also
show a need for increased frequency
of observations.

• Check onsite instrumentation on a USACE (1989a), and USCOLD (1986). Dun-

regular basis for damage from nicliff (1988, Appendix A) gives a checklist of
weather, traffic, or vandalism. steps for planning an instrumentation sys-
tem.
• Make sure that exposed metallic com-
ponents of instrumentation, especially Publication and Contact In-
those exposed to high humidity in gal- formation
leries or maintenance holes, are clean This document is available on the CWC
and uncorroded, and that proper pre- website
servative treatments have been ap-
plied to avoid corrosion. http://www.cwc.gov.in
and the Dam Rehabilitation and Improve-
Automated Instrumentation ment Project (DRIP) website (DRIP
Systems 2017a)
Automated instrumentation systems, which http://www.damsafety.in
may include the remote acquisition of data or
For any further information contact:
automated data processing, are a rapidly
growing aspect of many dam instrumentation The Director
programs. These automated systems offer Dam Safety Rehabilitation Directorate
some advantages, including fewer labor re-
quirements, better monitoring capabilities in
physically or seasonally inaccessible areas, Central Water Commission
and frequent monitoring capabilities for crit- 3rd Floor, New Library Building
ical problem areas. However, automated in- R. K. Puram, New Delhi – 110066
strumentation systems are expensive, and Email: dir-drip-cwc@nic.in
site-specific cost-benefit analyses should be
conducted to decide whether they are advis- Acknowledgments
able. In preparing these guidelines, work of others
Automated systems need frequent in India, the United States, and elsewhere has
maintenance and repair by highly trained per- been drawn from liberally. Grateful appreci-
sonnel. An important item to remember is ation is extended to the following organiza-
that no matter how comprehensive or so- tions whose publications and websites are
phisticated an automated instrumentation sources of valuable information on dam
system may be, it must never replace actual safety inspections:
onsite monitoring and visual inspection. International Commission on Large Dams
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Instrumentation System
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
Planning
Federal Emergency Management Agency,
Instrumentation system planning should re- U.S. Department of Homeland Secu-
ceive the same level of effort as other features rity
of a dam. It should follow a logical, system- Association of Sate Dam Safety Officials
atic process beginning with setting up the ob- (United Sates)
jectives and ending with predetermined ac-
tion based on the data obtained. General
considerations for the design of instrumenta-
tion systems are discussed by ICOLD (1969),

Chapter 2. INSTRUMENT TYPES AND THEIR USES
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the Water Pressure

several kinds of instruments that are available
to measure physical parameters needed to A certain amount of water seeps through, un-
evaluate dam safety and performance. Be- der, and around all dams. The water moves
cause every instrument is designed to meas- through the pores in the soil, and through the
ure specific physical properties, instruments cracks and joints in the rock. The pressure of
are grouped by the parameters that they the water acts uniformly in all directions; it is
monitor. termed pore pressure. The upward component
of pore pressure, called uplift pressure, has the
The basic physical parameters that are effect of reducing the effective downward
most important in assessing the safety and weight of the dam and can decrease the sta-
performance of both embankment and con- bility of the structure. Devices used to meas-
crete/masonry dams are as follows: ure pressure include several types of piezom-
• water pressure, eters and total pressure cells.
• seepage and leakage, Piezometers are devices used to measure
the water pressure at specific locations in
• movement, dam bodies, foundations, and abutments.
• reservoir water surface and tailwater The primary value of water pressure data is
elevations, and to warn of certain conditions or problems
that may exist or may be developing. Unusual
• weather conditions. water pressure data may show that unantici-
Other physical data that are important in- pated movement or seepage is occurring.
clude: The purpose of a piezometric measure-
• local seismic activity, ment is to measure the water pressure at a
specific point within a mass of earth, rock, or
• stress and strain, and concrete. These measurements can be made
• temperature. directly or indirectly. Direct measurements
are made to find the actual water level eleva-
A definition, purpose, and description, as tion at a specific point; these elevations can
well as specific instruction on reading the in- then be converted into water pressure equiv-
strument and recording its data, are given for alents at the point. Indirect measurements
each instrument type. Onsite visual inspec- yield water pressure that can be converted
tion of the instrument, data use and interpre- into water level elevation values.
tation, and overall instrumentation assess-
ment are also described. Piezometers, depending on their pur-
pose, can have distinct designs. They all con-
This chapter covers a range of instru- sist of three basic parts: (1) a water inlet with a
ments. Some of the devices are simple; others filter, which protects the piezometer from
are complex and specialized. The goal is to penetration of deposit, (2) a piezometer tube;
give an overview of the operation and use of and (3) an upper section with protective de-
the basic and more common instruments and vices. A further distinction is made between
to offer useful background information on open and closed piezometers, which include a
the less common and more complex instru- wide variety of types within each of the two
ments. categories.
There are two basic types of piezometers:
(1) hydraulic piezometers in which the pressure

Observation wells measure average water

level elevations in different zones of materi-
als, or over large areas in drill holes. Water
passes through a slotted or perforated pipe,
or rise through the bottom of an open pipe.
The water that is measured may come from
different underground zones and is not iso-
lated by seals in the hole.
In a stratified material, a well creates a hy-
draulic connection between strata. Thus, the
water level in the well is an ambiguous com-
bination of the water pressure and permea-
bility in all strata intersected by the borehole.
Data from observation wells may lead to
faulty conclusions regarding actual water
pressures within the dam and foundation.
For this reason, observation wells are suitable
only in a uniform, permeable material.
Figure 2-1. An observation well used to
measure groundwater levels. 2.1.1.2 Open Standpipe Piezom-
eters
is obtained directly by measuring the water
Open standpipe piezometers are observation
level or the pressure into the tube; and (2) elec-
wells with subsurface seals that isolate the
trical piezometers in which the pressure is meas-
strata to be measured (Figure 2-2). These de-
ured with electrical-acoustic or electric-re-
vices are also known as Casagrande-type pie-
sistant pressure gauges (manometers), or
zometers and, in concrete dams, as pore pres-
with pneumatic sensors.
sure cells. The seals are usually made of ben-
Open-type Hydraulic Pie- tonite clay or cement grout and care must be
taken during installation to develop a good
zometers
Open-type hydraulic piezometers directly
measure the water level elevation within a
vertical tube. This elevation is the phreatic
surface in the surrounding earth or rock.
2.1.1.1 Observation Wells

The simplest type of open-type piezometer is
an observation well. Observation wells are usu-
ally vertical pipes with a slotted section at the
bottom or a tube with a porous tip at the bot-
tom (Figure 2-1). They are typically installed
in boreholes with a seal at the surface to pre-
vent surface water from entering the bore-
hole. A vent is needed in the pipe cap so that
water is free to flow through the wellpoint.
The depth to the water level is measured by
lowering an electronic probe or weighted
Figure 2-2. An open standpipe piezometer,
tape into the pipe. also called a Casagrande-type piezometer,
placed in a borehole.

seal. Riser pipe joints should be watertight to piezometer tube emerges at the ground sur-
prevent leakage into or out of the pipe, which face and, if the pressure of pore water in the
could change the water level in the pipe. The tube is lower than the level of the
top of the standpipe should be vented, and embankment, the height of water in the pie-
the inside diameter should be greater than zometer (pore pressure) is measured using an
about 8 mm to be self-de-airing. ordinary electric probe. If the phreatic level is
above the embankment surface, the tube is
A common version of the open stand-
extended vertically above the ground level.
pipe piezometer is a wellpoint, which is a pre-
This type of piezometer is readily installed in
fabricated screened section and riser pipe
existing dams and is simple to use, reliable,
that is pushed into place. If the screened sec-
and inexpensive. It is most suitable where the
tion is not sealed, it will behave like an obser-
vation well rather than a piezometer. Dunni- phreatic surface does not change much.
cliff (1988) discusses methods of sealing The main shortcoming of open stand-
wellpoints. pipe piezometers is the need for a discharge
of water to or from the tube for it to adapt to
The sensing zone (screened length or po-
pore pressure changes. Because of this, there
rous tip) of observation wells and open
is a noticeable time lag in recording the pores
standpipe piezometers is susceptible to clog-
ging, which can increase lag time or result in pressure changes if they occur quickly.
failure of the instrument. This susceptibility Closed-type Hydraulic Pie-
can be diminished by a properly designed fil-
zometers
ter pack that meets filter criteria with the sur-
rounding soil and properly sized perforations In closed-type hydraulic piezometers, the water
that are compatible with the filter pack. surface is not exposed directly to the atmos-
phere, and water pressure usually is measured
Open standpipe piezometers are used to
across a buried diaphragm, via some mechan-
measure pore pressure in soils with high per-
ical or electrical means, or by gauges on a
meability, such as sand, and is easily installed.
connecting water column.
These types of piezometers are the standard
against which all other piezometers are 2.1.2.1 Closed Standpipe Pie-
judged. They are simple, reliable, inexpen- zometers
sive, and easy to check.
Closed standpipe piezometers are identical to
For fine-grained soils with low permea- open standpipe piezometers, except that the
bility, a Casagrande open piezometer is often water level being measured is higher than the
installed in a borehole in the foundation or in top of the standpipe (artesian condition) and
the dam’s embankment. The internal plastic the pressure is measured with a pressure
Figure 2-3. Diagram of the Gletzl-type closed hydraulic piezometer. (1) Plas-
tic box, (2) porous ceramic tile, (3) elastic membrane, (4) supply tube, (5)
offtake tube, (6) pressure gauge, (7) pump for circulating oil, (8) oil vessel.

gauge (or pneumatic, or vibrating wire pie- ing, is precise and reliable. However, the en-
zometer) fitted to the top of the pipe. In con- tire installation is complex and sensitive, and
crete dams, they are also known as pore pres- the measurement takes a long time.
sure cells. Closed standpipe piezometers in- Another type of closed piezometer is the
stalled in concrete dams during construction Bishop-type instrument shown in Figure 2-4.
usually have riser pipes that are not vertical This device is best suited for use in low per-
but routed to a gallery for ease of monitoring. meability soils and in non-saturated soils and
Provisions for venting gas trapped inside of thus can measure negative as well as positive
the riser pipe are often made but are not pore pressures. Both hydraulic supplies are
needed for most common sizes of riser pipes. permanently filled with de-aerated and de-
One such piezometer is the Gletzl-type ionized water. The connecting leads can ex-
system shown in Figure 2-3. Referring to the tend for considerable distances (more than
figure; the device consists of a plastic box (1) 200 meters) to an instrument house where
holding a porous ceramic tile (2) through the pore pressure is measured by a trans-
which the pore pressure acts upon an elastic ducer, or with a mercury manometer. De-aer-
membrane (3). The membrane, in turn, acts ation of the leads is needed at intervals to
on a valve that separates the supply tube (4) flush out air or water-vapor obstructions.
from the offtake tube (5). A pressure gauge The frequency of de-aeration is reduced con-
(6) is attached to the supply tube which is fed siderably if a fine-pored ceramic element is
by a pump (7) that continuously draws oil used at the inlet. The Bishop piezometer has
from a holding vessel (8). When pore pres- proven to be precise and durable and is
sure acts on the membrane and closes the widely used and incorporated into embank-
valve, the pressure in the supply tube in- ments for measuring the pore pressure dur-
creases. This piezometer, with careful working construction (Penman et al. 1999, pages
128-131, Novak et al. 2007, page 297).
Figure 2-4. Bishop-type twin-tube hydraulic piezometer.

Electric Piezometers wire piezometer holds a porous disk that al-

lows water to enter and press against a stain-
Electric piezometers offer rapid response to less-steel diaphragm. A high-strength steel
a change in phreatic level but may prove to wire is fixed to the center of the diaphragm
be expensive and less flexible in use than the at one end, and to an “end-block” at the
hydraulic alternatives. They offer the ad- other end. This wire is sealed within a stain-
vantage of needing only a small terminal less-steel chamber and set to a predetermined
measuring chamber, rather than the costly in- tension during manufacture. Water pressure
strument house that is usually needed for applied to the diaphragm causes it to deflect,
twin-tube hydraulic instruments. Therefore, thereby changing the tension and resonant
the device is well-suited to an isolated loca- frequency of the wire. A coil/magnet assem-
tion that has only a few piezometers installed. bly is used with a readout device to “pluck”
The illustration in Figure 2-5 shows the (vibrate) the wire and to measure the wire's
principle of an electrical piezometer with a vibration frequency. Calibration charts or ta-
pneumatic sensor. It functions by application bles are then used to calculate pore pressure
of a known and controlled gas back-pressure values based on the frequency readings.
to balance the porewater pressure exerted on
the diaphragm. The pressure balance is Monitoring Frequency
shown by deflection of the diaphragm, allow- The frequency with which a dam's piezome-
ing the gas to vent to a flow indicator and is ters should be checked depends on several
confirmed at the closure of the diaphragm factors. The required frequency may be spec-
when the gas pressure is slowly reduced. (No- ified by the dam owner, or by regulatory re-
vak et al. 2007, page 298). quirements. Piezometers should be read at
Electrical piezometers can also measure least every three months. Certain conditions
pressure via resistance strain gauges bonded may call for more frequent readings. Such
to a steel diaphragm or by use of a vibrating conditions include:
wire strain gauge. The tip of the vibrating
Figure 2-5. Illustration of an electric piezometer with a pneumatic sensor.

• significant changes in reservoir eleva- these measuring devices include weirs, flow-
tion, meters, flumes, and calibrated containers (i.e.,
a bucket of known volume and a watch. Ad-
• new record reservoir levels, ditionally, the sources of seepage and leakage
• the first filling of the reservoir, might be detected from measured tempera-
ture of the water.
• the construction of any remedial seep-
age measures, Seepage and leakage are most often
measured with weirs, Parshall flumes, and
• the discovery of abnormal seepage or calibrated containers. Special circumstance
movement, and may call for other types of flow measuring
• seismic activity. devices such as current meters. Geophysical
surveys can map flow direction within em-
Seepage and Leakage bankments, foundations, and abutments.
Bartholomew and Haverland (1987), Bar-
Because the purpose of a dam is to store wa- tholomew et al. (1987), and USBR (2014)
ter effectively and safely, its water-retention give more detailed discussions of seepage and
ability is of prime importance. Seepage from a leakage measuring devices.
reservoir is the interstitial movement of water
through a dam, the foundation, or the abut- The difference in water levels between
ments. It is different from leakage, which is the upstream and downstream sides of a dam
the flow of water through holes or cracks. is the primary cause of seepage and leakage.
Seepage and leakage through a dam should The factors influencing the amount of seep-
not be large enough to erode material from age and leakage are the same as those that
inside the dam body Such internal erosion affect pressure distribution. The amount of
can cause undermining or piping in embank- seepage or leakage is directly proportional to
ment dams, and loss of material strength or permeability and water pressure.
density in concrete and masonry dams. Most of the factors that control the
Seepage and leakage through, around, or amount of seepage or leakage do not change
beneath a dam is a significant factor in evalu- during the life of a project. Because reservoir
ating the condition and continuing level of level is the main influence, any change in
performance of the dam. The level of water seepage or leakage rates not related to reser-
in the reservoir is the main factor affecting voir level variation needs a prompt investiga-
the quantity of water entering a seepage col- tion. An increase in seepage or leakage may
lection system. Any sudden change in the be a sign of internal erosion or piping.
quantity of seepage collected without clear A decrease in seepage may be an indica-
cause, such as a corresponding change in the tor of clogged drains. It may also be a sign
reservoir level or a recent heavy rainfall, that seepage is increasing elsewhere, perhaps
could be a sign of a severe problem. Similarly, through an internal erosion channel (piping),
whenever seepage water becomes cloudy thereby reducing flow at the measurement
(turbid) or discolored, has increased quanti- point. Cloudy or turbid seepage water may be
ties of sediment, or changes radically in a sign of piping. New seeps or leaks may also
chemical content, a genuine problem may be be related to developing problems, such as
developing. Seepage appearing at new or un- cracking or hydraulic fracturing.
planned locations on the downstream slope,
on the abutments, or in the area downstream Another variable that affects the amount
from an embankment also may signify a of seepage or leakage is the development of
problem. the steady-state phreatic surface in a newly
constructed project. The steady-state phre-
A variety of instruments can measure atic surface can take several years to be
seepage and leakage. The most common of reached. During this period, seepage may in-
crease gradually.

Weirs are usually flat plates of metal or

plastic. They are installed in a ditch, gutter,
pipe, or in maintenance holes in the relief-
well collection system. Triangular notch
weirs are right for flow rates less than about
0.05 m3/s. Rectangular or trapezoidal weirs
are best suited for larger flows. The crest of
the weir should be thin enough that the
nappe springs clear. Standard weir dimen-
sions and calibrations are readily available
(WMO 2010a and 2010b).
Weirs are simple, reliable, inexpensive,
and require little maintenance. Limitations
are the severe restriction of the flow channel,
high head loss, and the need for enough ele-
vation change to prevent the tailwater from
submerging the weir.
Measurement Using Par-

shall Flumes
Parshall flumes are specially shaped open
channel sections. They consist of a converg-
ing upstream section, a downward sloping
throat, and an upward sloping and diverging
Figure 2-6. The three types of thin-plate
weirs normally used to measure seepage downstream section (Figure 2-7). They are
flows: (a) rectangular, (b) triangular (V usually permanent installations made of rein-
notch), and (c) trapezoidal (Cipolletti) forced concrete, metal, or prefabricated fi-
berglass and can be sized to measure a wide
For dams on soluble rock foundations range of flows. Throat widths from 25 mm
(e.g. gypsum or halite), seepage may increase to 10 m are common. Standard flume dimen-
with time because of dissolution of the rock. sions are given in WMO (2010a). The quan-
In these cases, a slow, steady increase in seep- tity of water flowing through the throat is cal-
age may be a sign of developing problems. culated by measuring the depth of water up-
stream and using the measurement in the
Measurement Using Weirs proper hydraulic equation. Installation of
Weirs are one of the oldest, simplest, and
most reliable devices used to measure water
flow rates. The critical parts of weirs can be
inspected easily, and improper operation can
be straightforwardly detected and quickly
corrected. The three types of thin-plate weirs
normally used are (a) rectangular, (b) triangu-
lar (V-notch), and (c) trapezoidal (Cipolletti)
(Figure 2-6). Discharge rates are found by
measuring the vertical distance from the crest
of the overflow portion of the weir to the wa-
ter surface in the pool upstream from the
crest. The discharge is then computed by for-
mula or by reference to tables. Figure 2-7. Parshall flume for measuring
stream flow.

A standard propeller-type current meter is

shown in Figure 2-9. Standard propeller-type
velocity meter.
Velocity meters using non-contact laser
Doppler velocity technology and non-con-
tact ultrasonic water-level sensing have been
introduced recently. The meter uses an ultra-
sonic level sensor to find the water level and
calculates a sub-surface point in the discharge
channel to measure velocity (Figure 2-10).
Measurement Using Cali-

brated Containers
Containers of known volume can be used to
Figure 2-8. USGS portable Parshall flume
measure low flows that are concentrated and
weighing about 5.4 kg.
free-falling. The flow rate is computed as the
volume of the container divided by the time
Parshall flumes should be in a level channel
required to fill the container.
section and, ideally, at a site free of down-
stream submergence. Extremely low flow rates can be meas-
ured accurately. The largest flow rate is lim-
Parshall flumes are simple, reliable, and
ited by the size of the container that can be
need little maintenance. They cause minimal
maneuvered quickly into and out of the flow
restriction to the flow channel and low head
or into which flow can readily be diverted.
loss. The primary limitation is the cost of in-
Typically, calibrated containers are suitable
stallation which will be more than for most
for measuring flow rates less than about 3 li-
weirs.
ters per second.
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
Calibrated containers are reliable for low
portable Parshall flume (Kilpatrick and
flows and are inexpensive. They have limited
Schneider 1983) is a modification of the
application because of the requirement for a
standard Parshall flume where the discharge
free-falling flow, they are not accurate for
section has been removed (Figure 2-8). The
large flows, and are labor intensive.
purpose of the modification is to reduce the
weight of the flume and to make it easier to
install, even on a temporary basis when
making periodic measurements. With the
discharge section removed, the flume should
be used only where free-fall conditions from
the throat of the flume will occur. As
portability is of primary concern, the flume is
constructed of 3.2 mm thick sheet aluminum.
With a 7.6 cm throat width, the flume weighs
about 5.4 kg.
Measurement Using
Velocity Meters
Many types of velocity meters are available
Figure 2-9. Standard propeller-type velocity
for measuring flow rates in open channels.
meter.
(WMO 2008). They include pitot type de-
vices, propeller-type meters, acoustic flow
meters and electromagnetic current meters.

length of the cable. The technology offers the

possibility of measuring temperature along
cables of a few kilometers in length, continu-
ously and with high accuracy. The method is
based on the optical properties of the fiber
which depend on the ambient temperature. A
highly-developed measuring technique ena-
bles the analysis and evaluation of property
changes resulting from a reliable temperature
distribution along the fiber.
Figure 2-10. Laser-Doppler velocity meter Fiber-optic cables have been installed in-
with ultrasonic depth sensor measuring dis- side dams, dykes and levees to measure seep-
charge in a drainage collection channel.
age (Hartog 2017, pages 303-305). The detec-
tion principle is the discovery of a change in
Detection by Visual In-
temperature because of invading water arriv-
spection ing at a different temperature from that of the
Visual inspection is particularly effective monitored structure. Using temperature
when checking on seepage. One item readily measurements to detect seepage is quite chal-
noted by a visual check is the turbidity of the lenging given the small temperature differ-
seepage water. High turbidity is a dangerous ences involved, the existence of seasonal and
sign because it can be caused by erosion of diurnal temperature variations as well as
fine particles of cohesive material from faster changes from exposure to the sun, the
within the dam body. Another item readily perturbative effect of rain and heterogenei-
noted by visual inspections is the formation ties in the edifice caused either by the materi-
of springs, which often appear during the als used in the construction or the presence
first filling of the reservoir as the result of of drainage channels.
seepage through the foundation. In an embankment dam and its founda-
Water quality measurements offer a way tion, the internal temperature depends on the
to evaluate the dissolution of the foundation seepage flow field. Temperature gradients
rock, the source of seepage, or piping. Com- can exist in the form of permanent or sea-
mon water quality measurements include sonal differences, or in the form of signifi-
field measurements of pH, temperature, and cant variations at the probable source of
conductivity, and laboratory measurements seepage. If leakage is present, temperature
of total dissolved solids, total suspended sol- anomalies will be transported into the struc-
ids, and a variety of minerals (e.g. sodium, po- ture by convection and will propagate
tassium, carbonate, bicarbonate, sulfate, and throughout the earthen body, distorting the
chloride). Standard test methods are given by temperature field. Distributed fiber-optic
the American Society for Testing and Mate- temperature measurements find precisely the
rials (ASTM), the American Water Works temperature anomaly and the area affected by
Association (AWWA), and the U.S. Environ- excessive seepage or leakage.
mental Protection Agency (EPA). Bartholo- Another approach to interpreting tem-
mew and Haverland (1987) and Bartholo- perature measurements from fiber-optic ca-
mew et al. (1987) discuss the application of bles is the active method or heat pulse
the standard test methods to evaluate seepage method. This method is based on the thermal
at dams. response of the surrounding cables to added
heat and shows whether the cable is within a
Detection using Fiber-op-
moist, a partially saturated, or a fully satu-
tic Cable rated medium, and whether seepage flow is
Using a fiber-optic cable as a sensor the tem- present or not. By applying a voltage to the
perature can be measured along the entire electric conductors integrated into a hybrid

fiber-optic cable, the cable heats up. The because of hydrostatic uplift pressures. Res-
temperature increase in the cable depends on ervoir levels can have an important influence
the thermal capacity and conductivity of the on movements.
surrounding soil material. If seepage water is When evaluating the performance and
present, the heat input from the cable dissi- safety of a dam, it is essential that movements
pates faster. Consequently, the sections with be carefully watched. This is especially true
seepage show distinct anomalies. Therefore, for concrete and masonry dams where even
the analysis of the measurement data includes small shifts in position can lead to grave con-
the evaluation of the temperature difference sequences. Measurement of movements in
between the heated stage and a reference concrete dams is made with several different
stage before heating. Tanchev (2014, pages instruments including plumblines, inclinom-
498-502) gives details of the fiber-optic tem- eters, extensometers, strain meters, joint me-
perature measurement method for seepage ters, and tape gauges. These devices can de-
detection. tect relative movements between parts of the
dam or foundation blocks. Absolute move-
Movement ments can be surveyed to measure all aspects
Various movements and deformations occur of the dam and its surroundings.
in all dams. Horizontal movement occurs in In embankment dams, the key move-
an upstream-downstream direction, but may ments to monitor include foundation and
also occur along the dam axis (usually toward embankment settlement, and vertical and
the valley). It can involve the movement of horizontal deformations within the embank-
an entire dam in relation to its abutments or ment and its foundation. Embankment
foundation, or one part of a dam in relation movement measuring instruments include
to another. The downward vertical move- settlement sensors, foundation baseplates, in-
ment caused by the consolidation of the dam clinometers, extensometers, surface points,
or of the foundation is called settlement. Verti- and various survey instruments (Figure 2-12).
cal movement can also occur in an upward
direction (particularly at the toe of the dam),
Figure 2-11. Hydraulic point-settlement cell.

Types of Movement Surface Movement

All structures move as the result of applied Surface movement is the horizontal or verti-
loads. Embankments settle and spread over cal change in position of a point on the sur-
time as the result of consolidation and sec- face of a structure in relation to a fixed point
ondary settlement of the dam and foundation away from the structure. It is usually found
from self-weight. Embankments also deform by some type of surveying. Modern equip-
because of external loads produced by reser- ment has increased the number and type of
voir water, rapid drawdown, earthquakes, un- surveys that are available.
dermining, swelling clays, and piping. Con-
2.3.2.1 Level Surveys
crete and masonry structures deform because
of internal loads such as pore pressure, cool- Vertical surface movements are measured by
ing, and alkali aggregate reaction of concrete; conventional differential leveling surveys us-
and from external loads caused by air and res- ing theodolites, optical levels, and electronic
ervoir temperature, solar radiation, reservoir distance meters. Optical leveling is the most
levels, uplift pressure, wind, earthquakes, un- common method of measuring settlement.
dermining, ice, overflowing water, swelling Measurement of horizontal displacements is
clay, and foundation settlement. made using a theodolite or an electronic dis-
Movements in response to such loads are tance meter. On dams with a straight crest,
normal and acceptable if they are within tol- horizontal displacements upstream and
erable ranges and do not cause structural dis- downstream can be spotted using a line of
tress. Embankments are less brittle than con- sight technique. Modern integrated total sta-
crete structures and can undergo larger tion survey equipment may be linked to a
movements without distress. Thus, measure- computer and can give readings to an accu-
ments of surface movements of embankment racy of a few millimeters.
dams are typically less precise than those for Measuring points are positioned on the
concrete structures. Sudden or unexpected crest or slopes of the dam. Embankment
direction change or acceleration of surface measuring points are usually steel bars em-
movement could be indications of develop- bedded in concrete placed in the fill. Con-
ing problems. crete dam measuring points are usually
Movement is divided into three types: sur- bronze markers set in the concrete.
face movement, internal movement, and joint or Survey methods and equipment for
crack movement. Because it can occur in any measurement of embankments should be
direction, measurements in three mutually precise enough to discern a movement of at
perpendicular directions are needed to depict least 30 mm. A conventional level and rod are
vector movement accurately. Measurements usually adequate. For concrete/masonry
are typically made in vertical, transverse hor- dams, survey methods and equipment need
izontal, and longitudinal horizontal direc- to have better measuring accuracy being able
tions. When movement in one or more of the to discern a movement of at least 3 mm. Pre-
three directions is found to be negligible, cision levels and rods equipped with microm-
measurement in those directions can be eter targets are needed for concrete/masonry
dropped. structures.
The following subsections describe in- Level surveys are the simplest and most
struments used to measure dam movement. exact method for measuring the vertical
ASCE (2000), Bartholomew and Haverland movement of a dam. A limitation of level sur-
(1987), Bartholomew et al. (1987), ICOLD veys is the labor cost, although modern sur-
(1988, 1989, 1992, and 2000), USACE (1980 veying equipment has reduced the time
and 1995), USBR (2014), and USSD (2002) needed to carry out a survey and process the
give more detailed information on the sub- data.
ject.

2.3.2.2 Alignment Surveys concrete-filled pipes buried at least 3 m into

the ground.
Horizontal surface movements are usually
measured as offset distances from a baseline. The top of the instrument monument is
The same measuring points used for level equipped with a threaded plate to which a
surveys are often used for alignment surveys. theodolite is mounted. The target monument
The method and equipment employed is also fitted with a threaded plate to which a
depend on the type of dam and the desired target is attached. The line-of-sight is ob-
accuracy. tained using a high precision theodolite set
on the instrument monument and sighted to
For embankment dams, one or more the target placed on the target monument.
lines of measuring points are set along the Offsets from the baseline are measured with
crest and on the slopes parallel to the crest. a micrometer attached to a moveable target
Instrument and target monuments are set up leveled over each measuring point. Typically,
at the ends of the lines on the abutments be- survey methods and equipment should be
yond the dam. A theodolite is set up on the sufficiently exact to discern movement about
instrument monument on one abutment and 3 mm.
sighted to the target monument on the oppo-
site abutment to measure movement. Offset Alignment surveys are the simplest and
distances from the line-of-sight to each meas- most exact method for measuring the hori-
uring point are found using a plumb bob and zontal movement in straight dams. Their ap-
tape. Typically, survey methods and equip- plication is limited for curved dams, irregu-
ment should be sufficiently exact to discern a larly shaped dams, or where the line-of-sight
movement of 30 mm or less. is limited because the number of measure-
ment points along any one line is small. A
For concrete dams, a similar procedure is limitation of alignment surveys is the labor
employed with refinements to increase the cost, although modern surveying equipment
accuracy of the measurements. These meas- has reduced the time needed to perform a
urements are also known as collimation sur- survey and reduce the data
veys. Measuring points are set along straight
lines on the crest and, in some cases, along 2.3.2.3 Triangulation and Trilat-
the face of the dam. The measuring points eration
are markers set in the dam concrete. Instru-
ment and target monuments are set up out- Triangulation and trilateration use trigono-
side the limits of the dam at the ends of the metric principles of triangles to measure the
lines of measurement points. The monu- location of points on a dam. In triangulation
ments are usually 200 to 250 mm diameter surveys, angles to a measuring point on the
dam are calculated from two locations on a
Figure 2-12. Layout for collimation measurements used for an arch dam.

baseline. Using the known distance between, Baseline monuments are like instrument
and the elevation of baseline monuments, the monuments used for alignment surveys of
triangle between the three points is solved concrete dams. Triangulation and trilatera-
trigonometrically to find the location (hori- tion are useful when measuring points do not
zontal and vertical) of the measuring point. lie along a straight line or when lines of sight
Angles are measured with precise theodo- are obstructed. Vertical movements can be
lites. measured with both surveys if the baseline
has a significant vertical component. The sur-
In trilateration surveys, the distances be-
veys are highly accurate but need an experi-
tween a fixed point on the dam and two lo-
enced crew. Disadvantages are the cost of the
cations on a baseline are measured. Using the
survey crew labor, the cost of setting up the
known distance between, and the elevation
baseline, the need for specialized equipment,
of monuments on the baseline, the triangle
and the complex calculations.
between the three points is solved trigono-
metrically to determine the location (hori- 2.3.2.4 Collimation
zontal and vertical) of the measuring point.
Because distances can be measured more Collimation, triangulation, and leveling are
precisely than angles, trilateration surveys are techniques used to measure the movement of
more precise than triangulation surveys. points of the dam in relation to reference
points outside the dam (Figure 2-12).
Distances are measured with electronic
distance measurement (EDM) equipment. Collimation measurements are per-
EDMs calculate the distance by measuring formed with a theodolite at measuring points
the time it takes for light to travel from the at the dam’s crest. At one of the abutments,
source to a reflector and back and then mul- a pier is constructed for the theodolite, which
tiplying by the speed of light. Extremely high is set at a higher level than that of the crest,
accuracies can be obtained with this equip- and a reference target pier is positioned at the
ment. Measurements must be corrected for opposite abutment, at the same level. These
barometric pressure, temperature, and the two points are situated so that the line of
curvature of the earth. sight between them passes through locations
on the dam’s crest where measurements are
Figure 2-13. Layout for triangulation measurement: (1) Measuring targets on dam surface; (2)
theodolite piers; (3) measured base line; (4) computed base line; (5) sight lines.
to be made. More targets or piers are needed ground. Measurements must be carried out
at arch dams because of the curvature of the with precise instruments and methods, per-
crest (Golzé 1977). The deviation of the formed by well-trained, experienced and
movable target from the line of sight yields skilled surveyors. The results show defor-
the displacement of the point at the dam’s mations of the dam, in relation to the targets
crest. Three to four measuring points are usu- outside its body, and deformations of the
ally installed, and the results are combined canyon downstream of the dam, in the direc-
with plumbline readings. tion of the river flow and perpendicular to it.
2.3.2.5 Triangulation Leveling measurements give the vertical
displacements of points of the structure in re-
More data for displacements are obtained by lation to references that are positioned far
triangulation measurements. For that pur- enough away from the dam so as not to be
pose, a system of triangulation targets is affected by settlement created by the dam or
placed on the surface of the dam (the crest impounded water. Leveling measurements
and downstream face), as well as on the ap- also require the use of precise instruments
purtenant structures (Figure 2-13). The sys- and methods.
tem requires a network of instrument piers
and a baseline downstream of the dam. The Internal Movement
instrument piers should be positioned to en-
able collimation from each pier to as many Internal movement is the horizontal or verti-
measuring targets as possible. cal change in position within the structure.
Usually, the measurement is in relation to
The number of piers is dictated by the na- some point on the structure or in the foun-
ture and topography of the surrounding dation.
(a) (b)
Figure 2-14. The two types of plumblines in use: (a) Weighted plumbline, and (b) float-supported
plumblines (also called an inverted plumblines)

through a vertical well. For the float-sup-

ported plumbline (also called an inverted
plumbline), a float installed in a tank at the
top of the dam connects by a wire to an an-
chor in near the base of the dam. The meas-
urements are taken at stations positioned in
horizontal openings at various levels of the
dam thereby recording deflections along its
entire height. The measurements are made
with a sliding micrometer equipped with ei-
ther a peep sight or a microscope (Figure
Figure 2-15. Mechanical measuring table for 2-15). The measured displacements show de-
plumbline wire with removable microscope formation of the structure with respect to the
frame. fixed end of the plumbline (USBR 1976 and
1977).
Internal settlement of an embankment or
foundation can be measured with a variety of Gravity dams and arch dams often in-
instruments including settlement plates, clude plumblines. In the case of arch dams,
cross-arm devices, magnetic- or inductance- particularly thin double-curvature arch dams,
type probe extensometers, fluid leveling de- constructing a vertical well for a plumbline is
vices, pneumatic settlement sensors, vibrat- usually not possible. And, with exactly this
ing-wire settlement sensors, and various type of dam, the deflection of the crest in re-
other mechanical and electrical sounding de- lation to the foundation is an important da-
vices. Internal horizontal and vertical move- tum for an assessment of the dam’s behavior.
ments of embankment dams are usually Inclinometers have been used to circumvent
measured with inclinometers and extensom-
eters. Internal movements of concrete and
masonry structures are often measured with
plumblines, tiltmeters, inclinometers, and ex-
tensometers.
Some common types of internal move-
ment instruments are described in the follow-
ing subsections. Measurements of internal
movement at both embankment and con-
crete/masonry dams and their foundations
should be detailed and precise. Measuring
points should be installed so that they are not
subject to movement from freeze-thaw ac-
tion or traffic.
2.3.3.1 Plumblines
The plumbline is a suitable and compara-
tively uncomplicated device for measuring
deformations caused by forces of water and
temperature variations. The two types of
plumblines in use are weighted plumblines
and float-supported plumblines (Figure Figure 2-16. Schematic diagram of a laser
2-14). A weighted plumbline is formed by a plumbline installed in an arch dam: (1) Dam
weight near the base of the dam suspended body (concrete); (2) mounting fixture; (3) la-
by a wire that drops down from the dam crest ser tube; (4) modulating and focusing ele-
ment; (5) receiver.

this problem. However, more recently, dis- measurements at an unlimited number of lo-
placements have been measured directly in cations.
inclined shafts using a controlled mono- The modern electronic tiltmeter, which is
chrome light beam (a so-called laser slowly replacing all other forms of tiltmeter,
plumbline). employs a simple bubble level principle, as
The schematic diagram of a laser used in the common carpenter level. An ar-
plumbline in Figure 2-16 illustrates its use in rangement of electrodes senses the exact po-
an inclined shaft inside an arch dam. A sition of the bubble in the electrolytic solu-
mounting fixture (2) at the top of the shaft tion, to a high degree of precision. Any minor
holds a laser tube (3) which is attached to an changes in the level are recorded using a
element for directing and focusing the align- standard data logger. This arrangement is
ment (4). At the base of the shaft, above the quite insensitive to temperature and can be
measuring mark, there is a receiver (5) that fully compensated, using built-in thermal
measures the signal emitted from the laser electronics.
tube. The emitter of the signal in the upper
2.3.3.3 Inclinometers
part of the dam, as well as the receiver at the
base, i.e. the foundation, are watertight. Dis- Inclinometers consist of a specially shaped
placement measurements have an accuracy plastic casing, a probe, and a readout device.
of ±0.2 mm (Tanchev 2014, pages 769-770). They are installed in vertically drilled holes in
dams, their foundations, and their abut-
2.3.3.2 Tiltmeters
ments. The inclination of the casing is meas-
Tiltmeters consist of a base plate, sensor, and ured at regular intervals, and lateral move-
readout device. The base plate is cemented or ment with respect to the bottom of the casing
bolted to any horizontal or vertical surface is calculated (Figure 2-17). Inclinometers are
and measure the vertical rotation of the sur- reliable and precise and are ideally suited to
face. Instruments can be mounted perma- long-term monitoring of the position of a
nently in one location to continuously record borehole over its entire length.
movement or moved from place to place to The probe has two accelerometers that
make intermittent measurements. When used
detect the inclination angle of gravitational
as portable devices surveys are economical acceleration at the relative plane of their axis
because only one tiltmeter is needed to make
Figure 2-17. Schematic diagram of an inclinometer showing (a) cross section of the casing, (b)
inclination of a single vertical increment of the borehole, and (c) final summation of incremental
displacements.

by measuring the tilt of the probe in two mu- movement of the reference head in relation
tually perpendicular directions. The probe is to the anchor zone(s), they can also be in-
also equipped with a pair of wheels that run stalled in other orientations (Figure 2-18).
inside grooves cut into in the casing, which They are precise and can measure small
keeps the probe from rotating. The probe movements accurately.
measures inclination of the casing at regular
intervals by which the lateral movement with Joint or Crack Movement
respect to the bottom of the casing is calcu- Joint or crack movement is the horizontal or
lated. By making a series of readings over vertical change in position of one part of a
time, it is possible to monitor the rate of structure in relation to another part of the
movement. structure. Usually, the measurement spans
The primary requirement for accurate block joints or cracks in concrete structures,
measurement is to extend the borehole below or cracks in earth structures.
the depth of movement so that readings 2.3.4.1 Crack Measurement
made from the end of the hole are referenced
to a stable base. Precautions are also needed The amount of movement of one side of a
during the installation of the casing to main- crack or joint in a concrete structure in rela-
tain the vertical alignment of the grooves and tion to the other side is measured with refer-
to prevent spiraling. Readings are carried out ence points or crack meters. Many variations
by lowering a probe to the end of the hole of grout or plaster patches can be used to
and then raising it in increments equal to the evaluate whether a movement has taken
length of the wheelbase of the probe. At each place (Figure 2-19).
depth increment, the tilt angle and the dis- Reference points can be scratch marks on
placement are measured. Finally, the total the concrete, metal pins, or metal plates on
displacement at the top of the hole is calcu- opposite sides of a joint or crack. The dis-
lated. A check of the results is then made by tance between the scratch marks is measured
rotating the probe by 180o and taking a with a micrometer or dial gauge to evaluate
second set of readings. the crack growth. Sometimes three points are
2.3.3.4 Extensometers used in a triangle to measure both the hori-
zontal and the vertical movement.
Extensometers consist of one or more rods
anchored at different depths in a borehole Crack meters are commercially available
and a reference head at the surface. Usually devices that allow movement in two direc-
mounted straight up to measure vertical
Figure 2-18. Extensometer mounted horizontally.

gauges (Figure 2-22), and mechanics feeler

gages may be used to measure the growth of
cracks.
All these devices are easy to install and
monitor. The accuracy and reliability vary de-
pending on the details of the devices and
measurements. Mineral deposits, iron stain-
ing, or efflorescence obscuring the instru-
ments are frequent problems if seepage or
leakage flow is present.
Figure 2-19. A simple epoxy patch used to
monitor development of a structural crack in Reservoir/Tailwater Eleva-
concrete. tions
Reservoir and tailwater elevations should be
measured to provide a continuous historical
record of these factors. Water levels in the
reservoir and in downstream waterways have
a direct influence on the quantities of seepage
and leakage through a dam and its founda-
tions. When an established relation between
the hydraulic head (the difference between
upstream and downstream water levels)
changes, usually a significant increase in seep-
age and leakage rates, a genuine problem
Figure 2-20. A two-plate mechanical crack might be the cause and needs to be investi-
meter. gated at once.
Measuring the water level in the reservoir
on a regular basis, and recording this level at
the time of each dam safety inspection, is
needed for several reasons. Recording water
elevations in downstream discharge channels
(tailwater elevations) is also important. These
elevation data are used to interpret most in-
strumentation data, including the determina-
Figure 2-21. Illustration of an electronic tion of uplift water pressure distribution be-
crack meter with a vibrating wire trans- neath the dam. Uplift pressures and seepage
ducer. rates usually are related to differences be-
tween reservoir and tailwater elevations.
tions to be measured. A common device con- Water levels may be measured by simple
sists of two plastic plates (Figure 2-20). One elevation gauges, such as fixed staff gauges or
plate is opaque and includes a grid. The other numbers painted on permanent structures in
plate is translucent and has a set of cross the reservoir, or they may be measured with
hairs. The plates are fixed on opposite sides more complex water-level sensing devices.
of the crack or joint with the cross hairs set
over the center of the grid. Movement is Staff Gauge
measured by noting the location of the cross
hairs with respect to the grid. A variety of A staff gauge to measure water level in a
other crack meters including Carlson and stream and a crest-stage gauge to record the
vibrating wire sensors (Figure 2-21), dial highest water elevation are shown in Figure
2-23. The metal pipe and pole with a scale

There are holes drilled in the bottom of

the pipe to allow water to enter. Inside the
pipe is a wooden rod with vertical distance
markings. Some ground cork is placed in the
pipe and when it rains water in both the
stream and the pipe rises, thus floating the
cork in the pipe. When the water stops rising
and then falls, the cork sticks to the wooden
rod at the highest point to which the water
level rose.
Weather Conditions
Figure 2-22. Illustration of a dial gauge crack Weather conditions including air and reser-
meter showing ports 1, 2, and 3. voir water temperature, precipitation, humid-
ity, evaporation, and wind speed need to be
marked on it are some very simple, yet valu- measured to create a continuous historical
able, means by which to measure both the record of these factors (WMO 2014). Be-
current gauge height (stream stage) and the cause these factors do influence any dam's
peak gauge height during the last high water. performance, they need to be recorded at the
It is a widely used low-tech piece of equip- time of each instrument observation so that
ment that provides valuable information all data can be interpreted considering the ac-
about the height reached by water in streams tual environmental conditions that existed
during large flows. The metal pipe and pole during the inspection.
with a scale marked on it (that is, the staff
gauge) are some very simple, yet valuable, Precipitation
means by which the water-surface elevation Precipitation is water released from clouds in
of the reservoir or downstream channels can the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow, or
be peak gage height during the last high wa- hail. Most precipitation falls as rain.
ter.
2.5.1.1 Rainfall
The most common method of measuring
rainfall is to use a series of gauges. Three
types of gauges in general use are the stand-
ard gauge, the storage gauge, and the record-
ing gauge. Standard or nonrecording gauges,
typically cylindrical containers 20.3 cm in di-
ameter (Figure 2-24a) are often used because
of their low cost. Such gauges should be read
periodically, normally every 24 hours at the
same time each day. The standard gauge mag-
nifies rainfall depth 10-fold because it funnels
the precipitation into an internal cylinder of
that has a cross-sectional area 1/10th the size
of the top opening.
Storage gauges have the same size open-
ing as standard gauges but have a greater stor-
age capacity, usually 1525 to 2540 mm of
rainfall. These gauges can be read periodi-
Figure 2-23. A staff gauge and crest-stage cally, for example, once a week, once a
gage installed next to a stream. month, or seasonally. A small amount of oil

clock-driven drum. The chart on the drum

indicates the accumulated rainfall with time.
Rainfall intensity is obtained by determining
incremental increases in the amount per unit
of time (typically 1 hour). A tipping bucket
gauge records intensity, making a recording
each time a small cup (usually 1 mm capacity)
fills with water and then empties as it tips
back and forth. Because about 0.2 seconds is
required for the bucket to tip, high-intensity
rainfall events might not be measured exactly.
2.5.1.2 Snowfall
Figure 2-24. Types of rain gauges: (a) Cut- Where solid precipitation is common and sig-
away of a standard non-recording gauge; nificant, several special modifications are
(b) a weighing-type recording gauge with used to improve the accuracy of measure-
its cover removed to show the spring hous- ments using conventional rain gauges. These
ing, recording pen, and storage bucket.
modifications include the removal of the rain
gauge funnel at the beginning of the snow
is usually added to gauges that are read less
season or the provision of a special snow
often than every 24 hours to suppress evap-
fence to protect the catch from blowing out.
oration.
Windshields around the gauge reduce the er-
The use of recording gauges, which allow ror caused by deformation of the wind field
for continuous measurement of rainfall, is above the gauge and by snow drifting into the
more limited because of their higher cost. gauge. They are advisable for rain and essen-
Examples of recording rain gauges are the tial for snow.
weighing-type (Figure 2-24b) and the tipping
At remote locations, automated snow
bucket gauge (Figure 2-25). The weighing-
gauges are used. They have a large catch area
type gauge records the weight of water with
which collects snow until a given weight is
respect to time with a calibrated pen on a
collected. When this critical weight is
reached, it tips and empties the snow catch.
This dumping trips a switch, sending a signal.
The collection then repeats. If the catch con-
tainer has a heater in it, it may measure the
snow weight accurately. It is also possible to
tip based on volume instead of weight by
sensing fill volumes.
Evaporation
Because many areas of India depend on res-
ervoirs to provide municipal water supplies
and water for irrigation, evaporation losses
are needed to determine whether the
available storage volume is sufficient to meet
water demands. The greatest evaporation
rates occur in the driest regions of the
country where water is less plentiful.
The U.S. Weather Bureau Class A pan
Figure 2-25. Schematic diagram of a typi- evaporimeters (Figure 2-26) are used most
cal tipping bucket rain gauge.

Because earthquakes can have a

considerable influence on the structural in-
tegrity and safety of a dam, any evidence of
local seismic activity should be documented,
and dam safety inspections and instrument
observations should be conducted to figure
out whether any damage has occurred.
Seismic instrumentation for a dam con-
sists of strong motion accelerometers, long-pe-
riod seismometers, and associated data
acquisition and analysis systems that detect
exceedance of allowed performance criteria
as well as identify and verify structural behav-
Figure 2-26. U.S. Weather Bureau Class-A
ior.
Evaporation Pan.
Accelerometers
often in India for the measurement of evap-
oration. In this approach, evaporation is These devices typically consist of three
measured from a pan, and a coefficient is ap- mutually perpendicular accelerometers, a re-
plied to obtain an amount that applies to the cording system, and triggering mechanism.
reservoir. The standard Class A pan is a metal The instruments are usually set to be trig-
cylinder 122 cm in diameter and 25 cm deep. gered at accelerations generated by nearby
Water depth is maintained at 18 to 20 cm and small earthquakes or more distant, larger
measured daily with a hook gauge in a stilling earthquakes. They are expensive, especially
well. considering that multiple instruments are
needed to record dynamic response at several
Because pan measurements usually do locations on a structure, a foundation, or
not reflect evaporation from large bodies of abutments. The devices must be properly
water, such as reservoirs, a coefficient is ap- maintained so that they operate if an earth-
plied to the measured value. This coefficient quake occurs. These devices are described by
usually ranges from 0.5 to 0.8. Average an- USACE (1987c) and Bartholomew and
nual pan coefficients of 0.70 to 0.75 are often Haverland (1987), Batholomew et al. (1987).
used for reservoirs when they have not been
derived experimentally. However, the coeffi- Despite the progress in the dynamic anal-
cient varies seasonally depending on ambient ysis of dams, it is still not possible to reliably
air temperatures and reservoir water temper- predict the behavior of dams during strong
atures. ground shaking because of the difficulty
modeling the inelastic behavior of the struc-
Local Seismic Activity tures and insufficient information on the spa-
tial variation of ground motion and other fac-
Tremors of the soil caused by an earthquake tors. However, the factors that eventually
are transferred to a dam and create added lead dam to failure, as well as their severity
loadings and deformations. To enable further and effect on the structure, can be measured
development and perfection of methods for and monitored with appropriate seismic in-
dynamic analysis of dams, it is necessary to struments.
collect and analyze data on the response of
dams to tremors. To assess the effects of Fundamental features of a dam may be
earthquakes on the dam, the acceleration, dis- identified using the acquired seismic data
placements, and relative velocity of the such as the damping within the structure, am-
reaction at various places in the dam and sur- plification of the ground motion along the
rounding ground need to be measured and path from the foundation or abutments to
recorded. the crest, wave propagation within the struc-

2-27). However, sometimes motion in only

the vertical direction is measured because it
is less noisy and gives better records of some
seismic waves.
The foundation of a seismometer is criti-
cal. The best mountings may be in deep bore-
holes, which avoid thermal effects, ground
noise and tilting from weather and tides.
Some instruments are often mounted in in-
sulated enclosures on small buried piers of
Figure 2-27. A long-period vertical seismo- unreinforced concrete. Reinforcing rods and
meter (left) and a long-period horizontal aggregates would distort the pier as the tem-
seismometer (right). perature changes. A site is always surveyed
for ground noise with a temporary installa-
ture, differential motions between abut- tion before pouring the pier and laying con-
ments, natural frequencies, mode shapes and duit.
so on. The collected information can be used
to evaluate the structural response of the dam
Stress and Strain
and to determine the warning level in a case
critical states have been reached. Design stresses may not always occur as ex-
pected in a completed dam. For this reason,
Seismometers special total pressure instruments are used to
A simple seismometer that is sensitive to up- measure the actual stresses at selected loca-
down motions of the earth can be under- tions, such as between a dam and its abut-
stood by visualizing a weight hanging on a ments or foundation, or between certain
spring. The spring and weight are suspended components of the dam.
from a frame that moves along with the The purpose of total pressure monitoring
earth’s surface. Because the weight tends not is to measure the total pressure (total load) on
to move because of its inertia, by measuring a contact surface or within the mass of the
the difference in position between the frame dam. Several types of devices (cells) are used
and the weight, the motion of the ground can to measure the static total pressure in a dam.
be determined. The measured load can be caused by earth,
Modern instruments use electronics to water, or concrete. A dam’s principal stresses
monitor the small motions generated by seis- can be evaluated based on data from specially
mic activity. In some systems, the weight is placed and oriented pressure cells. The pri-
held motionless relative to the frame by an mary value of total pressure data is to verify
electronic negative feedback loop. The design assumptions and to supply data for fu-
motion of the weight in relation to the frame ture design improvements.
is measured, and the feedback loop applies a Earth pressures within fill and against
magnetic or electrostatic force to keep the concrete structures are measured with earth
mass motionless. The voltage needed to pro- pressure cells, which are also known as total
duce this force is the output of the seismo- pressure cells. They consist of two flexible di-
meter. In other systems, the weight can aphragms sealed around the periphery, with a
move, and its motion produces a voltage in a fluid in the annular space between the dia-
coil attached to the mass that moves through phragms. Pressure is measured by the in-
the magnetic field of a magnet attached to the crease in fluid pressure behind the diaphragm
frame. with pneumatic or vibrating wire sensors.
Seismometers measure movement in ei- Earth pressure cells should have similar stiff-
ther a horizontal direction (north-south or
the east-west) or the vertical direction (Figure

ness as the surrounding soil to avoid inaccu- The modulus of elasticity, creep coeffi-
rate measurements of in-situ stress caused by cient, and the Poisson's ratio for concrete can
arching. be calculated from the laboratory testing of
concrete field cylinders. These values are
Soil pressures against structures are also
needed to convert strain measurements to
measured with a Carlson-type cell. It consists
of a chamber with a diaphragm positioned at stress.
the end. Deflection of the diaphragm is Types of Pressure
measured by a Carlson-type transducer and is
(Stress) Measuring Devices
converted to stress. Stress in concrete struc-
tures can be measured with total pressure Measurement of stresses in the body of an
cells or Carlson-type cells designed to have a embankment dam is of minor significance in
stiffness like concrete. It can also be meas- relation to the determination of defor-
ured by over-coring. mations. Exceptions to this are the contact
zones between the filling material and the
The modulus of elasticity, creep coeffi-
rigid constructions (concrete retaining walls,
cient, and the Poisson's ratio for concrete can
diaphragm walls, galleries, and pipelines).
be determined from the laboratory testing of
Furthermore, the measurement of pressures
concrete field cylinders. These values are
is difficult which results in uncertain accuracy
needed to convert strain measurements to
of measurements. The greatest problem lies
stress.
in the fact that results depend on the stiffness
A variety of mechanical and electrical of the cell of the measuring instrument.
strain gages are used to measure strain in con- Overestimation of stresses results if the
crete structures. Some of the instruments are stiffness of the cell is greater than the
designed to be embedded in the dam during stiffness of the surrounding filling material.
construction, and others are surface mounted Underestimation occurs if the stiffness of the
following construction. Strain gages are often cell is smaller than the stiffness of the
installed in groups so that the three-dimen- surrounding material. Under ideal condi-
sional state of strain can be evaluated. tions, the measuring cell has the same stiff-
The operation and limitations of stress ness as the filling material, which in practice
and strain instruments are discussed by is difficult to achieve. Using a cylindrical cell
ASCE (2000), Bartholomew and Haverland with high stiffness and a low thickness to di-
(1987), Bartholomew et al. (1987), Dunnicliff ameter ratio reduces this problem.
(1988), USACE (1980), and USBR (1976 and A variety of mechanical and electrical
1977). strain gages are used to measure strain in con-
crete structures. Some of the instruments are
Figure 2-28. A typical resistance strain gauge earth pressure cell: (1) Upper plate; (2) space filled
with mercury; (3) diaphragm, 0.75 mm thick; (4) measuring plate; (5) opening for mercury fill-
ing; (6) rubber waterstop; (7) lower plate; and (8) welded end.

designed to be embedded in the dam during and vibrating wire gauge measure the deflec-
construction, and others are surface mounted tion of the flexible diaphragm caused by the
following construction. Strain gages are often earth pressure acting on the diaphragm face.
installed in groups so that the three-dimen- In the hydraulic measuring system, the stress
sional state of strain can be evaluated. in the material around the pressure cell is bal-
anced by an automatically limited hydraulic
An earth pressure cell consists of a flexi-
pressure in the cell and supply line. The illus-
ble diaphragm backed by a fluid-filled cham-
tration in Figure 2-28 shows a typical re-
ber and a sensing device. Earth pressures are
sistance strain gauge earth pressure cell.
transmitted to the diaphragm, and the sens-
ing device measures either the deflection of Soil pressures against structures are also
the diaphragm or the increase in pressure of measured with a Carlson-type cell, which
the fluid enclosed behind the diaphragm. The consists of a chamber with a diaphragm on
sensing devices may be an electrical strain the end as shown in Figure 2-29. Deflection
gauge, a vibrating wire gauge, or a hydraulic of the diaphragm is measured by a Carlson-
measuring system. The electrical strain gauge type transducer and is converted to stress.
Stress in concrete structures can be measured
Figure 2-29. Carlson stress meter (after Golzé 1977). (1) Internal plate; (2) external plate;
(3) mercury film; (4) stress being measured; (5) compressible material; (6) steel bar; (7) ceramic
spool; (8) glass insulated terminals; (9) fabric cover; (10) conductor cable.

with total pressure cells or Carlson-type cells Summary of Critical Physi-

designed to have a stiffness like concrete.
cal Data to be Monitored
A good pressure cell should be non-sen-
Certain key parameters are of primary con-
sitive to the effect of temperature variations,
cern regardless of the type of dam consid-
impermeable to dampness, firm and durable,
ered, e.g. seepage and external movement or
and simple to install. In practice, several dis-
deflection; others are relevant to a specific
tinct types of pressure measuring devices are
kind of dam, e.g. pore water pressures in re-
used, including resistance strain gauges and
lation to earthfill embankments. The relative
pressure cells. Most of these devices work
significance of individual parameters may
well at both embankment dams and con-
also reflect the nature of a problem under in-
crete/masonry dams. The operation and lim-
vestigation, e.g. the settlement of an old em-
itations of stress and strain instruments are
bankment where progressive deformation is
discussed by ASCE (2000), Bartholomew
suspected.
and Haverland (1987), Bartholomew et al.
(1987), Dunnicliff (1988), USACE (1980), Instruments for monitoring of all dams,
and USBR (1976 and 1977). to be installed retrospectively if necessary,
should at least measure seepage and leakage
Special electrical or pneumatic/hydraulic
flow rates and deformation of the dam crest.
readout devices display pressure measuring
The latter provision is importance in detect-
instrument output. When inspecting pres-
ing settlement on embankment crests, which
sure-measuring devices, look for any physical
is an indicator of possible internal distress
damage to electrical leads or the terminal
and of local loss of freeboard.
block. Also, look for corrosion or areas of ex-
cess moisture. The importance of seepage flow as a
measurement quantity cannot be emphasized
Pressure data are analyzed by research
enough. Regular monitoring should be stand-
and design engineers, and not by dam safety
ard practice for all but the smallest of dams.
inspectors, so ordinarily onsite personnel will
Serious problems are invariably preceded by
not be expected to interpret total pressure
a detectable change in the seepage regime
data or assess the adequacy of total pressure
through or under the dam which is unrelated
instrumentation.
to changes in the retained water level or to
percolation of precipitation falling on the
Temperature downstream slope. Direct observation of the
Temperature measurements of a dam, foun- seepage quantity and turbidity is simple, with
dation, or instrumentation are used to reduce internal drain systems conducted to cali-
data from instruments, increase precision, or brated V-notch weirs. Ideally, several weirs
to interpret results. For example, movements are each positioned to collect the flow from
of concrete dams and changes in leakage at specific lengths of the dam, allowing identifi-
concrete dams are often related to changes in cation of the approximate location of any
temperature. Temperature is also measured change in the seepage régime. A summary of
in concrete dams under construction to eval- physical parameters to be monitored at a dam
uate mix design, placement rates, and block is presented in Table 2-1.
and lift sizes; to time grouting of block joints;
and to assess thermal loads. Data Evaluation
Resistance thermometers or thermocou- All instrumentation data must be collected,
ples can measure the temperatures of a dam, processed, and evaluated promptly to be of
its foundation, and other instruments. The value. Outdated, incorrect, or improperly
operation and limitations of these devices are evaluated data can be worse than no data at
described by Bartholomew and Haverland all, because these types of data can be mis-
(1987), Dunnicliff (1988), USACE (1980), leading, and can result in false conclusions
and USBR (1976 and 1977). about the performance and safety of the dam.

Typical methods of data evaluation in- indicate an acceptable level of performance

volve the plotting of instrumentation data in (i.e., safety) for the dam. The dam safety in-
an array of continuous, historical sequences spector should be aware of these values and,
that plot cause and effect versus time (e.g., in some cases, may recommend that they are
reservoir water level and piezometric pres- assigned if none exist. Dam owners need to
sures versus time). Data plots also may be understand that exceeded values should trig-
used to correlate a variety of different physi- ger investigations and actions to find and cor-
cal data to show trends or problem areas (e.g., rect the problem to avoid possible structural
seepage, water pressure, and movement data failures.
may be correlated on the same data plot).
Dam design engineers should set ranges
or limiting values for instrumentation data to

Table 2-1. Parameters to be Monitored at Dams and the Suggested Instruments or

Observation Techniques to be Used.
Seismic measure-
Water levels and
Crack and joint

Visual observa-
Uplift and pore

Structure Type
Seepage flows
measurement
measurement
measurement
Water quality
Temperature
Stress-strain
Movements
Feature
pressure
ment
flow
tion
Upstream slope X X X X ─ ─ ─ ─ X ─
Downstream slope X X X ─ X X X X X ─
Embankment Dams
Abutments X X X ─ X X X ─ X ─
Crest X X X ─ ─ ─ ─ X X ─
Internal drainage
─ ─ X ─ X X X ─ ─ ─
system
Relief Drain X ─ X ─ X X ─ ─ ─ ─
Riprap and other X ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─
slope protection
Concrete and Masonry Dams
Upstream slope X X ─ X ─ ─ X X X X
Downstream slope X X X ─ ─ ─ X X X X
Abutments X X X ─ X X ─ ─ X X
Crest X X X ─ ─ ─ X X X X
Internal drainage
system ─ ─ X ─ X ─ ─ X ─ ─
Relief drains X ─ X ─ X ─ ─ ─ ─ ─
Galleries X X ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ X X X
Sluiceways/controls X ─ ─ X ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─
Approach channel X X ─ X ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─
Inlet/outlet struc- X X X X X ─ ─ X X ─
ture
Stilling basin X ─ ─ X ─ ─ ─ X ─ ─
Spillways
Discharge con- X ─ X X ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─
duit/channel
Gate controls X ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─
Erosion protection X ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─
Side slopes X X X ─ X ─ ─ ─ ─ ─
Inlet/outlet struc- X X X X ─ ─ ─ X X ─
ture
Outlets & Drains
Stilling basin X ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─
Discharge con- X X X X ─ ─ ─ X ─ ─
duit/channel
Trash rack/debris X ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─
controls
Emergency systems X ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─

Reservoir surface X ─ ─ ─ ─ X ─ ─ ─ ─
Mechanical/electri-
General Areas
cal systems X ─ ─ X ─ ─ ─ ─ ─
Shoreline X ─ ─ ─ ─ X ─ ─ ─ ─
Upstream water- X ─ ─ ─ ─ X ─ ─ ─ ─
shed
Downstream chan-
nel X ─ ─ ─ X X ─ ─ ─ ─
Table 2-2. Suggested Frequencya, b of Readings for Specified Instruments

During Period of
During Construction During Operation
Type of instrument initial
Construc- Shut- Year Years 2 Regu-
filling
tion down 1 to 3 lar
Vibrating wire pie- W M W BiW M M
zometers
Hydrostatic uplift W M W W BiW M
pressure pipes
Porous-tube pie- M M W W M M
zometers
Slotted-pipe piezom- M M W W M M
eters
Observation wells W M W W BiW M
Seepage measure- W M W W M M
ment (weirs and
flumes)
Visual seepage moni- W W W W F M
toring
Resistance ther- W M W W M M
mometers
Thermocouples D M W W M M
Carlson strain me- W W W BiW M M
ters
Joint meters W W W BiW M M
Stress meters W M W BiW M M
Reinforcement me- W M M M M M
ters
Penstock meters W M M M M M
Deflectometers W M W W M M
Vibrating wire strain W M M M M M
gauge
Vibrating-wire total W M M M M M
pressure cell
Load cell W M W BiW M M
Pore pressure meters W W W BiW M
Foundation defor- W W W BiW M M
mation meters
Flat jacks D W W BiW M M

Tape gauges (tunnel) W W W/BiW BiW M M

Whitmore gauges, W M W W M M
Avongard crack me-
ter
Wire gauges W M W/M W/M M M/Q
Abutment defor- W M W W M M
mation gauges
Ames dialmeters, W M W W M M
differential buttress
gauges
Plumblines D W D W BiW M
Inclinometer W W W W BiW M
Collimation Every two M W BiW M M
days for a
month
Embankment settle- --c -- M BiM Q SA
ment points
Level points M Q M M/Y BM/Q BM
Multipoint exten- W M W M M Q/SA
someters
Triangulation M M Q SA
Trilateration (EDM) -- -- BiW/M M Q Q/A
Reservoir slide mon- -- -- M M M Q
itoring systems
Power plant move- -- -- M/W M M M/Q
ment
Rock movement W M W M M M
a
These are suggested minimums. However, anomalies or unusual occurrences, such as
earthquakes or floods, will require additional readings.
b
D = daily, W = weekly, BiW = bi-weekly, M = monthly, Q = quarterly, SA = semi-annu-
ally, A = annually.
c
Not applicable.


Chapter 3. INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM PLANNING:

EMBANKMENT DAMS
The planning and specification of a compre- Step 6. Select the hardware that is
hensive suite of instruments for monitoring appropriate to the task as defined in
the behavior of an embankment dam involve Steps 1 to 5.
a logical sequence of decision steps:
Step 3 is the most important. Instruments
Step 1. Define the primary purpose must cover known critical features of the
and objectives of instrumentation. dam, but for purposes of comparison, some
Step 2. Determine the measurements should also be placed where “normal” behav-
that are appropriate for the dam ior is expected. In the case of a new dam at
under consideration. least two sections should be monitored, in-
cluding the major section. It is good practice
Step 3. Decide on the locations and the to draft an ideal instrumentation plan in the
numbers of measuring points for the first instance, and then to progressively drop
desired data. the less necessary provisions until an ade-
Step 4. Take a decision on the time quate, balanced, and affordable plan evolves.
period the instrumentation is to be The level of instrumentation installed on
operational, i.e. long-term or short- embankment dams is invariably more com-
term monitoring. prehensive and more complex than that for
Step 5. Determine the best sensing concrete dams of comparable size at which
mode in relation to the desired only measures seepage flow and alignment
rapidity of response and required may be needed. The instrumentation of em-
accuracy. bankment dams, from its selection through
installation to data processing, is discussed in
Figure 3-1. Illustration of parameters to be measured at the major cross section of an embank-
ment dam.

the context of surveillance in Penman et al. structures that are connected to them. For
(1999). these reasons, initial impounding and the first
few years of operation are the most critical
At the installation and setting-to-work
phases for a new dam, as foundation and
stage, success depends on attention to detail.
structure interact and progressively adjust to
Points to be considered and resolved in ad-
the imposed loadings. Failings in design or
vance include procedures for the commis-
construction which impinge upon structural
sioning and proving of the instruments, for
integrity and safety will become clear at this
the determination of “datum” values and for
early stage, given that a proper monitoring re-
the special training of monitoring personnel.
gime is in operation. First impounding
Detailed consideration must also be given at
should take place at a controlled and modest
this stage to data-handling procedures. It is
rate, with the response of dam and founda-
advisable to consider instrumentation pro-
tion closely monitored during filling and for
grams in terms of the overall system required,
i.e. instruments, installation, commissioning, a few years afterward.
monitoring, and data management and inter- The procurement and installation of all
pretation. but the most basic level of instrumentation,
i.e. provision for monitoring seepage and set-
A schematic instrument layout for the
tlement, requires care in planning and execu-
major section of a new earthfill embankment
tion. In the case of the more extensive instru-
dam is shown in Figure 3-1. Comprehensive
mentation arrays common for larger dams, it
instrumentation programs of this type are de-
is always advisable to plan in consultation
scribed in Evans and Wilson (1992), Charles
with the specialist manufacturers and suppli-
et al. (1992), and Charles et al. (1996). For
ers. Considerable advantage is to be derived
new dams, a modest level of instrumentation
from entering a contractual arrangement with
is needed to give an adequate standard of
the selected provider to cover procurement,
warning of serious conditions that could lead
installation, setting-to-work and proving of
to failure.
the instrumentation. The contract may also
Earthfill dams are most often damaged be extended to include training of the tech-
or fail because of the creation of paths of nical staff who will then take responsibility
concentrated seepage, originating soon after for in-service monitoring.
construction. This could occur from incor-
rect or negligent construction, because of er- Instrumenting Existing Em-
rors in the design, or inaccurate assessment
bankment Dams
of local conditions. Concentrated paths of
seepage can also occur during service condi- Instrumentation of existing embankment
tions of the dam owing to excess defor- dams, particularly those considered to be a
mations of earthen masses and the concrete
Figure 3-2. Instrumentation layout of the water pressure in embank-

ment dams. (a) Homogenous; (b) sloping core; (c) broad central
core; (d) narrow central core.

Monitoring Seepage and

Water Pressure
In the case of embankment dams, seepage
takes place through the body of earthfill
dams, as well as through the waterproof ele-
ment of earthfill and rockfill dams. Some
seepage is permissible if proper have been
taken to control it. However, uncontrolled
seepage can endanger the stability of a dam.
Schematic instrumentation layouts for meas-
uring water pressure in distinct types of em-
bankment dams are shown in Figure 3-5, and
Figure 3-3. Layout for the bypass seepage for monitoring bypass seepage and ground-
and groundwater monitoring in an em- water flow in Figure 3-3. At least, provision
bankment dam.
should be made for monitoring seepage flow
captured by the external drainage system, and
significant potential hazard, is now a wide-
secure leveling stations should be set up at
spread practice. The limitations on the type
intervals of 20 or 25 meters along the crest
of instruments that can be installed retroac-
for measuring settlement.
tively are clear, and the datum values against
which later changes may be assessed now be- A fiber-optic temperature measuring system
come those existing at the time of installa- can be applied at existing dams as well as at
tion, sometimes many years after completion new ones (Goltz et al. 2011). The most com-
of the dam. This makes interpretation of an mon application for existing dams is
observed change in behavioral pattern harder installation of the fiber-optic cable in the dam
than in the case of a dam that has been rou- toe below a refurbished surface sealing or in
tinely monitored since the beginning of con- existing standpipes. In the case of new em-
struction and the and first impoundment. bankment dams, the cable can be installed
The desirable minimal installation for retro- during the construction at locations where
spective instrumentation is once again provi- the monitoring will give the most useful in-
sion for monitoring seepage flows and, on formation. Such places are: behind a water-
embankments, crest settlement and defor- proof facing, or behind an internal dam core
mation. It may in some instances be good to made of natural or artificial material. Appli-
make further provision for measuring local cation of a fiber-optic temperature measuring
piezometric and deformation profiles, e.g. system at distinct types embankment dams is
where culverts and similar works run trans- illustrated in Error! Reference source not f
versely through the body of the embank- ound..
ment.
Figure 3-4. Application of a fiber-optic temperature measuring system at embankment dams, (a)
dam with waterproof facing; (b) dam with an internal earth core; (c) dam with an internal artificial
core: (1) filter zone;(2) fiber-optic cable.

Figure 3-5. Monitoring layout for the stress in an embankment dam. 1) core;
2) dam shell, 3) dam body.
Monitoring Soil Stresses

Measurement of stresses in the body of an
embankment dam is of minor significance in
relation to determining the deformations.
Exceptions to this are the contact zones be-
tween the filling material and the rigid con-
structions (concrete retaining walls, dia-
phragm walls, galleries, and pipelines). Fur-
thermore, the measurement of pressures is
connected with a number of difficulties, be-
cause of which results obtained are of
dubious accuracy. The greatest problem lies
in the fact that results depend on the stiffness
of the cell of the measuring instrument. If it
exceeds the stiffness of the surrounding fill-
ing material, then there will be obtained val-
ues which are higher than the real ones, and
if it is smaller the results will be underesti-
mated.
In an ideal case, the measuring cell should
have the same stiffness as the filling material,
which, in practice is difficult to attain. This
problem can be moderated and eased by us-
ing a cylindrical cell with high stiffness, and
with a low value of the thickness versus di-
ameter ratio. Moreover, a suitable cell should
also fulfill other requirements: it must be
non-sensitive to the effect of temperature
variations, impermeable to dampness, firm
and durable, and simple to install. An illustra-
tion of instrumentation layout for monitor-
ing stresses in an embankment dam is shown
in Figure 3-5


CONCRETE AND MASONRY DAMS
The objective of instrumenting concrete and 2. With instruments that are built into
masonry dams is the same as that for em- the dam’s body and the appurtenant
bankment dams. Of primary importance is structures by which the above-cited
the collection of data used to judge the safety measurements can be carried out.
of a dam. Of secondary importance is the in-
formation that might help with the structural Regarding the location of the instru-
rehabilitation of a dam and the improvement ments, the same principles apply as for em-
of other existing dams and the design of new bankment dams. Monitoring devices should
dams. be concentrated in zones with the largest ex-
pected values of stresses and deformations,
In the case of concrete and masonry and in places where stresses have been calcu-
dams, measured quantities include the tem- lated so that comparisons can be made be-
perature in the dam’s body and foundation, tween measured and computed values. The
strains, and deformations, formation and number of measuring points depends on the
widening of cracks, the opening of joints, type, size, and complexity of the structure be-
stresses (also in the foundation of arch ing monitored. The taller and more complex
dams), and pore water uplift pressure. Figure a structure the more instruments will be
4-1 shows a planview of a gravity dam that needed.
illustrates possible uplift pressure measuring
points. In the case of arch dams, which are more
sensitive than gravity and buttress dams, it is
There are two main methods for execut- necessary to perform more comprehensive
ing measurements: monitoring. The number of instruments
1. With precise instruments that should be selected to ensure clear pictures of
measure displacements of permanent distributed stresses, deformations and tem-
bench marks set up on the surface of peratures in the dam’s body as well as in its
the dam, in galleries, in vertical shafts, foundation. However, the number of instru-
ments installed is of less importance than the
in tunnels in the abutments, and in
choice of the right equipment, their proper
the measuring wells in the
foundation.
Figure 4-1. Planview of a gravity dam showing uplift pressure measuring points.

Figure 4-2. Layout of measuring points to monitor vertical movement of dams: (a) Arch dam,
(b) embankment dam.
installation at critical locations, and the cor- by a wire and dropped down through a verti-
rect interpretation of the resulting data within cal well from the dam's crest. For the float-
a well-implemented surveillance program. supported plumbline, a float is installed in a
tank at the top of the dam, connected with a
Monitoring by Precise Sur- wire to an anchor near the base of the dam.
vey Methods The measurements are made at stations, lo-
cated in horizontal openings at various levels
It is possible to perform precise deformation of the dam, to obtain a deflection along its
surveys of the dam and its foundation. Using entire height. The measurements are made
optical or electronic distance measuring with a sliding micrometer, provided either
equipment or lasers, relative vertical and hor- with a peep sight or with a microscope, set
izontal movement of securely established up in the measuring stations. The measured
surface stations can be determined. The lay- displacements indicate deformation of the
out of measuring points to monitor the structure with respect to the fixed end of the
vertical movement of dams is illustrated in plumbline (USBR 1976 and 1977).
Figure 4-2.
Measurements are also made with
plumblines, tangent line collimation, precise
leveling, tape gages, and triangulation of de-
flection targets on the face of the dam. The
relative movement and tilt of adjacent mon-
oliths is also found using simple mechanical
or optical joint-meters (Figure 4-4).
The plumbline is a suitable and uncom-
plicated device for measuring deformations
caused by forces of water and temperature
variations. Both weighted plumblines and
float-supported plumblines are used in prac-
tice. A weighted plumbline consists of a Figure 4-3. Joint meters used to meas-
weight near the base of the dam suspended ure(a) horizontal deformations, and (b)
vertical deformations.

Plumblines are often used in gravity combined with those obtained from plum-
dams, as well as in arch-gravity dams. In the bline measurements.
case of double-curvature arch dams, in- More abundant data for displacements
stalling a vertical well for a plumbline is usu- are obtained by triangulation measurements.
ally not possible, which is unfortunate be- For that purpose, a system of triangulation
cause with this type of dam the deflection of targets is placed on the surface of the dam
the crest in relation to the foundation is a key (the crest and downstream face), as well as on
factor in assessing the dam’s behavior. Incli- the appurtenant structures. This system re-
nometers have been used to circumvent this quires a net of instrument piers and a base
problem. However, more recently, displace- line downstream of the dam (Golzé 1977).
ments have been measured directly in in- The instrument piers should be positioned to
clined shafts using a controlled monochrome make collimation from each pier to as many
light beam (a so-called laser plumbline). measuring targets as possible. The number of
In the inclined shaft, there has been in- piers is dictated by the nature and topography
stalled a bearing device (2), which contains a of the surrounding ground. Measurements
laser tube (3) and which terminates with an must be carried out with precise instruments
element for directing and focusing the align- and methods, performed by well-trained, ex-
ment (4). At the base, above the measuring perienced and skilled surveyors. The results
mark, there is set up a receiver of the meas- show deformations of the dam, in relation to
uring signal (5) emitted from the laser tube. the targets outside its body, and defor-
In that way, a tele-transmission of the meas- mations of the canyon downstream of the
uring signal is possible. The emitter of the dam, in the direction of the river flow and
signal in the upper part of the dam, as well as perpendicular to it.
the receiver at the base, i.e. foundation, are Leveling measurements serve for deter-
watertight. This modern device measures dis- mination of the vertical displacements of
placements within the limits of mm, with an points of the structure in relation to off dam
accuracy of 0.2 mm (ANCOLD 1991). references, positioned sufficiently away from
For determining deformations of partic- the zone in which we can expect settlements
ular points of the dam, in relation to refer- caused by the structures of the hydraulic
ence points outside the dam, we employ col- scheme, as well as the water in the reservoir.
limation, then triangulation measurements, as Like triangulation measurements, leveling
well as leveling measurements. measurements also require the use of precise
instruments and methods.
Collimation measurements are per-
formed with a theodolite at measuring points
at the dam's crest. At one of the abutments, Surveillance with Embed-
a pier for the instrument is constructed, set ded Instruments
up at a higher level than that of the crest, A lot of surveillance instruments are pro-
while at the opposite abutment, at the same duced that are intended for embedding in the
level, a reference target is set up. These two body of concrete dams. These instruments
points are positioned so that the line of sight are permanently developed and improved.
between them passes through locations on Therefore, in the following only the principal
the dam's crest where measurements are to and most often used instruments, as typical
be made. In the case of arch dams, owing to representatives of groups of instruments, will
the curvature of the crest, more targets and be described. Several types of instruments are
piers are necessary (Golzé 1977). The devia- used for measuring temperature in individual
tion of the movable target from the line of zones of the dam's body.
sight yields the displacement of the point at
the dam’s crest. Three to four measuring In the United States, the most popular
points are usually set up, and the results are such instrument is the Carlson elastic wire in-
strument. This is a dual-purpose instrument

use of a magnetic circuit. The measurements

can be made by electrical readouts. For deter-
mination of stresses in each location of the
dam’s body, a group of 12 strain meters are
usually embedded, of which Il are connected
to one support and incorporated in the form
of a cluster. The twelfth strain meter is set up
vertically near the cluster. Nine strain meters
give complete information on strains in all di-
rections, while three strain meters serve as a
reserve, as well as for a check-up on the ob-
tained results. Depending on the require-
Figure 4-4. Layout of the temperature mon- ments and needs, it is also possible to incor-
itoring for a gravity dam.
porate a smaller number of strain meters,
which will yield data in only certain direc-
in which the main element is an elastic music
tions. Then, based on the obtained data on
wire coil. The instrument takes advantage of
strains, it is possible to calculate stresses,
the fact that the electrical resistance of steel
based on the known dimensions and charac-
wire varies directly with the temperature.
teristics of the strain meters.
This instrument can also be used for measur-
ing tensile stresses because the changes in the A Carlson Stress Meter (Figure 2-29) is
electric resistance of the wire are also in direct used for measuring compressive stresses. Its
dependence on the tension in the wire. In main elements are two flat steel plates, with a
practice, this instrument has turned out to be diameter of 15.7 cm, connected with a layer
a safe and stable instrument even in long-last- of mercury, about 0.5 mm thick. The central
ing service (Golzé 1977). Laout of tempera- part of the upper plate has a very reduced
ture measurement points for gravity dams is thickness, and it behaves as a diaphragm. The
illustrated in Figure 4-4 and for arch dams in external pressure, acting on the plates, creates
Figure 4-5. Layout of foundation tempera- a corresponding pressure in the mercury,
ture monitoring points for a gravity dam is which causes deflection of the diaphragm to-
illustrated in Figure 4-6. wards the external side, by which there comes
about an activation of the device for measur-
In Europe, an instrument with a vibrating
ing strains. This consists of two threads of
wire is used often. This instrument makes use
steel wire, placed on sheaves (pulleys), con-
of the fact that an increase in tension in-
nected by a steel frame. The deflection of the
creases the frequency of vibration of the wire
diaphragm tensions the wire from one of the
when plucked. The frequency is measured by
threads while loosening the other, in equal
proportion. The variation in tensioning
changes the electric resistance of the two
threads, which can be measured with Wheats
tone’s bridge, while the variation of the re-
sistance is a measure of the deflection of the
diaphragm. The resistance is not dependent
on variation in the temperature because it
equally influences the two coils (Golzé 1977;
Hanna 1985; Sing and Sharma 1976).
The Carlson Stress Meter is usually em-
ployed for special purposes, such as measur-
Figure 4-5. Layout of the temperature mon- ing the vertical stresses at the base, i.e. foun-
itoring for an arch dam. (a) Cantilever sec- dation, and for comparison of results ob-
tion; (b) arch section.
tained with a strain meter. It is also used with

connected with stations for recording, as well

as with alarm units, which are activated while
recording the abnormal behavior of the dam.
Modern systems of tiltmeters are automated
in relation to collecting data and remote con-
trol. Such a completely automated system of
20 biaxial tiltmeters was installed towards the
end of 1992 (many years after its start-up in
service) at the Boundary arch dam (USA),
whose unusual structure has already been
considered in the chapter on arch dams. Bi-
Figure 4-6. Layout of foundation tempera-
axial tiltmeters are intended for measuring
ture monitoring points for a gravity dam.
the vertical angle deflection, parallel and per-
pendicular to the proper planes, which are ra-
arch dams for determination of the horizon-
dial in relation to one reference cylinder, the
tal compressive stress in the thin elements
axis of which (A) is presented in the central
near the crest. The Carlson Stress Meter is
section (Sharma et al. 1994). Six tiltmeters
employed not only in concrete dams but also
have been installed in the gallery of the
in embankment dams (Sing and Sharma
Boundary Dam, while others were put in
1976).
place on the downstream slope. Owing to its
Instruments like strain meters are used to inclination towards the downstream side, that
measure the opening of joints. However, has not been at all simple to carry out. The
with a wider measuring range, owing to the manufacturer of the tiltmeters has supplied
greater expected displacements. That is why system software for automatic reading, i.e. re-
the sensitivity and accuracy of these instru- cording, of data at intervals determined by
ments have been reduced. This type of in- the user. The output data consist of values of
strument can also be embedded in a borehole the angle of deflection and the angle of incli-
in the foundation, just below the dam, with nation, measured in relation to the radial sur-
the task of measuring deformations in the face of the tiltmeter. Because the vertical sec-
rock foundation. tion through the plane of tiltmeters is not
At some concrete dams in Europe, uniform, and because of the three-dimen-
measrements are also made of the rotation of sional effect, there has been developed a spe-
some reference axis in relation to certain hor- cial method for exact calculation of the hori-
izontal or vertical planes. Such measurements zontal deflection based on the data obtained
are performed at selected places in the galler- from the measurements. The obtained data
ies using two types of instruments: clinome- are compared with the values that have been
ters and inclinometers. Clinometers, used for calculated by using the Finite Element
measuring changes of the angles in relation to Method, in which the model for calculations
the horizontal plane, are more often em- is permanently calibrated and adjusted based
ployed than inclinometers, used for measur- on the measured data. The final aim of the
ing the angle of rotation in relation to the ver- users of the dam was to obtain complete co-
tical (Hanna 1985). incidence of the calculated data and meas-
ured data, which implies obtaining a model
Tiltmeters are precise instruments used with a completely true and authentic presen-
to measure minor changes of inclination tation of the behavior of the dam.
about the horizontal. They are installed on
the concrete surfaces of the dam or inside in- In the case of gravity concrete dams, it is
spection galleries, with proper anchoring into also necessary to measure the value of the up-
specially made and prepared boreholes. lift pressure in the concrete—rock interface
and in the dam's body, occurring owing to
Every tiltmeter cable is connected to re- the penetration of water through cracks in
ceiving units by cables, which are, further on, the foundation and concrete, caused by a

badly constructed grout curtain or because of The system works constantly 24 hours a day,
poor functioning of the drainage. For that and it records all measured parameters, as
purpose, there is installed a system of pipes well as the diagnosis any abnormal behavior
in several blocks in the contact of the dam of the dam. It instantly calculates the differ-
and the foundation, while the uplift is deter- ences between the expected and obtained
mined with measuring instruments or with a values of parameters, then compares the dif-
whistle. Also, piezometers can also be em- ferences with the allowable values and, at the
bedded, especially in smaller dams, of similar same time, it sorts out data for calculations
construction to those used for embankment and investigations in specialized computer
dams. In the case of soil foundations, the up- offices. In that way, the data from measure-
lift can also be measured with built-in cells ments are obtained in the fastest way and can
for measuring pore pressure, which can be be used at once for control static calculations
embedded at selected locations and in the with true authentic input parameters. In the
dam's body, for measuring the pore pressure case of arch dams in Italy, based on results
in the concrete. obtained regarding the real behavior of a con-
structed dam structure as well as the rock in
Automatization and Com- the foundation, in case of need, they upgrade
puterization of Monitoring and enrich the network for observations,
while at the same time, perform numerical,
Along with the development of computer static, and dynamic calculations until they
technology, there have been created immense come to the final model, with which it will be
possibilities for the automated and continu- possible to predict the behavior of the dam
ous keeping under observation of the behav- and its foundation. Then the parameters of
ior of dams through networking the measur- that model are taken for comparison with the
ing instruments with precise microcomputers results obtained from measurements.
(Pircher 2001). Software, along with the
hardware are the key elements of an auto- In Austria, automatization and comput-
mated monitoring system. A system captures erization of the monitoring of dams are also
data from a diverse collection of sensors. The performed. It is characteristic that Austria
data are processed using the latest algorithms, has many dams, many of which are found in
and presented in a user-friendly way, possibly remote mountainous regions, that are diffi-
with an online Internet interface, which of- cult to reach during winter. That is why, in
fers a variety of visualization and analysis general, the reading out of the instruments in
tools to identify potential failure scenarios. that country is recorded at a central, remote
station, which, when obtaining a value that
Information from different sensor types exceeds the allowable one, reacts with an op-
may be combined with displacement indica- tical or acoustic signal. Such modern systems
tors like slope distance change, settlement or having display options available on any per-
lateral displacements to detect common fail- sonal computer are described by Kofler
ure indicators. Critical events such as over- (2010b).
topping and rapid water level changes may be
logged and referenced on the charts. Alarm The automation of data gathering and the use
notifications are issued by email and SMS to of the latest technologies allow:
selected recipients, and the system may also • Real time monitoring of the behavior
activate audible and visual alarms which may of the dam.
form part of the necessary emergency re-
• To carry out measurements with a
sponse procedures (Hanna 1985).
high degree of accuracy and preci-
The Italian National Energetic Agency sions.
has developed a microprocessor system for • To compare the measurements with
monitoring of concrete dams, as well as a ra-
the design values and to correlate be-
tional interpretation of the obtained results.
tween them.

• To define the safe levels of operation. • The information is always accessible

• To detect the occurrence of events when it is needed.
that could affect the integrity of the • Having an early warning and alarm
dam. system is possible.
Advantages of an automated monitoring sys- Relative disadvantages of an automated dam
tem are: monitoring system include:
• Data gathering, diagnosis, calibration • Large data volumes.
and remote programming.
• High installation costs, but the reduc-
• 10 to 100 times higher precision, tion of specialized labor cost will over-
avoiding human errors. come this cost in a few months.
• The readings are automatically taken • The technical staff is less concerned
and more often, reducing the instru- with the field observation.
mental error.
• The system needs a permanent power
• Graphic display and on time pro- supply.
cessing.
• Lightening could affect the system.
• Digital data is more reliable, robust,
• It requires experienced IT personnel.
and easy to process and plot.
• Maintenance costs.
• Minimize the cost of specialized labor.



SEISMIC MONITORING
During an earthquake, a dam is excited with cover the considered area thououghly. This
vibrating motion from the ground shaking. network should start being operational at
ICOLD (2013) recommends a method of de- least two years prior to the beginning of con-
sign that is based on dynamic analysis of the struction of the dam and should continue to
behavior of the dam during an earthquake. A the end of filling of the reservoir, i.e. for a
difficulty with this design method is that all minimum of three years after putting the dam
the physical parameters needed for the anal- into effect. It is desirable, particularly in areas
ysis are not known accurately and must be es- of high seismic activity that this network
timated. Moreover; the foundation of the functions on a permanent basis.
structure is assigned an acceleration that is
the same as its base, which is not realistic. The seismological stations distributed
More recordings of earthquake motions of around the reservoir must record the seismic
dams and their foundations are needed, and activity in the region of the dam and the res-
more research is required on how to analyze ervoir. Several basic reasons are justifying this
a dam using numerical methods that take into seismic instrumentation among which is the
account the dynamic properties of the mate- investigation of the normal seismic regime by
rial of which the structure is built. these observations with the purpose of con-
tributing to the seismotectonic investigations
The main reasons for seismic monitoring
to define the seismicity of the seismogenic
of dams are the following:
zone. Apart from this, this phase of investi-
1. The precise definition of the seismic gations confirms or negates the existence of
activity of the site, i.e., the exact induced seismicity because of filling of the
location of earthquake epicentres and reservoir. If such a seismicity does exist, its
their depths. relationship with the normal seismic regime
is defined. The results from these observa-
2. Defining the main earthquake
tions offer the possibility for making correc-
parameters: magnitude, frequency tions of the main seismic degree. This type of
characteristics and some indications investigations is performed by a network of
of focal mechanisms. seismological instruments distributed around
3. Predicting the mode of occurrence of the reservoir and telemetrically connected
future earthquakes. with the central recording station.
4. Providing data on the dynamic The strong motion instruments installed
behavior of the dam body for the on the dam enable obtaining of basic data on
purpose of objective evaluation of its its behavior during an earthquake, i.e., mak-
functioning immediately after the ing decisions about further exploitation or
occurred earthquake. the need for repair of the dam soon after the
quake occurred.
5. Verifying design parameters by the
actual behavior of the dam body The phase of seismic investigations dur-
during an earthquake. ing and after the construction of a dam refers
to engineering aspects of the structure. It in-
To provide this wide range of information, it cludes an installation of instruments (in the
is necessary to monitor the dam site with a ground and at the base of the dam) for the
local network of seismographs and accelero- recording of strong motions. The
graphs. The network of instruments needs to instruments are positioned at characteristic

Figure 5-1. Recommended dam seismic instrumentation.
points of the base of the dam. The collected shown in Figure 5-1. A minimum number of
records are an invaluable parameter for veri- four SMAs should be installed at the abut-
fication of the mathematical model of the ment (A), Crest (C) and Foundation (F) of
structure and its behavior under the effect of the dam and at a free field location (D) at
a real earthquake. least 3 to 4 times the height of the dam.
The seismic instruments for a dam site It is also recommended to install SMAs
include Strong Motion Accelerograph (SMA) at the Abutment (A’), body (B) and Mid Crest
which records the ground acceleration at the (MC) of the dam as indicated in Figure 5-1.
installed location which is necessary to study It is also desirable to install SMAs in the dam
the engineering aspect of the structure. The gallery (GG’) as shown in the illustration. It
ground acceleration data are useful in estab- is recommended to install one weak motion
lishing sub surface soil characteristics and seismograph at the far field location (D) to
predominant period at the site. monitor the seismicity in the region.
SMA consists of three-part accelerome- An essential element of these instru-
ters (one vertical and two horizontal compo- ments is their output information. It is desir-
nents), a digitizer, and a recording unit sealed able that these be in such a form that they
in a single unit. The data are stored in a mass could provide information on the intensity of
storage media of the recording unit that is ex- an earthquake immediately after its occur-
changed at the site during data retrieval. The rence. Based on this, a decision could be
seismic data are analyzed using the made regarding the further exploitation of
appropriate software. the dam. For instance, if the dam is designed
for a horizontal acceleration a = 0.15 g as a
The seismic instrument needs to be op-
design parameter, and the maximum ampli-
erated continuously and maintained periodi-
tude of recorded ground acceleration is less
cally as the high magnitude events occur
than this value, a decision can be made, with
rarely near the dam site.
excellent reliability, for further exploitation
The recommended dam seismic instru- of the dam with no particular repair or
mentation at different points in the dam is strengthening. However, when the recorded

acceleration is greater than 0.15 g, it is desira- 100 years is appropriate. The vibration ampli-
ble that there are no visible signs of damage fication occurring in the dam from base to
to perform a special study and define the crest and the accelerograph location should
stresses and strains in the dam caused by the also be considered. A strong motion accel-
forces from the recorded earthquake. erometer with full scale range (user se-
The reason for installing instruments in lectable) from 0.5 g to 4 g is needed.
dams is to monitor them during construction Bandwidth
and operation. One of the specific applica-
tions of the measurement is to furnish data The lowest frequency that is measured
to decide if the complete structure will con- should less than 10% of the fundamental nat-
tinue to function as intended. The processing ural frequency of the dam and lower than ex-
of large masses of raw data can be handled by citation frequencies of the earthquake spec-
computer. The interpretation of the data re- trum. Recording from 0 Hz is recommended.
quires careful examination of measurements Similarly, the upper frequency that is meas-
as well as other influencing effects, such as ured should be higher than the frequency of
reservoir operation, air temperature, precipi- the highest mode of variation that contrib-
tation, drain flow and leakage around the utes to the dam response and greater than the
structure, contraction joint grouting, con- excitation frequencies of the earthquake
crete placement schedule, seasonal shutdown spectrum. The strong motion accelerometer
during construction, concrete test data, and with frequency response flat (within +3 dB)
periodic instrument evaluations. The display to ground acceleration in the range of DC to
of data should be both tabular and graphical 200 Hz are suitable.
and should be simple and readily understood.
The data should be reviewed periodically by Resolution
a professional engineer versed in the design, The acceleration resolution is given by the re-
construction and operation of embankment 2  Maximum Acceleration
dams and concrete/masonry dams. lation where D
2D
It is necessary to install at least one seis- is the data bit resolution of the digitizer. It is
mic instrument at the dam s crest another recommended to select a digitizer with a res-
one in the downstream toe and one more on olution of 18 data bits or more.
the original foundation. However, it is desir-
able to have more of the - especially if it is a Noise
question of a high dam. The self-noise of the accelerometer and elec-
tronic components of the recording unit
5.1 Specifications
combined should be less than the recording
The instrument specifications depend on the resolution. The peak noise level must be con-
observational goals and environmental considered rather than the root mean square
ditions. The instruments deployed in the dam value.
site should be robust and highly reliable as
high magnitude events occur rarely near the Recording Mode
dam. The broad specifications of strong mo- The accelerographs may be operated in con-
tion accelerographs for the dam site are dis- tinuous data acquisition mode as there is no
cussed here. memory size restriction now-a-days. The
storage media is configured in a ring buffer
Maximum Acceleration
type so that the earlier data are erased when
The maximum recording acceleration often the memory is full. The operator should copy
referred to as full scale range must be higher the data periodically so that the recorded data
than the peak acceleration corresponding to does not get erased and lost. The storage me-
the seismic hazard at the site associated with dia size should be at least 32 GB or more.
the target return period. A return period of The size of the acceleration data recorded

with 3 channels and 200 samples per second with very long antenna cables and amplifiers
would be about 2 GB (after compression) for such facilities. GPS antenna should be en-
closed in weather proof sealed enclosure with
The accelerographs may function in a
lightning protection. Some accelerographs
triggered mode as well. The setting up of a
provide Precision Time Protocol (PTP) tim-
trigger level depends on many factors. It
ing without the need for GPS antennas for
should be at least 10 times the acceleration
every unit. The time accuracy of PTP should
resolution to avoid many false triggering. The
be better than 0.001 ms. The time inputs are
trigger levels of the in-structure accelero-
provided through a common ethernet cable
graphs may be increased because of the am-
connecting every unit.
plification that takes place in the dam.
Some accelerographs provide the facility Power
to start recording only after the trigger level Most of the accelerographs are provided with
is reached simultaneously in two or three internal batteries to supply power during in-
channels over a time window. terruptions during AC mains supply. There
The duration of the pre-event length (be- are chances of gases corroding the electronic
fore the acceleration reaches above the trig- equipment and battery explosion. It is recom-
ger level) is set sufficiently high based on the mended to use an external battery for accel-
trigger level and the distance of the dam from erographs. The batteries are charged by AC-
the earthquake source zone. The pre-event DC chargers or solar modules (solar power
length is set high for a higher trigger level and may not be available for in-structure accel-
fact that the compression waves arrive before erographs. The battery capacity is set based
the shear waves and the former may not trig- on the power autonomy required and it de-
ger the recording. pends on the total power consumption of the
accelerograph unit and time taken to re-es-
The duration of the post event length (af-
tablish the power.
ter the acceleration has returned below the
trigger level) is set sufficiently high based on Network
the trigger level and periods of the natural
mode of vibration of the dam that All the accelerographs may be connected to a
contributes to the dynamic response. network, and the data may be streamed to a
central location. The operators shall monitor
Timing the PGA, PGV, and PGD of the sensors
connected to the network in real time. The
It is crucial that the data from all the accel-
state of health of each accelerograph shall be
erographs in the dam should be precisely
viewed from the central location which will
time tagged so that data correlation can be
simplify the maintenance of the different
performed. Global positioning system (GPS)
units. The accelerographs shall be able to
cannot be used for in-structure installations
work in stand-alone mode also in the case of
as the antenna cannot be installed exposed to
network failure.
the sky. Some accelerographs provide GPS

Chapter 6. SUMMARY
The importance of a well-planned monitor- mation, dam owners can improve the effi-
ing installation as an essential component of ciency of the operation and maintainence of
the maintenance and operation of a dam, par- their dams.
ticularly in an aging structure where early A few rules follow that can help guide the
warning signs of failure may be detected, is
design of an instrumentation program:
widely accepted and in many countries, en-
forced by legislation. • The purpose of the instrumentation
program and underlying geotechnical
Need for Dam Instrumenta- and structural problems that create
tion the need for instrumentation must be
defined first.
Catastrophic dam failure through the un-
controlled release of the impoundment will • The instrumentation program must be
threaten life and property downstream. The comprehensive and carefully planned
safe functioning of a dam is an important so that all the parameters that influ-
matter of economic benefit and public safety. ence complications are measured.
There are many historical cases of dam fail-
ures where early warning signs of severe • The data collected must be reduced to
problems might have been detected if a good a convenient form, and the results
monitoring program had been in place. must be available to the concerned au-
Knowing that a dam is performing as ex- thorities without unnecessary delay.
pected is reassuring to dam owners, and the • There should be close cooperation be-
ability to detect a change in this performance tween the designers, instrumentation
is essential because the dam owner is directly specialists, monitoring data analysts,
responsible for the consequences of a dam
and site authorities to achieve the goal
failure. Therefore, a good dam safety moni-
toring program should be a key part of every of the instrumentation program.
dam owner’s risk management program. The checklist given in Appendix A summa-
Wall deflection, settlement, water seep- rizes the steps that need to be taken for sys-
age, the diurnal and seasonal changes in res- tematic planning of an instrumentation sys-
ervoir levels, seismic activity and the aging of tem to monitor dam performance.
the structure all affect the health of the dam.
Variations in the behavioral characteristics of Managing Risks
the structure may be indicative of impending An effective dam safety monitoring pro-
dam failure, and it is the primary goal of the gram is essential for dam owners to manage
monitoring system to detect such changes. the risks associated with the operation and
The use of instrumentation as part of maintenance of a dam. The use of instrumen-
dam safety programs is growing as the tech- tation can improve the dam owner’s ability to
nology of instrumentation and ease of use monitor the on-going performance of the
improves. At an existing dam, instrumenta- dam by providing more comprehensive and
tion data help to design a monitoring pro- timelier information. Attributes of instru-
gram that offers more comprehensive and mented monitoring that can make it the best
timelier information to evaluate the on-going choice in relation to a situation include:
performance of the dam. With this infor- • Quantitative data are obtained for use
by dam safety personnel in evaluating
the ongoing performance of the dam.

• Data on the foundation and interior of dures must be carefully defined and the indi-
structures can be obtained. vidual responsibilities of personnel defined.
Within the operating plan, the frequency of
• The instrumented data collection can monitoring should be chosen on a rational
be long-term in nature so that a steady basis, reflecting the importance of the indi-
stream of repeatable data can be pro- vidual parameters under scrutiny. It is, in any
duced for detection of subtle trends event, subject to amendment in the context
that may develop slowly over time. of the information retrieved.
• The collection of instrumentation Detailed prescription of periodicity is a
data can be automated allowing for question of common sense allied to engineer-
more frequent (near real time) surveil- ing judgment. An excess of data will prove
lance of a dam’s performance under burdensome and may confuse critical issues;
both normal and extreme loading con- too little information will raise more ques-
ditions. tions than it resolves. Excessive complexity
in a system, whether in terms of equipment
Monitoring needs vary over the distinct or the operating skills needed, similarly di-
phases that occur during the life of a dam. minishes its utility. A reasonable balance is
These phases typically include design, con- therefore always needed, and care must be
struction, first reservoir filling, long-term taken to ensure that the “system” remains
(normal operations), and dealing with unex- sufficiently responsive and flexible. The
pected performance. Instrumented monitor- monitoring routine should support observa-
ing can be an effective tool for obtaining the tions at the different seasons and with signif-
information needed during these separate icant changes in the reservoir water level.
phases. In addition to monitoring the perfor-
mance of the dam, instrumentation data can Routines for quick processing of field
also be valuable for litigation purposes or for data must be set up, considering the best
research studies form of presentation. Charts and overlays are
the most satisfactory method, with parame-
Data Acquisition and Man- ters plotted against reservoir water levels and
agement precipitation. Illustrative schematic diagrams
are shown in Johnston et al. (1999). It may
Logical planning of data acquisition and pro- sometimes prove useful to superimpose pre-
cessing is essential if the aim of an instrumen- determined “safe limit” envelopes for certain
tation program is to be fully realized. Unless key parameters (e.g. porewater pressures) on
observations are reliable and the information such plots
is interpreted quickly, the value of a program
will be severely diminished. Operating proce-

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Appendix A. CHECKLIST FOR INSTRUMENTATION

PLANNING
The steps that need to be taken for systematic planning of an instrumentation system to mon-
itor dam performance are summarized in this appendix in the form of the following checklist
(modified from Dunnicliff 1993):
Step
Description
number
1. Define the Project Conditions

a) Project type
b) Project layout
c) Subsurface stratigraphy and engineering properties
d) Groundwater conditions
e) Status of nearby structures or other facilities
f) Environmental conditions
g) Planned construction method
h) Knowledge of crisis situation
2. Predict Mechanisms that Control Behavior
a) Prior to developing a program of instrumentation, one or more working
hypotheses must be prepared for mechanisms that are likely to control
behavior.
b) The hypotheses must be based on a comprehensive knowledge of pro-
ject conditions, as described above.
3. Define the Geotechnical Questions that Need to be Answered
a) Every instrument on a project should be selected and placed to aid in
answering a specific question: If there is no question, there should be
no instrumentation.
b) Before considering measurement methods, a listing should be made of
geotechnical issues that are likely to arise during the design, construc-
tion, or operation phases.
4. Define the Purpose of the Instrumentation
i) Benefits during the design
i. Definition of initial site conditions
ii. Proof testing
iii. Fact-finding in crisis situations
j) Benefits during construction
i. Safety
ii. Observational method
iii. Construction control

Step
Description
number
iv. Provision of legal protection
v. Measurement of fill quantities
vi. Enhancing public relations
vii. Advancing the current practice
k) Verifying satisfactory performance after construction is complete
5. Select the Parameters to be Monitored
a) Pore-water pressure or joint water pressure
b) Total stress within soil mass
c) Total stress at contact with structure or rock
d) Stress within rock mass
e) Vertical deformation
f) Horizontal deformation
g) Tilt
h) Strain in soil or rock
i) Load or strain in structural members
j) Temperature
6. Predict Magnitudes of Change
a) Predict maximum value, thus instrument range
b) Predict minimum value, thus instrument sensitivity or accuracy
c) Determine hazard warning levels
7. Devise Remedial Action
a) Devise action for each hazard warning level, ensuring that labor and
materials will be available
b) Determine who will have contractual authority for initiating remedial
action
c) Ensure that communication channel is open between design and con-
struction personnel
d) Determine how all parties will be forewarned of planned remedial ac-
tions
8. Assign Tasks for Design, Construction, and Operation Phases
a) Assign supervisory responsibility for tasks by instrumentation specialist
b) Plan liaison and reporting channels
c) Plan who has overall responsibility and contractual authority for imple-
mentation
9. Select Instruments
a) Plan for high reliability:

Step
Description
number
i. study the suggested recipe for reliability
ii. maximum simplicity
iii. do not allow the lowest cost to dominate the selection
iv. maximum durability in installed environment
v. minimum sensitivity to climatic conditions
vi. good past performance record
vii. consider transducer, readout unit, and communication system sep-
arately
viii. is reading necessarily correct?
ix. can calibration be verified after installation?
a) Discuss application with manufacturer
b) Recognize any limitations in skill or quantity of available personnel
c) Consider both construction and long-term term needs and conditions
d) Ensure proper conformance
e) Ensure minimum interference to construction and minimum access dif-
ficulties
f) Determine need for automatic data acquisition system
g) Plan readout type and arrangements, consistent with required reading
frequency
i. Plan need for spare parts and standby readout units
ii. Evaluate adequacy of lead time
iii. Evaluate adequacy of time available for installation
iv. Question whether the selected instrument will achieve the objec-
tive
10. Select Instrument Locations
a) Identify zones of primary concern
b) Select primary instrumented sections
c) Select secondary instrumented sections
d) Plan quantities to account for less than 100% survival
e) Arrange locations to provide early data
f) Arrange locations to provide cross-checks checks
g) Avoid nonconformance or weakness at clusters
11. Plan Recording of Factors that May Influence Measured Data
a) Construction details
b) Construction progress
c) Visual observations of expected and unusual usual behavior
d) Geology and other subsurface conditions
e) Environmental factors

Step
Description
number
12. Establish Procedures for Ensuring Reading Correctness

a) Visual observations
b) Duplicate instruments
c) Backup system
d) Study of consistency
e) Study of repeatability
f) Regular in-place checks
13. List the Specific Purpose of Each Instrument
a) At this point in the planning, it is useful to question whether all planned
instruments are justified. The purpose of each planned instrument
should be described.
b) If no practical, specific purpose can be found for a planned instrument,
it should be removed.
14. Prepare Budget: Include Costs for:
a) Planning monitoring program
b) Making detailed instrument designs
c) Obtaining instruments
d) Making factory calibrations
e) Installing instruments
f) Keeping up and calibrating instruments on a regular schedule
g) Creating and updating data collection schedule
h) Collecting data
i) Processing and presenting data
j) Interpreting and reporting data
k) Deciding on implementation of results
15. Write Instrument Procurement Specifications
a) Assign responsibility for procurement
i. construction contractor
ii. owner
iii. design consultant
iv. instrument suppliers acting as assigned subcontractors
b) Select specifying method
i. descriptive specification, with brand name and model number
ii. descriptive specification, without the brand name and model
number
iii. performance specification
c) Select basis for deciding on price

Step
Description
number
i. Negotiation
ii. bid
d) Write specifications
e) Plan factory calibrations
f) Plan acceptance tests when instruments are first received and determine
responsibility
16. Plan Installation
a) Prepare systematic installation procedure well in advance of scheduled
installation dates, including list of required materials and tools
b) Prepare installation record sheets
c) Plan staff training
d) Coordinate plans with contractor
e) Plan access needs
f) Plan protection from damage and vandalism
g) Plan installation schedule
17. Plan Regular Calibration and Maintenance
a) Plan calibrations during service life
i. readout units
ii. embedded components
b) Plan maintenance
i. readout units
ii. field terminals
iii. embedded components
Plan Data Collection, Processing, Presentation, Interpretation, Reporting, and
18.
Implementation mentation
a) Plan data collection
i. prepare preliminary detailed procedures for collection of initial
and subsequent data
ii. prepare field data sheets
iii. plan staff training
iv. plan data collection schedule
v. plan access needs
b) Plan data processing and presentation
i. determine need for automatic data processing
ii. prepare preliminary detailed procedures for data processing and
presentation
iii. prepare calculation sheets
iv. plan data plot format

Step
Description
number
v. plan staff training
c) Plan data interpretation
i. prepare preliminary detailed procedures for data interpretation
d) Plan reporting of conclusions
i. define reporting requirements, contents, tents, frequency
e) Plan implementation
i. verify that all Step 7 items are in place
19. Write Contractual Arrangements for Field Instrumentation Services
a) Select field service contract method

b) Write detailed specifications
20. Update Budget
Planning is now complete, and the budget for all tasks should be updated con-
sidering all planning steps.

Appendix B. INDIAN STANDARDS RELATED TO DAM

INSTRUMENTATION
A list of Indian Standards related to dam instrumentation is given in Table B-1.
Table B-1. Indian Standards Related to Dam Instrumentation
Standard Year
Description
number published
IS 1191 2003 Hydrometric determinations -- vocabulary and symbols
IS 4967 1968 Recommendations for seismic instrumentation for river valley pro-
jects
IS 6524 1972 Code of practice for installation and observation of instruments for
temperature measurements inside dams; resistance type thermometers
IS 6532 1972 Code of practice for design, installation, observation and maintenance
of uplift pressure pipes for hydraulic structures on permeable founda-
tions
IS 7356-1 2002 Code of practice for installation, maintenance and observation of in-
struments for pore pressure measurements in earth dams and rockfill
dams, Part 1: Porous tube piezometers
IS 7356-2 2003 Installation, observation and maintenance of instruments for pore

pressure measurements in earth and rockfill dams - code of practice,
Part 2: Twin tube hydraulic piezometers
IS 7436-1 1993 Guide for types of measurements for structures in river valley projects
and criteria for choice and location of measuring instruments, Part 1:
For earth and rockfill dams
IS 7436-2 1997 Guide for types of measurements for structures in river valley projects
and criteria for choice and location of measuring instruments, Part 2:
Concrete and masonry dams
IS 7500 2000 Code of practice for installation and observation of cross arms for
measurement of internal vertical movement in earth dams
IS 8226 1976 Code of practice for installation and observation of base plates for
measurement of foundation settlement in embankments
IS 8282-1 1976 Code of practice for installation, maintenance and observations of

pore pressure measuring devices in concrete and masonry dams, Part
1: Electrical resistance type cell

IS 8282-2 1996 Installation, maintenance, and observations of pore pressure measur-

ing devices in concrete and masonry dams - code of practice, Part 2:
Vibrating wire type cell
IS 10334 1982 Code of practice for selection, splicing, installation and providing pro-
tection to the open ends of cables used for connecting resistance type
measuring devices in concrete and masonry dams
IS 10434-1 2003 Installation, maintenance, and observation of deformation measuring

devices in concrete and masonry dams - guidelines, Part 1: Resistance
type joint meters
IS 10434-2 1996 Guidelines for installation, maintenance, and observation of defor-

mation measuring devices in concrete and masonry dams, Part 2: Vi-
brating wire type joint meter
IS 12169 1987 Criteria for design of small embankment dams
IS 12949 1990 Code of practice for installation, maintenance and observation of in-
struments for pore pressure measurements in earth dams and rockfill
dams: Electrical pore pressure cells - vibratory wire type
IS 13073-1 2002 Installation, maintenance, and observation of displacement measuring

devices in concrete and masonry dams - code of practice, Part 1: De-
flection measurement using plumblines
IS 13073-2 2000 Code of practice for installation, maintenance and observation of dis-
placement measuring devices for concrete and masonry dams, Part 2:
Geodetic observation - crest collimation
IS 13232 1992 Installation, maintenance, and observations of electrical strain meas-

uring devices in concrete dams - Code of practice
IS 14248 1995 Guidelines for instrumentation of barrages, weirs
IS 14278 1995 Stress measuring devices in concrete and masonry dams - Installation,
commissioning and observations - Code of practice
IS 14750 2000 Code of practice for installation, maintenance, and observation of

seepage measuring devices for concrete/masonry and earth/rockfill
dams
IS 14793 2000 Code of practice for installation, maintenance, and observation of the
instruments for vibration studies other than earthquakes

Appendix C. SUPPLIERS OF GEOTECHNICAL

INSTRUMENTATION FOR DAMS
A list of suppliers supplying geotechnical instrumentation used to monitor conditions at dams is
provided in Table C-1.
Table C-1. List of Suppliers Supplying Geotechnical Instrumentation for Dams
Telephone
Name Office Website address
number
RST Instruments 11545 Kingston St., Maple +1 604-540-1100 www.rstinstruments.com
Ltd. Ridge, British Columbia,
V2X0Z5, Canada
Eyasco Inc. 125 Hangar Way, Suite +1 831-687-0186 www.eyasco.com
290 Watsonville, California
95076, USA
Innovative Geotech- B 970 Sector A, Mahana- +91 0522 407 0774 www.innogeo-india.com
nical Instrumenta- gar, Lucknow, Uttar Pra- +91 0522 305 519
tion desh 226006, India
SysTel Instrumenta- 2/102 Sahara State, +91 0522 495 3344 www.sisplgroup.com
tion Services Pvt. Jankipuram, Lucknow, Ut-
Ltd. tar Pradesh 226021, India
Encardio-Rite Elec- A-7 Industrial Estate, +91 52 2266 1039 42 www.encardio.com
tronics Pvt. Ltd. Talkatora Road, Lucknow,
Uttar Pradesh 226011,
India
Exploration Instru- 2808 Longhorn Blvd. Suite +1 512-346-4042 www.expins.com
ments LLC 304, Austin, Texas78758,
USA
Power House Tool, 626 Nicholson Street, Jo- +1 815-727-6301 www.powerhousetool.com
Inc. liet, Illinois 60435, United
States
Micro Measure- PO Box 27777, Raleigh, +1 919-365-3945 www.vpgsensors.com
ments North Carolina 27611,
USA
Associated Instru- Naimex House, A-8, Cor- +91 11 3081 0200 www.aimil.com
ment Manufacturers porate Office, Industrial
India Pvt. Ltd. Area, Mohan Cooperative
Industrial Estate, Mathura
Road, Okhla Phase III,
Okhla Industrial Area,
New Delhi, Delhi 110020,
India
Ultra-Technologies C16A Kalkaji, New Delhi +91 11 2643 5279 www.slopeindicator.com
Pvt. Ltd. 110019, India +91 11 2643 5280
GEONOR Grinidammen 10, 1359 +47 67 15 92 80 www.geonor.no
Eiksmarka, Norway

Telephone
Name Office Website address
number
Sensors & Measure- A-65 (1) Talkatora Indus- +91 98385 62636 www.smegeotech.com
ments Enterprises trial Estate Talkatora Road
Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
226011, India
Interfels GmbH Am Bahndamm 1, 48455 +49 5922 99417 www.interfels.de
Bad Bentheim, Germany
Progressive Machine 5, Industrial Estate, Jag- +91 05452 220 479 www.pmtpl.com
Tools Pvt. Ltd. dishpatti, NH 56, Jaunpur,
Uttar Pradesh 222002, In-
dia
NBG Systems Acess Industrial Park, +43 2852 30412 www.nbg-systems.com
GmbH Zweilanderstrasse 1, 3950
Gmund, Austria
Info-Electronics Sys- P-18, 1st Floor, Green +91 11 2619 7981 www.info-electronics.co.in
tems India Pvt. Ltd. Park Extension, New
www.info-electronics.com
Delhi, Delhi 110016, India
Leica Geosystems, Elcome House, A-06, In- +91 124 412 2222 www.elcometech.com
Elcome Technolo- focity, Sector 34, Gurgaon,
gies Pvt. Ltd. Haryana 122002, India
Sigma Industries 18, Kshipra Society, +91 960 488 4769 www.sigma-ind.com
Karvenagar, Pune, Maha-
rashtra 411041, India
Smartec SA Via Pobiette 11, CH-6928 +41 91 610 18 00 www.smartec.ch
Mann, Switzerland
Telemac SA 10, Avenue Eiffel, 77220 +33 1 64 06 40 80 www.telemac.fr
Gretz-Armainvilliers,
France
Roctest Ltd. 680 Birch Street, Saint- +1 450 465 1113 www.roctest.com
Lambert, Quebec, Canada
J4P 2N3
Geokon Inc. 48 Spencer St., Lebanon, +1 603-448-1562 www.geokon.com
New Hampshire 03766,
USA
Sensornet Ltd. 340 Centennial Ave, El- +44 (0)20 8236 2550 www.sensornet.co.uk
stree, Borehamwood WD6
3TJ, United Kingdom
Record Tech Elec- B-18, Industrial Estate, +91 13322 67507 www.recordtek.com
tronics Roorkee, Uttarakhand
247667, India

Appendix D. SUPPLIERS OF HYDROLOGICAL AND

METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTATION FOR DAMS
A list of suppliers of hydrological and meteorological instrumentation used to monitor condi-
tions at dams is provided in Table D-1.
Table D-1. Suppliers of Hydrological and Meteorological Instrumentation for Dams
Telephone
Name Address Website address
number
Dynalab G2 Bld,C/3,Bramha, Memo- +91 020 553 7109 dynalabweathertech.com
ries, Bhosale Nagar, Pune, Ma-
harashtra, 411007, India
SGS Weather 29, Ground Floor, South Ex +91 112 625 7072 www.weather-india.com
and Environ- Plaza-II, South Extension Part +91 112 625 6073
mental Systems -II, New Delhi, Delhi 110049, +91 112 625 0803
India
K.R. Instru- No. 270, 21st Main, 2nd Cross, +91 802 668 4492 www.krinstruments.com
ments 2nd Stage, B. T. M. Layout,
Bengaluru - 560 076, Karna-
taka, India
U.K. Engineer- Maktoolpuri, Roorkee 247667, +91 42422 50712 www.ukengineering-
ing Works Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India works.com
Shanghai Room209, B Building, +86 215 471 6991 www.toyouindustry.com
Toyou Industry Cangyuan Industrial Area, No.
Co., Ltd 951 Jianchuan-Minhang Dis-
trict, Shanghai, 200240 China
Rickly Hydro- 1700 Joyce Avenue Columbus, +1 800-561-9677 www.rickly.com
logical Com- Ohio 43219, USA
pany
Raj Instru- No. 40, Ghanshyam Estate, +91 792 274 1522 www.rajinstruments.com
ments near Viratnagar Cross Road,
Bapunagar, Ahmedabad, Guja-
rat 380023, India
SUTRON 22400 Davis Drive Sterling, +1 703-406-2800 www.sutron.com
Corp. Virginia 20164, USA
D-128-129, 1st Floor, Okhla +91 114 175 9224 www.sutron.com
Industrial Area, Phase-1, New +91 114 175 9450
Teledyne Isco 4700 Superior Street, Lincoln +1 402-464-0231 www.teledyneisco.com
Nebraska 68504, USA


Appendix E. SUPPLIERS OF SEISMIC

INSTRUMENTATION FOR DAMS
A list of suppliers of seismic instrumentation used to monitor conditions at dams is provided in
Table E-1.
Table E-1. Suppliers of Seismic Instrumentation for Dams
Telephone
Name Address Website address
number
Seismic Instru- 7501 N Capital of Texas Hwy, +1 512-342-1819 www.seismicinstru-
ments, Inc. Austin, Texas 78731, USA ments.com
Canterbury Seis- 149 Rutherford Building, Uni- +64 3 364 3575 www.csi.net.nz
mic Instruments versity of Canterbury, Christ-
church 8041, New Zealand
Kinemetrics Inc. 222 Vista Avenue, Pasadena, +1 626-795-2220 www.kmi.com
California 91107, USA
ESG Solutions 20 Hyperion Court, Kingston, +1 613-548-8287 www.esgsolutions.com
Ontario, K7K 7K2, Canada
GEM Systems 135 Spy Court, Markham, On- +1 905 752 2202 www.gemsys.ca
tario, Canada, L3R 5H6
GeoSIG Ltd. Wiesenstrasse 39, 8952 Schlie- +41 44 810 21 50 www.geosig.com
ren, Switzerland
Seismic Systems 1939 4th Street, Simi Valley, Cal- +1 805-531-9994 www.seismicsys-
Service ifornia 93065, USA tems.net
SYSCOM Instru- Rue de l'Industrie 21, 1450 +41 24 455 44 11 www.syscom.ch
ments SA Sainte-Croix, Switzerland
SUTRON Corp. 22400 Davis Drive Sterling, Vir- +1 703 406-2800 www.sutron.com
ginia 20164, USA
D-128-129, 1st Floor, Okhla In- +91 114 175 9224 www.sutron.com
dustrial Area, Phase-1, New +91 114 175 9450
Trimble Naviga- 10368 Westmoor Drive, West-
tion Limited minster, Colorado 80021, USA
Guralp Systems Midas House, Calleva Park, Al- +44 118 981 9056 www.guralp.com
Limited dermaston, Reading, RG7 8EA,
United Kingdom


Appendix F. GLOSSARY OF TERMS FOR

INSTRUMENTATION OF DAMS
The purpose of this glossary is to offer a common vocabulary of dam instrumentation terms for
use within and among Central and State Government agencies. Included terms are general and
apply to all dams, regardless of size, owner, or location.
Abutment – The part of the valley side Bill of quantities – A means of listing and
against which the dam is constructed. The quantifying the volume and type of work in
left and right abutments of a dam are a piece of construction so that its cost or
defined with the observer looking value can be determined.
downstream from the dam. Boil – A disruption of the soil surface
Appurtenant structures – Structures caused by water discharging from below
associated with the dam including the the surface. Eroded soil may be deposited
following: in the form of a ring (miniature volcano)
around the disruption.
a) Spillways, either in the dam or
separate therefrom; Cavitation – A process that damages con-
b) Reservoir and its rim; crete or metal by the formation or bubbles in
c) Low-level outlet works and water a water flow, created when offsets or irregu-
conduits such as tunnels, pipelines or larities exist on a flow surface exposed to
penstocks, either through the dam or high velocities.
its abutments or reservoir rim; Chimney drain – A vertical or inclined
d) Hydro-mechanical equipment layer of permeable material in an
including gates, valves, hoists, and embankment to control drainage of the
elevators;
embankment fill.
e) Energy dissipation and river training
works; and Cofferdam – A temporary structure that
encloses all or part of the construction area
Auxiliary spillway – Any secondary so that work can proceed in dry conditions.
spillway that is designed to be infrequently A diversion cofferdam diverts a stream
operated, in anticipation of some degree of into a pipe, channel, tunnel, or another
structural damage or erosion to the
watercourse.
spillway that would occur during
operation. Compaction – Mechanical action that
increases soil density by reducing voids.
Barrage – While the term barrage is
borrowed from the French word meaning Concrete lift – The vertical distance
“dam” in general, its usage in English refers between successive horizontal
to a type of low-head, dam that consists of construction joints.
many large gates that can be opened or Conduit – A closed channel to convey
closed to control the amount of water water through, around, or under a dam.
passing through the structure, and thus
regulate and stabilize river water elevation Construction joint – The interface between
upstream for use diverting flow for two successive placements or pours of
irrigation and other purposes. concrete where bond, and not permanent
separation, is intended.
Berm – A flat part of the slope of an
embankment or cutting.

Construction – Building a proposed dam b) unusual readings of instruments in the

and appurtenant structures capable of dam;
storing water. c) unusual seepage or leakage through
the dam body;
Contact grouting – Filling, with cement
d) change in the seepage or leakage
grout, any voids existing at the contact of
regime;
two zones of dissimilar materials, i.e.,
e) boiling or artesian conditions noticed
between a concrete tunnel lining and the
below an earth dam;
surrounding rock.
f) stoppage or reduction in seepage or
Core wall – A wall built of impervious leakage from the foundation or body
material, usually of concrete or asphaltic of the dam into any of the galleries, for
concrete in the body of an embankment dams with such galleries;
dam to prevent seepage. g) malfunctioning or inappropriate
Cost plus, target cost – Names for operation of gates;
contractual philosophies, reflecting how h) occurrence of any flood, the peak of
much the contractor is paid in relation to which exceeds the available flood
his costs. discharge capacity or 70% of the
approved design flood;
Creep – A process of deformation that i) occurrence of a flood, which resulted
occurs in many materials where the load is in encroachment on the available
applied over an extended period. freeboard, or the adopted design
Cutoff trench – A foundation excavation freeboard;
later to be filled with impervious material j) erosion in the near vicinity, up to five
to limit seepage beneath a dam. hundred meters, downstream of the
spillway and waste weir; and
Cutoff wall – A wall of impervious k) any other event that prudence
material usually of concrete, asphaltic suggests would have a significant
concrete, or steel sheet piling constructed unfavorable impact on dam safety.
in the foundation and abutments to reduce
seepage beneath and next to the dam. Dam inspection – On site examination of
all components of dam and its
Dam – Any artificial barrier including appurtenances by one or more persons
appurtenant works constructed across trained in this respect and includes
rivers or tributaries thereof with a view to inspection of non-overflow section,
impound or divert water; includes barrage, spillways, abutments, stilling basin, piers,
weir and similar water impounding bridge, downstream toe, drainage galleries,
structures but does not include water operation of mechanical systems (including
conveyance structures such as canal, gates and its components, drive units,
aqueduct and navigation channel and flow cranes), interior of outlet conduits,
regulation structures such as flood instrumentation records and record-
embankment, dike and guide bund. keeping arrangements of instruments.
Dam failure – Failures in the structures or Dam owner – The Central Government
operation of a dam which may lead to an or a State Government or public sector
uncontrolled release of impounded water undertaking or local authority or company
resulting in downstream flooding affecting and any or all such persons or
the life and property of the people. organizations, who own, control, operate
Dam incident – All problems occurring at or maintain a specified dam.
a dam that have not degraded into ‘dam Dam safety – The practice of ensuring the
failure’ and including the following: integrity and viability of dams such that they
a) Structural damage to the dam and do not present unacceptable risks to the pub-
appurtenant works; lic, property, and the environment. It requires

the collective application of engineering prin- Embankment zone – An area or part of

ciples and experience, and a philosophy of an embankment dam constructed using
risk management that recognizes that a dam similar materials and similar construction
is a structure whose safe function is not ex- and compaction methods throughout.
plicitly determined by its original design and Emergency repairs – Any repairs that are
construction. It also includes all actions taken temporary in nature and that are necessary
to identify or predict deficiencies and conse- to preserve the integrity of the dam and
quences related to the failure and to docu-
prevent a failure of the dam.
ment, publicize, and reduce, eliminate, or re-
mediate to the extent reasonably possible, Emergency spillway – An auxiliary spill-
any unacceptable risks. way designed to pass a large, but
infrequent, volume of flood flow, with a
Densification – A means of improving crest elevation higher than the principal
the strength of soil by making it denser, spillway or normal operating level.
usually by physical compaction.
Extensometer – An instrument used to
Design and Construct – A form of con- detect, usually small, movements of a
tract in which the contractor undertakes
structure or a mass of rock or soil.
both the design and the construction of the
work. Failure mode – A potential failure mode
is a physically plausible process for dam
Design water level – The highest water failure resulting from an existing
elevation, including the flood surcharge, inadequacy or defect related to a natural
that a dam is designed to withstand. foundation condition, the dam or
Design wind – The most severe wind that appurtenant structures design, the
is possible at a reservoir for generating construction, the materials incorporated,
wind set-up and run-up. The determination the operations and maintenance, or aging
will include the results of meteorological process, which can lead to an uncontrolled
studies that combine wind velocity, release of the reservoir.
duration, direction and seasonal Fetch – The-straight-line distance across a
distribution characteristics in a realistic
body of water subject to wind forces. The
manner. fetch is one of the factors used in
Diaphragm wall – A cutoff wall of calculating wave heights in a reservoir.
flexible concrete constructed in a trench Filter – One or more layers of granular
cut through an embankment or the material graded (either naturally or by
foundation. selection) so as to allow seepage through or
Diversion dam – A dam built to divert within the layers while preventing the
water from a waterway or stream into a migration of material from adjacent zones.
different watercourse. Flap gate – A gate hinged along one edge,
Earthfill dam – An embankment dam in usually either the top or bottom edge.
which more than 50% of the total volume Examples of bottom-hinged flap gates are
is formed of compacted earth layers. tilting gates, and fish belly gates so called
Effective crest of the dam – The from their shape in cross section.
elevation of the lowest point on the crest Flashboards – Structural members of tim-
(top) of the dam, excluding spillways. ber, concrete, or steel placed in channels or
on the crest of a spillway to raise the
Embankment dam – Any dam con-
structed of excavated natural materials, reservoir water level but intended to be
quickly removed, tripped, or fail in case of
such as both earth-fill and rock-fill dams,
or of industrial waste materials, such as a a flood.
tailings dam.

Flip bucket – An energy dissipater found Gravity dam – A dam constructed of

at the downstream end of a spillway and concrete or masonry that relies on its
shaped so that water flowing at a high weight and internal strength for stability.
velocity is deflected upwards in a trajectory Grout – A fluidized material that is injected
away from the foundation of the spillway. into soil, rock, concrete, or other
Flood hydrograph – A graph showing, construction material to seal openings and
for a given point on a stream, the discharge, to lower the permeability and to provide
height, or another characteristic of a flood additional structural strength. There are
with respect to time. four major types of grouting materials:
Freeboard – Vertical distance between a chemical; cement; clay; and bitumen.
specified stillwater (or other) reservoir Grout blanket – An area of the
surface elevation and the top of the dam, foundation systematically grouted to a
without camber. uniform shallow depth.
Gabion – Rectangular-shaped baskets or Grout cap – A concrete filled trench or
mattresses fabricated from wire mesh, pad encompassing all grout lines
filled with rock, and assembled to form constructed to impede surface leakage and
overflow weirs, hydraulic drops, and to provide anchorage for grout
overtopping protection for small connections.
embankment dams. Gabion baskets are Grout curtain – One or more zones,
stacked in a stair-stepped fashion, while usually thin, in the foundation into which
mattresses are placed parallel to a slope. grout is injected to reduce seepage under or
Gabions have advantages over loose riprap
around a dam.
because of their modularity and rock
confinement properties, thus giving Height of dam – The difference in
erosion protection with less rock and with elevation between the natural bed of the
smaller rock sizes than loose riprap. watercourse or the lowest point on the
downstream toe of the dam, whichever is
Gallery – A passageway in the body of a dam lower, and the effective crest of the dam.
used for inspection, foundation grouting or
drainage. Hydraulic fracturing – Hydraulic frac-
turing in soils is a tensile parting that is
Gate – A movable water barrier for the created because of increased fluid pressure.
control of water. Initiation or propagation cracks in the core
Geomembrane – An impermeable geo- sections of earthen dams because of
synthetic composed of one or more hydraulic fracturing affect adversely the
synthetic sheets. structural safety of the dams.
Geosynthetic – A planar product man- Hydraulic gradient – The change in total
ufactured from a polymeric material used hydraulic pressure per unit distance of
with soil, rock, earth, or other geotechnical flow.
engineering related material as an integral Hydrology – One of the earth sciences
part of a project, structure, or system. that encompasses the natural occurrence,
Geotextile – Any fabric or textile (natural distribution, movement, and properties of
or synthetic) when used as an engineering the waters of the earth and their
material in conjunction with soil, environmental relationships.
foundations, or rock. Geotextiles have the Hydrometeorology – The study of the
following purposes: drainage, filtration, atmospheric and land-surface phases of the
separation of materials, reinforcement, hydrologic cycle with emphasis on the
moisture barriers, and erosion protection. interrelationships involved.

Hydrostatic pressure – The pressure • the dam has particularly challenging

exerted by water at rest. foundation problems; or
Inclinometer – An instrument, usually • the dam is of unusual design.
consisting of a metal or plastic casing
inserted in a drill hole and a sensitive Liquefaction – A condition whereby soil
monitor either lowered into the casing or undergoes continued deformation at a con-
fixed within the casing. The inclinometer stant low residual stress or with low residual
measures the casing’s inclination to the resistance, because of the buildup and
vertical at different points. The system may maintenance of high pore-water pressures,
be used to measure settlement. which reduces the effective confining pres-
sure to a very low value. Pore pressure
Instrumentation – An arrangement of buildup leading to liquefaction may be due ei-
devices installed into or near dams that ther to static or cyclic stress applications, and
enable measurements that can be used to the possibility of its occurrence will depend
evaluate the structural behavior and on the void ratio or relative density of a co-
performance parameters of the structure. hesionless soil and the confining pressure.
Internal erosion – A general term used to Low-level outlet (bottom outlet) – An
describe all the various erosional processes opening at a low level from a reservoir used
where water moves internally through or for emptying or for scouring sediment and
adjacent to the soil zones of embankment sometimes for irrigation releases.
dams and foundation, except for the
specific process referred to as backward Maintenance – Those tasks that are
erosion piping. The term internal erosion is generally recurring and are necessary to
used in place of a variety of terms that have keep the dam and appurtenant structures in
been used to describe various erosional a sound condition and free from defect or
processes, such as scour, suffusion, damage that could hinder the dam’s
concentrated leak piping, and others. functions as designed, including adjacent
areas that also could affect the function and
Jet grouting – A system of grouting in operation of the dam.
which the existing foundation material is
mixed in situ with cementitious materials Maintenance inspection – Visual
to stabilize the foundation, or it improve its inspection of the dam and appurtenant
water-tightness. structures by the owner or owner’s
representative to detect apparent signs of
Karstic – An adjective to describe a deterioration, other deficiencies, or any
limestone rock mass in which large other areas of concern.
openings have been caused over geological
time by ground water dissolving the rock. Masonry dam – Any dam constructed
mainly of stone, brick, or concrete blocks
Large dam – A dam which is above 15 m in pointed with mortar. A dam having only a
height, measured from the lowest part of the masonry facing should not be referred to as a
general foundation area to the top of dam; or masonry dam.
a dam between 10 m to 15 m in height that
satisfies at least one of the following, namely Maximum storage capacity – The
volume, in millions of cubic metres (Mm 3),
• the length of the crest is not less than of the impoundment created by the dam at
500 m; the effective crest of the dam; only water
• the capacity of the reservoir formed that can be stored above natural ground
level or that could be released by failure of
by the dam is not less than one million
the dam is considered in assessing the
cubic meters;
storage volume; the maximum storage
• the largest flood discharge dealt with capacity may decrease over time because of
by the dam is not less than 2000 m3/s;

sedimentation or increase if the reservoir is Plunge pool – A natural or artificially

dredged. created pool that dissipates the energy of
free falling water.
Meteorology – The science that deals with
the atmosphere and atmospheric phenom- Post-tensioned anchors – A system of
ena, the study of weather, particularly storms anchored stressed steel tendons or bars
and the rainfall they produce. within or attached to a structure to provide
structural support.
Normal storage capacity – The volume,
in millions of cubic meters (Mm3), of the Pre-stressed structure – A structure
impoundment created by the dam at the containing elements that have been pre-
lowest uncontrolled spillway crest loaded with stressed steel tendons, bars or
elevation, or at the maximum elevation of jacks.
the reservoir at the normal (non-flooding) Pressure relief pipes – Pipes used to relieve
operating level. uplift or pore water pressure in a dam foun-
Outlet – A conduit or pipe controlled by a dation or in the dam structure.
gate or valve, or a siphon, that is used to Principal spillway – The primary or initial
release impounded water from the spillway engaged during a rainfall-runoff
reservoir. event that is designed to pass normal flows.
Outlet gate – A gate controlling the flow Radial gate – A gate with a curved
of water through a reservoir outlet. upstream plate and radial arms hinged to
Outlet works – A dam appurtenance that piers or other supporting structure. Also
provides release of water (generally known as a Tainter gate.
controlled) from a reservoir. Rehabilitation – Work that aims to
Parapet wall – A solid wall built along the restore the service life of a structure, as
top of a dam (upstream or downstream opposed to maintenance, which seeks to
edge) used for ornamentation, for the restore the status quo, and upgrading
safety of vehicles and pedestrians, or to whose purpose is to maximize the
prevent overtopping caused by wave performance within the physical limits of
runup. the structure.
Peak flow – The maximum instantaneous Repairs – Any work done on a dam that
discharge that occurs during a flood. It is may affect the integrity, safety, and
coincident with the peak of a flood operation of the dam.
hydrograph. Reservoir – Any water spread that
Penstock – A pressurized pipeline or shaft contains impounded water.
between the reservoir and hydraulic Reservoir Storage – The retention of
machinery. water or delay of runoff in a reservoir
Phreatic surface – The free surface of either by the planned operation, as in a
water seeping at atmospheric pressure reservoir, or by temporary filling in the
through soil or rock. progression of a flood wave. Certain types
of storage in reservoirs are defined as
Piezometer – An instrument used to meas-
ure water levels or pore water pressures in follows:
embankments, foundations, abutments, soil, a) Active storage – The volume of the
rock, or concrete. reservoir that is available for some use
such as power generation, irrigation,
Piping –The progressive development of in-
flood control, and water supply. The
ternal erosion by seepage.
bottom elevation is the minimum
operating level.

b) Dead storage – The storage that lies causes the erosion to progress, creating a
below the invert of the lowest outlet larger and larger eroded area.
and that, therefore, cannot readily be Seismometer – An instrument that measure
withdrawn from the reservoir. the motion of the ground, including those of
c) Flood surcharge – The storage seismic waves generated by earthquakes, vol-
volume between the top of the active canic eruptions, and other seismic sources.
storage and the design water level. Records of seismic waves allow seismologists
d) Inactive storage – The storage to map the interior of the Earth, and locate
volume of a reservoir between the and measure the size of these different
crest of the invert of the lowest outlet
sources.
and the minimum operating level.
e) Live storage – The sum of the active Seepage – The internal movement of water
and the inactive storage. that may take place through a dam, the foun-
f) Reservoir capacity – The sum of the dation or the abutments, often emerging at
dead and live storage of the reservoir. the ground level lower down the slope.
g) Surcharge – The volume or space in Settlement – The vertical downward move-
a reservoir between the controlled ment of a structure or its foundation.
retention water level and the highest
water level. Flood surcharge cannot be Sinkhole – A depression in the ground
retained in the reservoir but will flow showing subsurface settlement or particle
out of the reservoir until the movement, typically having clearly defined
controlled retention water level is boundaries with a sharp offset.
reached. Toe drain – A system of pipe or porous ma-
Riprap – A layer of large rock, precast terial along the downstream toe of a dam
blocks, bags of cement, or other suitable used to collect seepage from the foundation
material, placed on an embankment or and embankment and convey it to a free out-
along a watercourse as protection against let.
wave action, erosion, or scour. Toe of dam – The junction of the down-
Rockfill dam – An embankment dam in stream slope or face of a dam with the
which more than 50% of the total volume is ground surface, which is also referred to as
made up of compacted or dumped cobbles, the downstream toe. The intersection of the
boulders, rock fragments, or quarried rock upstream slope with ground surface is called
larger than 3-inch size. the heel or the upstream toe.
Roller compacted concrete dam – A con- Top thickness (top width) – The thickness
crete gravity dam constructed using a dry mix or width of a dam at the level of the top of
concrete transported by conventional con- the dam (excluding corbels or parapets). In
struction equipment and compacted by roll- general, the term thickness is used for gravity
ing, usually with vibratory rollers. and arch dams, and width is used for other
dams.
Rubble dam – A stone masonry dam in
which the stones are not shaped or coursed. Uplift – The hydrostatic force of water ex-
erted on or underneath a structure, tending
Saddle dam (or dike) – A subsidiary dam of to cause a displacement of the structure.
any type constructed across a saddle or low
point on the perimeter of a reservoir. Weir, measuring – A device for measuring
the rate of flow of water. It consists of a rec-
Scour – The loss of material occurring at an tangular, trapezoidal, triangular, or other
erosional surface, where a strong flow is shaped notch cut into the top of a vertical,
found, such as a crack in a dam or the thin plate over which water flows. The rate
dam/foundation contact. Continued flow of flow is calculated from the measured
height of water above the weir crest


Team Involved in Preparing

Guidelines for Instrumentation of Large Dams
Shri N K Mathur, Chief Engineer, CDSO, CWC

Shri Pramod Narayan, Director, DSR, CWC
Shri D Srinagesh, Scientist, CSIR-NGRI, Hyderabad
Prof. M L Sharma, IIT Roorkee
Dr. P R Baidya, Scientist, National Centre for Seismology, Delhi
Shri S L Gupta, Scientist E, CSMRS, Delhi
Dr. K R Dhawan, Scientist D, CWPRS, Delhi
Shri Vivek Tripathy, Director, CMDD, E&NE, Dte., CWC
Shri Rajesh Kumar, Director, RD Dte., CWC
Shri O P Gupta, Director, FE&SA, Dte., CWC
Shri Yoki Vijay, Director, Instrumentation Dte., CWC
Shri Manoj Kumar, Dy.Director, DSR Dte., CWC
Shri Mayank Singh Chetan, Dy.Director, DSR Dte., CWC
Shri B K Patra, Astt. Director, DSR Dte., CWC
Dr. David Froehlich, Team Leader, EGIS
Dr. A.K Dhawan, National Dam Instrumentation Specialist, EGIS


Vision
To remain as a premier organization with best technical and managerial ex-

pertise for providing advisory services on matters relating to dam safety.
Mission
To provide expert services to State Dam Safety Organizations, dam owners,

dam operating agencies and others concerned for ensuring safe functioning
of dams with a view to protect human life, property and the environment.
Values
Integrity: Act with integrity and honesty in all our actions and practices.
Commitment: Ensure good working conditions for employees and encourage

professional excellence.
Transparency: Ensure clear, accurate and complete information in communi-

cations with stakeholders and take all decisions openly based on reliable in-
formation.
Quality of service: Provide state-of-the-art technical and managerial services

within agreed time frame.
Striving towards excellence: Promote continual improvement as an integral

part of our working and strive towards excellence in all our endeavours.
Quality Policy
We provide technical and managerial assistance to dam owners and State Dam
Safety Organizations for proper surveillance, inspection, operation and mainte-
nance of all dams and appurtenant works in India to ensure safe functioning of
dams and protecting human life, property and the environment.
We develop and nurture competent manpower and equip ourselves with state
of the art technical infrastructure to provide expert services to all stakehold-
ers.
We continually improve our systems, processes and services to ensure satisfac-

tion of our customers.
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Guidelines for Instrumentation of Large Dams

Technical Report · November 2017

Dam Break Analysis of DRIP Dams View project

Rock Riprap View project

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Guidelines for Instrumentation

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Central Water Commission

Dam Safety Rehabilitation Directorate

Guidelines for Instrumentation of

Dam Safety Rehabilitation Directorate

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Measurement Using Calibrated Containers ............................................................. 12

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ADAS Automatic Data Acquisition

ADCP Automatic Data Collection Platform

ARG Automatic Rain Gauge

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

AWLR Automatic Water Level Recording

AWS Automatic Weather Station

AWWA American Water Works Association

BIS Bureau of Indian Standards

CDSO Central Dam Safety Organization

CWC Central Water Commission

DDMS Dam Deformation Monitoring System

DRIP Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project

DTM Digital Terrain Model

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

FMIS Flood Management Information System

GNSS Global Navigational Satellite System

GPS Global Positioning System

GPS Global Positioning System

ICOLD International Commission on Large Dams

IMD India Metrological Department

LIDAR Light Detection and Ranging

PGA Peak Ground Acceleration

PGD Peak Ground Displacement

PGV Peak Ground Velocity

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RCC Roller Compacted Concrete

RTD Resistance Temperature Detector

SDSO State Dam Safety Organization

SMA Strong Motion Accelerograph

USACE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

USBR U.S. Bureau of Reclamation

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

WMO World Meteorological Organization

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Chapter 1. OVERVIEW OF DAM INSTRUMENTATION