Module in Principles of Teaching I..

UNIT 1 THE ELEMENTS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
“Every child is a potential genius”

“Teachers open the door. You enter by yourself.” (Chinese proverb)
“To heredity, the child owes his possibilities. However, to environment, he owes the
realization of these possibilities”
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you are expected to:
1. Explain and discuss teaching and learning concepts as presented by

different authorities;
2. Discuss the nature of the learner and concepts about the powers/faculties
as: a.) cognitive faculties b.) appetitive faculties;
3. Understand Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory, Kolb's

Learning Style and how these affect teaching – learning?
4. Identify and understand attributes of a professional teacher.
5. Compose and interpret song/verses that describe(s) the commitment of a

professional teacher.
6. Share research works and integrate social responsiveness and concerns in

the physical and psychological environment.
Let’s Study
Introduction
“Teaching is the noblest of all profession” For behind every great individual who
had shape the destiny of mankind is a teacher. Never do we find successful men
who have not undergone tutelage of some kind. Plato, the great philosopher, had
Socrates as his teacher; Alexander the Great had Aristotle as his mentor; and Dr.
Rizal was first taught by his mother. Thus, upon every successful leader is left the
stamping mark of a teacher.
Our Lord Jesus Christ chose none of any of the professions but to become a
teacher. His intention was clear and simple: genuine service to humanity and the
only profession aimed at the realization of this ever-endearing goal is nothing but
teaching .His being a teacher; therefore, could be the living testimony that the nobility
of the teaching professions remains unequalled by other vocations and callings. It
goes saying that only the noble and the truthful in spirit can dare tread this profession.
Teaching and Learning Concepts

1 Module in Principles of Teaching I
Prepared and Compiled by: Dr. Nemia C. Galang
Ronal Hyman (1970) underscored the point that a teacher must know what
teaching is because his concept of teaching guides his behavior. His own
interpretation of what teaching is become essential to his performance as a teacher.
Various definitions of teaching obtained from certain authorities and experts

may be categorized into ten major headings. Namely:
1. Teaching as a preactive or the “giving off” process. In this process the teacher
initiates, directs, and leads his own class towards the realization of certain goals. To
substantiate this point, the following definitions of teaching are given.
• Teaching intends to induce learning. It does not just happen or a matter of luck
and mere occurrence; it is a deliberate activity (Hopman,1970)
• Teaching is the process through which man endeavors to pass along to his
children his hard-won wisdom and his aspiration for a better world (Comptom’s
Encyclopedia Vol.8, Copyright,1983)
• Teaching is a form of pouring-in process of knowledge (Pacita

Fernandez,1985)
• Teaching is an art of leading the children and youth to live normally upright and
successful lives (Garner Murphy,1974)
• Teaching correlates with buying, in which the teacher should be best in his
sales talk to attract attention from his buyer- the student, and to impress in the
mind of his buyer the importance of his wares- education (John
Brubacher,1970)
• “Teaching is the process of stimulating, directing, guiding, and encouraging

learning activity.”(F.V Rivera)
• “Teaching is the “act” of providing activities that facilitate learning.” (Brown &
Thornton 1971)
• Watkins and Mortimore (1999) define teaching as “any conscious activity by

one person to enhance learning in another”. It means that teaching should focus
on transmitting knowledge or information to the students.
• Cohen defines teaching as “the deliberate activity of increasing the probability

that students will develop robust skill in and knowledge of the subject under
study and coordinated with larger educational aims”. Its main concern is for
subject matter learning as well as for students’ personal development and
preparation in a diverse democratic society.

• “Teaching is focusing on developing students’ conceptual understanding”.
(Akerlind 2007) It cultivates to understand its relationship to learning which
means it should be the cause for producing learning.
2. Teaching as involving more of the learner than of the teacher. Embodied in this
definition is the changing function of teaching from being teacher-monopolized into
student-directed- an idea which runs counter to the traditional view teaching.
• Globe and porter (1977) specifically describe this change as a transformation

of teaching from monopolist into mediator function.
• McLuhan (1969) has this to say in this regard: “Gone are the days when the
students were just on the receiving end.”
3. Teaching as a system of actions and interactions between the teacher and his
students. The teacher and his student interact with one another.
George Kneller (1971) described these interactions as:
• “Teaching is something that takes place only when learning does. No matter
what the teacher is doing in her classes if her students are not learning
something significant she is not teaching. When the students fail, the teacher
failed more! (Anonymous)
• “Teaching is both familiar and intriguing.”(Morrison & D. McIntyre, 1972)
• Teaching may be considered a system of actions varied in form and content but
directed toward learning. It is the performance of these actions and interactions
of the teacher with his student that learning takes place.
• Such logical operations involve three variables: (A) the teacher’s behavior,
which is the independent variable: (B) the pupil’s behavior, which is the
dependent variable; and (C) various postulated entities, such as memories,
beliefs, needs and interference, which are intervening variables.
• These three variables are related in any ways. When a teacher teaches, he
expects his student to react in a certain pattern. Their overt behavior usually
made his basis for inferring or determining their interest, need, motives and the
like. There in turn lead to various postulated states in the teacher, which then
give rise to actions.
.
4. Teaching as basically an adjustive act on the part of the teacher to promote

student’s learning. Such adjustive act requires the teacher to make the most out of
a given situation. At times he may be assuming a dominant role; at some other times
he may be having a very minimal interference at all as the situation may warrant.

Fred Stocking (1963) describes this adjustive act of the teacher, allowing him to
assume a range of changing functions, as:
• A good teacher can tell his students a lot of questions; but the best teacher can
play dumb while helping his students think out the answer for themselves.
• A good teacher is an eager and enthusiastic talker; but the best teacher knows
how to be quiet and patient while his students struggle to formulate their own
thoughts in their own words.
• A good teacher is humble: he naturally feels that the accumulated wisdom of

his subject is far more important than himself. But the best teacher is even
humbler for he respects the feeling of young people that they are naturally far
more important than a silly old subject.
• A good teacher knows that his students ought to be responsible, honest, and
good citizens; but the best teacher knows that responsibility, honesty, and good
citizenship cannot be taught in a course because such qualities are
communicated through daily actions, not daily lectures.
• The students of good teacher pass their courses, graduate, and settle down
with good jobs; but the best teacher’s students go on receiving awards
everyday of their lives, for they have discovered that the life of the inquiring
mind is exciting.
• Goldenberg (2006) generally defines teaching as a “clear goals, appropriate

routines, activities, and collaboration by teachers”.
5. Teaching as providing the learner with basic tools of learning so in the

process he becomes a self-sufficient and a self–reliant individual. One
uniqueness of the teaching profession lies on the nature of activities given to the
students. These activities are unmistakably inherent in the profession and not in any
other fields of human endeavor.
Dela Cruz Acuna (1986) specifically pointed out such activities as contained in their
definition which is found below:
• Teaching is to develop further skills of students through thinking speaking and

writing tasks through the ideas and concepts in reading and listening selections.
• According to Stanford Center for Research and Development in Teaching

(1970),” teaching is a highly complex information-processing activity that might
be describe as an orchestration of skills”. Such skills may consist of both
intellectual and manipulative which are needed to be developed among
students.
6. Teaching as inherently a humane activity.

Highet (1954) expressed that teaching involves emotions, which cannot be
systematically appraised and employed, and human values, which are quite
outside the grasp of science. He further explained this as: “Teaching is not like
inducing a chemical reaction: it is much more like painting a picture or making a
piece of music, or in a lower level, like planting a garden or writing a friendly letter
.”
• “Teaching is the highest of the ministerial or cooperative arts, is devoted to the

good of others. It is supreme act of generosity.”(Adler)
• “Teaching is a noble calling or vocation and fostered a professional esprit de

corps” (Powell 1980) It means that there should be a distinctive passion in
teaching. It is doing more than a call of duty without expecting in return in
teaching the learners.
• “How a teacher teaches and how a teacher acts are more important than what
she teaches.”( Patterson,1973)
• “The great teacher is the one who adds creativity and inspirations to that basic
repertoire.”(Silberman, 1966)
• John Hough (1970) defined teaching “as a unique, professional, rational and
humane activity in which one creatively and imaginatively uses himself and his
knowledge to promote the learning and welfare of others.” Alcorn, Rinder and
Schunert (1970) disregarded the notion that teachers are born, not made.
• Likewise, Arthur Combs (1982) identified the following six areas that a teacher
must fully understand so he can effect a truly humane instruction: (1) the nature
and possibilities of the human organism (what each learner is like and what
can be expected of him); (2) the psychology of the learner (the how and why of
his behavior); (3) beliefs about learning (how young people grow and change);
(4) goals and purposes (what they and society are striving for);(5) appropriate
methods (how people select the techniques they use to achieve their purposes);
and (6) about self (what teachers believe about themselves and how this
determine their behavior).
• Scheffler (1973) viewed teaching as an activity aimed at the achievement of

learning and practiced in such manner as to respect the student’s intellectual
integrity and capacity for independent judgment.
As a humane activity, teaching is extending a professional help or assistance

to students. The key word, therefore, is help or assistance. Precisely, it is this
context that the following definitions are based: (1) It is a process by which a
person helps other person learn. It helps to gain the knowledge and attitudes
they need to be responsible citizens, to earn a living and to lead a useful,
rewarding life (The World Book Encyclopedia, Vol.19, 1975); (2) It means
helping students to organize and classify their ideas, so that they may come to
know what to believe, what they care about , and how they feel toward various
matters (Willard Abraham, 1978); and (3) It is a means to help students learn,
to impart knowledge, and to set a situation where in the student can and will
learn effectively (Encyclopedia Britanicca, Vol. 18 15th Edition).
7. Teaching as structuring the learning environment for students. The word

structuring means building, constructing, or organizing. It is the process of putting
together certain elements systematically in order to produce more desirable results.
• Pacita Fernandez (1985) pinpointed such elements in her definition of teaching

which is “it is a style of lecturing with a well-defined purpose, organized subject
matter, content suited, and proportional to the time limit given.”
This perspective on teaching presupposes that teaching cannot take place in a

vacuum. The learning environment must be adequately prepared and set up so
learning can presumably occur.
8. Teaching as an inquiry process. Socrates is noted for his question-and-answer

method, better known as Socratic method. This ancient philosopher recognized the
importance of developing the learner’s intellect by subjecting him to a series of
thought-provoking and challenging questions. In the process, he becomes
intellectually-enlightened and fit and eventually he can assume his rightful place in the
community of men.
• In this regard, teaching is defined by World Book Encyclopedia (1957) as “a

process of questioning some of the pupil’s ideas so that he can learn to think
for himself and answer challenges to his way of thinking.
9. Teaching is the process of concretizing and actualizing the fundamental

principles of other significantly related disciplines.
• Nerbovig and Klausmeier (1974) elaborated on this statement as: “Teaching

draws its basic principles and procedures from many sources, but chiefly from
psychology, sociology, philosophy, and of course, pedagogy and educational
history.”
• William Burton (1969) singled out psychology as the most significant discipline
from which the essence of teaching is derived. Thus, he defined teaching as
“stimulation, guidance’ direction, or encouragement of learning.”
• Gage (1963) also suggested that: “Teachers need to know how children learn,
and how they depend on motivation, readiness, and reinforcement. But they
similarly need to know how to teach – how to motivate pupils, assess their
readiness, act on the assessment, present the subject, maintain discipline, and
shape a cognitive structure.”
• “Teaching is both an art and a science.” (Silberman,1966)
10. Teaching as a complex process. When one decides to be a teacher, he should

expect a world of myriad of activities. Thus, he is a mentor, a tutor, a facilitator, a
moderator, a guidance counselor, a confidante, a friend, a mediator, an adviser, a
curriculum maker, a consultant, a leader, a community worker, an evaluator, and hosts

of other functions. That is why if he has a vivacious, bright, and outward outlook in life,
teaching easily befits him. There will be no dull and boring moments as he finds himself
in the thick of the activity.
These varied activities inherent in teaching are identified in these definitions:
• The process of teaching includes selection and development of instructional

units, planning individual lessons, organizing materials for instructional
purposes; designing the methods to be used, classroom management,
evaluation of pupil achievements, and reporting of pupils’ grades (B.J. Chandler
and Daniel Powell, 1970);
• Teaching is an activity with four phases: (1) a curriculum-planning phase;

(2) an instructing phase; (3) a measuring phase; (4) and an evaluating
phase.
• Teaching includes shaping behavior, shaping knowledge and belief,

indoctrinating, conditioning, and instructing. Such varied activities are not only
related with one another but overlapping as well (Thomas Green, 1971).
Chapter 1 --THE LEARNER

The principal elements that make teaching and learning possible and attain-
able are the teacher, the learner, and a conducive learning environment. The teacher
serves as the prime mover of the educational wheel. The teacher is the
critical “thread that ties” the learner to the lifelong search for knowledge
(Salandanan, 2012). The learner is the key participant in the learning process. He is
the second influential factor in the learning arena. Teaching happens because the
learners are there. The favorable learning environment provides essential features
and ingredients that could make a headway in guiding the teaching-learning
processes and methodologies needed for a smooth linkage among the three.
Nature of the Learner
• The learner is an embodied spirit, a union of a sentient body and a rational

soul.
• The body experiences sensations and feels pleasure and pain.
• The soul is the principle of spiritual acts, the source of intellectual abstraction,
self-reflection, and free rational volition.
• Body and soul exist in mutual dependence. (Kelly, 1965).
The Fundamental Equipment of the Learner
1. Cognitive Faculties

• Five Senses. The learner is able to see, hear, feel, taste and smell whatever
is to be learned. For effective and efficient learning the senses should function
normally. It is said that “there is nothing in the mind which was not first in some
manner in the senses.”
• Instincts. The word instinct comes from the Latin word instinctus which
means impulse. This means that the learner has a natural or inherent
capacity or tendency to respond to environmental stimuli such as danger
signs for survival or self-preservation. For the learner to learn and develop
into a human person, the teacher must teach the learner to put these instincts
under control.
• Imagination. It is the ability to form a mental image of something that is not

perceived through the senses. It is the ability of the mind to build mental
scenes, objects or events that do not exist, are not present or have happened
in the past. Learner imaginative power is challenged in role playing,
simulation, short story writing, drawing, dress designing, visualizing a
situation and in inventing creative ways of reporting or presenting. The
teaching-learning process will be bare and dry without the use of imagination.
The teacher must, therefore, help the learner develop his/her imagination by
encouraging them to “think outside the box”.
• Memory. This is retaining and recalling past experience. Memory work is basic
in learning but, of course, we do not encourage memorizing without
understanding. The learner must, therefore, be helped to commit things to
memory by:
✓ Repeating the information mentally again and again.
✓ Associating the information you want him/her to remember with
something already known.
• Intellect. By the intellect the learner can engage in cognitive processes such
as forming ideas or concepts, reasoning out and making judgment. The
intellect enables the learner to reason out and judge. The use of syllogism in
logic illustrates the 3 cognitive processes of concept formation, reasoning and
judging. Reasoning includes analyzing. Judging is evaluating.
2. Appetitive Faculties
• Feelings and Emotions. Emotion is the on/off switch for learning. Positive
feelings and emotions make the teaching-learning process an exciting and a
joyful, fruitful affair. Negative feelings and emotions make the same process
a burden. Negative emotions adversely affect the cognitive processes of
recalling, imagining, analyzing, reasoning, judging, evaluating and
synthesizing. Faced with frustration, despair, worry, sadness, or shame,

learners lose access to their own memory, reasoning and the capacity to
make connections. Anxiety is the enemy of memory.
• Will. The learner’s will serve as guiding force and the main integrating force
in his character. It is the will that makes the learner free to choose or not to
choose to do the good as presented by his intellect. It is this free will that will
not allow the learner to be totally determined by his environment. This means
that the degree to which the learner is influenced by his environment depends
ultimately the strength of his will. The learner whose will is weak will easily
succumbs to the bad influences even if the intellect tells him not. But the
learner with a strong will shall resist the temptation to be influenced by bad
peer group. Therefore, the focus of values education should be the
strengthening of the will.
Factors that Contribute to the Differences among Learners
1. Ability. The learners’ native ability dictates the prospects of success in any
purposeful activity. Hence, the learners’ proficiency in memorization,
imagination, concept formation, reasoning, judging and other cognitive
skills are contingent on their endowed potential to learn. Ability determines
the learners’ capacity to understand and assimilate information for their
own use and application. Learners may be classified into fast, average and
slow. As to mental ability, students can be categorized into superior, above
average, average and below average.
2. Aptitude. This refers to the learners’ innate talent or gift. It indicates a natural
capacity to learn certain skills. Some may exhibit special inclination for the
arts such as painting and designing crafts, propensity for music and flair for
dramatics.
3. Interests. These are not inherited. They are developed. The classroom set-
up could offer centers of interest to give learners an opportunity to develop
interests in many things. Learner’s interest in learning makes learning no
longer a task but a pleasure. The learners’ cognitive faculties of sensorial
experience, memory, imagination, concept formation, reasoning and
judgment are at their height when learner’s interests are also at its peak.
4. Faculty and cultural background. Different socioeconomic background of

students manifests a wide range of behavior due to differences in
upbringing practices. Beneficial relationships of learners with their mentors
and with one another affirm the kind of bond they enjoy at home.
Cooperation, coupled with a willingness to share, is instilled and is carried
over to all associations they join. The tendency to readily affiliate with a
group is most welcomed in a classroom setting where teamwork achieves
desired lesson objectives.

5. Attitudes and values. A positive attitude will enhance the maximum and
optimum use of cognitive and affective faculties for learning. Learners with
a positive attitude will demonstrate the value of persistence in their studies.
Persistent students sustain interest in a learning activity not mindful of the
extra time and effort being spent. A negative attitude towards learning robs
them many opportunities for learning.
GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORY
The Multiple Intelligence Theory is a psychological theory about the human

mind. It is against the notion that intelligence is a single trait that we are born with and
can’t change. It states that there are at least eight different human intelligences that
all human beings possess. The difference between individuals will be in the strength
of these intelligences. However, it’s important to note that the intelligences identified
by Gardner are not exhaustive in determining an individual’s learning characteristics.
These different modalities should be put into consideration when designing an

educational system. The system should provide learners with different ways of
understanding concepts. This is because when presented with the same learning
materials, learners don’t all learn in the same way.
Gardner defines intelligence as "bio-psychological potential to process

information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create
products that are of value in a culture." According to Gardner, there are more ways to
do this than just through logical and linguistic intelligence. Gardner believes that the
purpose of schooling "should be to develop intelligences and to help people reach
vocational and avocational goals that are appropriate to their particular spectrum of
intelligences. People who are helped to do so, [he] believe[s], feel more engaged and
competent and therefore more inclined to serve society in a constructive way."
Gardner's theory argues that students will be better served by a broader vision
of education, wherein teachers use different methodologies, exercises and activities
to reach all students, not just those who excel at linguistic and logical intelligence. It
challenges educators to find "ways that will work for this student learning this topic".
Gardner summarizes his approach with three recommendations for educators:

individualize the teaching style (to suit the most effective method for each student),
pluralize the teaching (teach important materials in multiple ways), and avoid the term
"styles" as being confusing.
GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Potential
Intelligences Strengths Characteristics
Career Choices

Enjoys reading and writing,
Good at putting puzzles together
Visual-Spatial Good at interpreting pictures, Architect
Intelligence Visual and spatial Artist
graphs, and charts,
judgment
Enjoys drawing, painting, and Engineer
(Picture Smart) the visual arts,
Recognizes patterns easily
Good at remembering written
and spoken information,
Enjoys reading and writing,
Linguistic- Writer/journalist
Good at debating or giving
Verbal Lawyer
Words, language, persuasive speeches,
Intelligence Teacher
and writing Able to explain things well,
Often uses humor when telling
(Word Smart) stories
Excellent problem-solving skills, Scientist

Enjoys thinking about abstract Mathematician
Logical- Analyzing ideas, Likes conducting Computer
Mathematical problems and scientific experiments, programmer
Intelligence mathematical Good at solving complex Engineer
operations computations Accountant
(Number Smart)
Good at dancing and sports Dancer

Bodily- Enjoys creating things with his Builder
Physical
Kinesthetic or her hands Sculptor
movement, motor
Intelligence Excellent physical coordination Actor
control
Tends to remember by doing,
(Body Smart) rather than hearing or seeing
Enjoys singing and playing
musical instruments
Musician
Recognizes musical patterns
Composer
and tones easily
Musical Singer
Rhythm and Good at remembering songs
Intelligence Music teacher
music and melodies
Conductor
(Music Smart) Rich understanding of musical
structure, rhythm, and notes
Good at communicating verbally

Psychologist
Skilled at nonverbal
Understanding Philosopher
communication,Sees situations
Interpersonal and relating to Counselor
from different perspectives,
Intelligence other people Salesperson
Creates positive relationships
Politician
(People Smart) with others
Good at resolving conflict in
groups
Good at analyzing his or her Philosopher
Intrapersonal Introspection and strengths and weaknesses Writer
Intelligence self-reflection Enjoys analyzing theories and Theorist
ideas Scientist

Excellent self-awareness
(Self-Smart) Clearly understands the basis
for his or her own motivations
and feelings
Interested in subjects such as

botany, biology, and zoology
Good at categorizing and Biologist
Finding patterns
cataloging information easily Conservationist
Naturalistic and relationships
May enjoy camping, gardening, Gardener
Intelligence to nature
hiking, and exploring the Farmer
(Nature Smart) outdoors
Doesn’t enjoy learning
unfamiliar topics that have no
connection to nature
Learning by seeing the “big
picture”, connects real world
understandings and application
to new learning
Existential The sensitivity and capacity to

Intelligence tackle deep questions about
human existence, such as the
meaning of life, why we die and
how we got here.
What Multiple Intelligences Theory Can Teach Us
While additional research is still needed to determine the best measures for
assessing and supporting a range of intelligences in schools, the theory has provided
opportunities to broaden definitions of intelligence. As an educator, it is useful to think
about the different ways that information can be presented. However, it is critical to
not classify students as being specific types of learners nor as having an innate or
fixed type of intelligence.
Having an understanding of different teaching approaches from which we all can

learn, as well as a toolbox with a variety of ways to present content to students, is
valuable for increasing the accessibility of learning experiences for all students.
KOLB-LEARNING STYLES
“Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of
experience”.

The Experiential Learning Cycle
Kolb's experiential learning style theory is typically represented by a four-stage
learning cycle in which the learner 'touches all the bases':
Effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a cycle of four

stages: of (1) having a concrete experience followed by (2) observation of and
reflection on that experience which leads to (3) the formation of abstract concepts
(analysis) and generalizations (conclusions) which are then (4) used to test
hypothesis in future situations, resulting in new experiences.
Kolb (1974) views learning as an integrated process with each stage being
mutually supportive of and feeding into the next. It is possible to enter the cycle at
any stage and follow it through its logical sequence.
However, effective learning only occurs when a learner can execute all four
stages of the model. Therefore, no one stage of the cycle is effective as a learning
procedure on its own.
Learning Styles
A typical presentation of Kolb's two continuums is that the east-west axis is

called the Processing Continuum (how we approach a task), and the north-south
axis is called the Perception Continuum (our emotional response, or how we think
or feel about it).

Kolb believed that we cannot perform both variables on a single axis at the
same time (e.g., think and feel). Our learning style is a product of these two choice
decisions.
It's often easier to see the construction of Kolb's learning styles in terms of a
two-by-two matrix. Each learning style represents a combination of two preferred
styles. The matrix also highlights Kolb's terminology for the four learning styles;
diverging, assimilating, and converging, accommodating:
Active Reflective
Experimentation Observation
(Doing) (Watching)
Concrete Accommodating Diverging

Experience (CE/AE) (CE/RO)
(Feeling)
Abstract Converging Assimilating

Conceptualization (AC/AE) (AC/RO)
(Thinking)

Learning Styles Descriptions
Everyone responds to and needs the stimulus of all types of learning styles to
one extent or another - it's a matter of using emphasis that fits best with the given
situation and a person's learning style preferences.
Here are brief descriptions of the four Kolb learning styles:
• Diverging (feeling and watching - CE/RO)

These people are able to look at things from different perspectives. They are
sensitive. They prefer to watch rather than do, tending to gather information and use
imagination to solve problems. They are best at viewing concrete situations from
several different viewpoints.
Kolb called this style 'diverging' because these people perform better in
situations that require ideas-generation, for example, brainstorming. People with a
diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like to gather information.
They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, and tend
to be strong in the arts. People with the diverging style prefer to work in groups, to
listen with an open mind and to receive personal feedback.
• Assimilating (watching and thinking - AC/RO)

The Assimilating learning preference involves a concise, logical approach.
Ideas and concepts are more important than people. These people require good
clear explanation rather than a practical opportunity. They excel at understanding
wide-ranging information and organizing it in a clear, logical format.
People with an assimilating learning style are less focused on people and more
interested in ideas and abstract concepts. People with this style are more attracted
to logically sound theories than approaches based on practical value.
This learning style is important for effectiveness in information and science
careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer readings, lectures,
exploring analytical models, and having time to think things through.
• Converging (doing and thinking - AC/AE)

People with a converging learning style can solve problems and will use their
learning to find solutions to practical issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less
concerned with people and interpersonal aspects.
People with a converging learning style are best at finding practical uses for
ideas and theories. They can solve problems and make decisions by finding
solutions to questions and problems.
People with a converging learning style are more attracted to technical tasks
and problems than social or interpersonal issues. A converging learning style
enables specialist and technology abilities. People with a converging style like to
experiment with new ideas, to simulate, and to work with practical applications.
• Accommodating (doing and feeling - CE/AE)
The Accommodating learning style is 'hands-on,' and relies on intuition rather

than logic. These people use other people's analysis, and prefer to take a practical,

experiential approach. They are attracted to new challenges and experiences, and
to carrying out plans.
They commonly act on 'gut' instinct rather than logical analysis. People with an
accommodating learning style will tend to rely on others for information than carry
out their own analysis. This learning style is prevalent within the general population.
Chapter 2--THE TEACHER
The Professional Teacher
As a professional teacher, we are expected to act according to the mandates

of the Teachers’ Code of Ethics.
According to Article 3, Section 1 of the Code of Ethics for Professional Teacher,

“a teacher is a facilitator of learning and of the development of the youth; he shall,
therefore, render the best service by providing an environment conducive to such
learning and growth.”
“Like all good teacher, you have a touch of an actor. You also have a touch of
a doctor or nurse in you”, said Rev. Father Joseph V. Landy, SJ.
Professional Attributes
A professional teacher perceives himself/herself as someone who:
• Can effect change or learning (Sense of Efficacy)

• An expert in what s/he teaches (Subject Matter Knowledge)
• An expert in how s/he teaches (Pedagogical Knowledge)
A professional teacher possesses the ff. Attributes:
• Control knowledge base of teaching and learning and use of this knowledge
to guide the science and art of his teaching practice.
• Repertoire of best teaching practice and can use these to instruct in

classrooms and to work with adults in the school setting.
• Dispositions and skills to approach all aspects of his/her work in reflective,

collegial, and problem-solving manner.
• View of learning to teach as a lifelong process and dispositions and skills

for working towards improving his/her own teaching schools.
Personal Attributes

Personality is the sum of one’s personal characteristics. It is one’s identity.
1. Passion
A person who should enter the teaching profession they must first have
a love of learning and be willing to share this passion with students. They need
to truly enjoy working with a particular age group of children. Passion does not
die nor diminish. Their passion for teaching make them feel they “will live and
die a teacher”.
2. Humor
A teacher should be expected to have a sense of humor. Teachers’
humor connects them with their students like a magnet. They help in merging
two worlds –youth and maturity. When they laugh together, young and old,
teachers and students, they cease to be conscious of their age difference. They
enjoy as a group, thus promote a spirit of togetherness. A clean joke will always
elicit rapport in a learning environment.
3. Values and Attitudes

As a teacher you must create a good values and right attitude towards your
work and towards your student. Teachers are models of values. Whether
conscious of them or not, values are exhibited implicitly and explicitly. Values
connote standards, code of ethics and strong belief:
 Open-mindedness. Is receptiveness to new ideas. According to Tjosvold

& Poon, it is the way in which people approach the views and knowledge of
others and “incorporate the beliefs that others should be free to express
their views and that the value of others knowledge should be recognized”.
 Fairness and Impartiality. Fairness and impartiality in treating students

eliminate discrimination. Teachers must be unbiased and objective in
judging their work and performance. Objective evaluations are easily
accepted and gratefully acknowledged. Fairness inculcates self-confidence
and trust among students.
 Sincerity and Honesty. Are values exhibited in words and actions.

Teachers interact with students every minute. Their mannerisms, habits and
speech are watched and at times imitated. Therefore teachers must show
their real self, devoid of pretenses and half- truths. Sincerity dictates that
they stick to the truth, to the extent of accepting what they do not know about
the lesson. Sincerity and honesty are taken as openness in dealing with
others.

 Professionalism. Is highly treasured in the teaching profession. Teachers
are adjudged professional if they are knowledgeable, skilled and value-
laden. In addition to competence in teaching, they must have internalized
the edicts of the profession, thus exhibit ethical and moral conduct.
4. Patience
In teaching, patience refers to a teacher’s uncomplaining nature, self-
control and persistence. Patient teachers can forego momentous frustrations
and disappointments. Instead they calmly endure their students’ limitations and
difficulties
5. Enthusiastic
Teachers are full of energy and dynamism. Their passion and love for
children are easily felt. Everyone anticipates an interesting and enjoyable
learning activity. Unfortunately, not all teachers are born with an alert and
zestful disposition. With enthusiastic teachers, students look forward to any
activity they can participate in with them.
Enthusiastic is a gift. It is contagious and can instantly affect children’s

mood. It connects teachers to parents.
6. Commitment.
It is a “solemn promise” to perform the duties and responsibilities
mandated by the laws and code of ethics of the profession.
Teacher’s commitment is a key factor influencing the teaching-learning

process. It is the psychological identification of the individual teacher with the
school and the subject matter or goals, and the intention of the teacher to
maintain organizational membership and become involved in the job well
beyond personal interest.
Chapter 3--THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
• It consists of the physical, as well as the psychological environment, that

surrounds the learner and that influences his/her learning.
• It is the classroom and all the instructional features and the non-threatening
classroom climate needed in planning and implementing all teaching and
learning activities.

Arrangement of the Furniture
The furniture, like the table for demonstrations located in front of the room and
the chairs facing it are neatly arranged with sufficient spaces in- between for ease in
moving around.
Display shelves for safekeeping of projects, collections, and outstanding

outwork are located at the sides. Attached to the wall is a bulletin board and in front
are the white board or blackboard used for discussion and illustrations related to the
lessons.
Physical Condition of the Classroom
• It must be clean and orderly

• One or two frames create a pleasant and inviting aura.
• Natural light and flowing fresh air add to their comfort and ease as they tackle
the learning tasks.
• Free from noise coming from the surroundings, students’ concentration and
interest are easily sustained.
• The doors and windows could be opened and closed with less difficulty and
noise with light fixtures that could easily be found.
Characteristics of Facilitative Learning Environment
1) Encourage people to be active - A psychological classroom environment

which is supportive of learning engages the learners in the learning process.
2) Promotes and facilitates the individual’s discovery of the personal

meaning of idea – Meaning is not imposed by teacher .This is personally
arrived at by the learners considering the uniqueness of their experiences.
3) Emphasizes the uniquely personal and subjective nature of learning –

Every learner is unique.
4) Difference is good and desirable – There is respect for diversity. To be

different does not mean to be deficient.
5) Consistently recognizes people’s right to make mistakes – Learners feel

at ease and learn best when mistakes are welcome because they are
recognized as part and parcel of the learning process.
6) Tolerates ambiguity – This leads to openness to ideas and prevents teacher

and learners alike to be judgmental. In which evaluation is a cooperative
process with emphasis on self-evaluation – This makes evaluation less
threatening. The learner is not alone when he evaluates learning, he is with a
group. His/her progress is seen against his/her targets not against the
performance of his/her classmate.

7) Encourages openness of self rather than concealment of self – People feel
at ease and so aren’t afraid to be transparent.
8) People are encouraged to trust in themselves as well as in external

sources – There is a strong social support and it is not difficult to trust others.
9) People feel they are respected – Everyone is convinced of the inner

worth/dignity of each individual and so it is easy to respect everyone.
There is a sense of belongingness.
10) Permits confrontation – Since learners feel at ease and feel they are
accepted, they are not afraid to confront themselves.
11) A conducive learning environment is necessary in the full development

of the cognitive and appetitive faculties of the learner – His senses,
instincts, imagination, memory, feelings, emotions and will.

MASTERY CHECK:
Unit 1- The Elements of Teaching and Learning
Test I- Filling the blanks: Fill in the blanks with the correct word/s to complete the
statement.
1. “Teaching is the highest of the ministerial or cooperative arts, is devoted to the

good of others. It is a supreme act of generosity
2. Teaching correlates with buying in which the teacher should be best in
his/her sales talk to attract attention from his buyer.
3. Teaching does not just happen or a matter of luck and mere occurrence; it is a
deliberate activity.
4. A good teacher can tell his students a lot of questions; but the best teacher can
play dumb while helping his students think out the answers for themselves.
5. A good teacher is humble; but the best teacher is even humbler for he respects
the feelings of young people.
6. “Teaching is a highly complex information-processing activity that might be
described as an orchestration of skills”.
7. Teaching tends to become more traditional when it gives more emphasis on the
function of the mediator.
8. The teacher’s behavior being the independent variable means she/he is a facilitator.
9. The teacher’s ability to teach develops the thinking abilities of students.
10. The adjustive act in teaching means the teacher assume a range of changing
functions.
11. Teaching is not just a job. It is a mission to carry out.
12. Teaching is a noblest profession.
13. To keep the enthusiasm in teaching and have the inner power, never stop
talking
14-15. The teacher and the learner are the key players in the learning
environment.
16. The learner is the key participant in the learning process.
17-18. He is a union of sentient body and a rational soul .
19. The instincts of a learner is manifested in his natural or inherent capacity to
respond to danger signs for survival or self-preservation.
20. The ability of the mind to build mental scenes, or objects that do not exist
are not present or have happened in the past.
21. By the intellect of the learner he can engage in cognitive processes.
22. Memory work is basic in learning, but teachers do not encourage this
without understanding.
23. The aptitude refers to the learners” innate talent or gift.
24. The learners’ native ability dictates the prospects of success in any
purposefulactivity.
25. Learners with a positive attitude will demonstrate the value of persistence in their
studies.

Test II- Matching Type: The following are some characteristics of multiple
intelligences and learning styles. Match column A with column B. Write the letter of
the correct answer on the space provided.
Column A
A1. Sensitive to activities requiring strength, speed, flexibility and balance.
G2. Speak or write effectively.
F3 .Effective in drawing and sketching.
E4. Work effectively with numbers and reason effectively.
M5. Help people identify and overcome problems.
B6. Good in listening, singing and playing instrument.
D7. Analyze ecological and natural situations and data.
I8. Assessing personal abilities and liabilities.
C9. Responding to other people’s feelings and personalities. l
K10.Uses the scientific method, deductive and inductive reasoning.
H11.Tackle deep questions about human existence.
L12.These people perform better in situations that require ideas generation.
M13.People who are more attracted to technical tasks and problems than
social or interpersonal issues.
J14. These people are attracted to new challenges and experiences andrelies
on intuition rather than logic.
Column B
A. Spatial intelligence H. Existential Intelligence

B. Musical intelligence I. Intrapersonal
C. Interpersonal intelligence J. Accommodating
D. Naturalist intelligence K. Assimilating
E. Logical-mathematical L. Diverging
F. Bodily-kinesthetic M. Converging
G. Verbal-linguistic
Test III- Essay
1. Do you believe that “every child is a potential genius”? Explain

Yes, I believe that every child is a potential genius. Every child is born
with a capacity and intellect. With that capacity, people around him will
mold and shape his/her understanding to a certain thing.
2. “Like all good teachers, you have a touch of the actor. You also have a
touch of the doctor or nurse in YOU” said Rev. Father Joseph V. Landy,
SJ. In what sense is the professional teacher an actor, a doctor and a
nurse?
Teacher is an actor when he/she pretending to be fine and angry
inside the class. A doctor and a nurse, when the students got sick or
not feeling well they are the one who give first aid and they are the one
who take care of their students.
3. What is socio-emotional learning (SEL)? How does this relate to
conducive learning environment?
Social-emotional learning (SEL) help the child to work on things like
coping with feelings and setting goals. It also helps with interpersonal
skills like in collaboration and resolving problems. SEL can help kids
who learn and think differently talk about their challenges and build
self-esteem.

UNIT 2 THE PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
“The ability to learn is the most significant activity of man”
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the unit, the students must have:
1. discussed the implications of principles of learning to teaching.
2. identified and applied the principles in the teaching learning situations.
Let’s Study
Definition of Learning
Learning – is the acquisition of knowledge-base used with fluency to make

sense of the world, solve problems and make decisions.
➢ learning begins with knowledge acquisition
➢ the knowledge learned must be used with ease or fluency because it has
been mastered
➢ knowledge is applied in problem solving, decision making, in making
meaning of this world.
Knowledge that is just acquired without being utilized is referred to as “inert

ideas” (North Whitehead). These are the “ideas that are merely received into the mind
without being utilized, or tested, or thrown into fresh combinations.”
Principles of learning according to Horne and Pine (1990)
1. Learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner and is activated

by the learner. The process of learning is primarily controlled by the learner and
not by the teacher. People learn what they want to learn, they see what they want
to see, and hear what they want to hear. Very little learning takes place without
personal involvement and meaning on the part of the learner. It must be wise to
engage the learners in an activity that is connected to their life experiences.
2. Learning is the discovery of the personal meaning and relevance of ideas.

Students readily internalize and implement concepts and ideas which are
relevant to their needs and problems. It is necessary that the teacher relates
lessons to the needs, interests, and problems of the learners.
3. Learning (behavioral change) is a consequence of experience. For effective
learning giving information is not enough, but having experienced authentic

responsibility and independence. If experience is the best teacher, then teacher
should make use of experiential learning. Experiential learning makes use of
direct as well as vicarious experiences.
4. Learning is a cooperative and collaborative process. Learning takes place

effectively if there is a cooperative learning happening in the classroom and
should be a collaborative effort of all the teachers and support of school
administration.
5. Learning is an evolutionary process. Learning does not take place overnight.

Like the process of evolution, it is gradual. It should be remembered that every
learner has its own paces of learning. Behavioral change requires time and
patience. Things that are worthwhile in life take time.
6. Learning is sometimes a painful process. There is a saying that “no pain, no

gain”. Sometimes learners need to experience inconveniences if it will take for
them to learn. Learning is a difficult task, it is accompanied by sacrifice,
inconvenience and discomfort. But it leads to inner joy.
7. One of the richest resources for learning is the learner himself. The learners
are the best resources of learning we should ask them frequently so they could
express their activity, learning experiences, and brilliant ideas. As a teacher, you
must draw these learners’ ideas, feelings and experiences. You midwife the birth
of ideas.
8. The process of learning is emotional as well as intellectual. Learning is

affected by the total state of the individual. It is not only a cerebral process. It
involves the heart As teachers, let us appeal to our students’ intellect as well as
to their emotions.
9. The process of problem solving and learning are highly unique and
individual. Each person has his own unique styles of learning and problem
solving. It pays to allow students to learn in accordance with their unique learning
styles and multiple intelligences.
Laws of Learning
• The Law of Effect

▪ Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or
satisfying feeling.
▪ Learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.
▪ Learning takes place properly when it results in satisfaction and the
learner derives pleasure out of it
.
• The Law of Exercise

▪ Things most often repeated are best remembered.
▪ Students do not learn complex tasks in a single session.
▪ Law of Use and Disuse:
 Law of Use: the learning is strengthened with repeated trial or
practice.
 Law of Disuse: learning is weakened when trial or practice is
discontinued.
• The Law of Readiness

▪ Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally and
emotionally ready to learn, and they do not learn well if they see no
reason for learning.
• The Law of Primacy

▪ Things learned first create a strong impression.
▪ What is taught must be right the first time.
• The Law of Recency

▪ Things most recently learned are best remembered.
• The Law of Intensity

▪ The more intense/severe the material taught, the more it is likely
retained/learned.
• The Law of Freedom

▪ Things freely learned by himself are best learned.
▪ The greater the freedom enjoyed by the students in the class, the
greater the intellectual and moral advancement enjoyed by them.

MASTERY CHECK:
Unit 2- The Principles of Learning
Test I – Selection Type:
The following are principles of learning. Select your answers from the list
given that best describes the principle. Write letters only on the space
provided.
Principles of Learning List of Answers

( How learning takes place)
1. Learning is an experience which A. The teacher should make use of
occurs inside the learner and is experiential learning
activated by the learner. D
2. Learning is the discovery of the B. Teacher allows students to learn in

personal meaning and relevance of accordance with their unique learning
ideas. H styles and multiple intelligences.
3. Learning (behavioral change) is a C. Learning is accompanied by
consequence of experience. G sacrifice, inconvenience and discomfort.
4. Learning is a cooperative and D. Teacher should ask them frequently
collaborative process. I so they could express their activity,
learning experiences, and brilliant
ideas.
5. Learning is an evolutionary process. E. Learning is affected by the total state
F of the individual. It is not only a cerebral
process. It involves the heart
6. Learning is sometimes a painful F. the teacher relates lessons to the
process. C needs, interests, and problems of the
learners.
7. One of the richest resources for G. learner has its own paces of
learning is the learner himself. A learning. Behavioral change requires
time and patience.
8. The process of learning is emotional H. engages the learners in an activity
as well as intellectual. E that is connected to their life
experiences.
9. The process of problem solving and I. Learning takes place effectively if
learning are highly unique and there is a cooperative learning
individual. B happening in the classroom

UNIT 3 MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION
“Goals are our guiding star”
“There are dull teachers, dull textbooks, dull films, but no dull subjects”
“Different folks, different strokes”
Learning Outcomes:
1. discussed and categorized the guiding principles in determining learning

objectives according to domains.
2. formulated learning objectives for specific subject matters.
3. differentiated between content standards and performance standards based

on K to 12 curriculum.
4. chosen varied strategies, methods and approaches to be used for teaching

conceptual understanding and thinking skills.
5. integrated creativity/resourcefulness on teaching methods, approaches and

devices which are more indirect and exploratory in nature.
6. demonstrated the use of instructional materials in the different learning areas.
7. applied the guiding principles in the assessment of learning.
Let’s Study
Chapter 1--OBJECTIVE-RELATED PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
Guiding Principles in Determining and Formulating Objectives
1. “Begin with the end of mind”.
Begin the lesson with clearly defined lesson objectives. With a clear and
specific lesson objective we will have a sense of direction, we do not lose sight of
what we intend to teach. With specific objective, our lesson becomes more focused.
We do not waste nor kill time for we are sure of what to teach, how to teach, what
materials to use.
2. Share lesson objective with students.
Make your students own the lesson objective. This lesson objective when shared
and possessed by the students will become their personal target and they become

more self- motivated. Thus, in every classroom, it is encouraged that the teachers
should write first the objectives on the board before starting a lesson.
3. Lesson objectives must be in the two or three domains-knowledge

(cognitive) skill, (psychomotor) and values (affective).
Lesson objective must integrate objectives in the cognitive, psychomotor and

affective domains for a wholistic lesson. The lesson maybe dominantly cognitive,
psychomotor or affective. Dominantly cognitive if it is meant primarily for knowledge
acquisition and dominantly psychomotor if it is intended for the acquisition and
honing of skills. Lesson objectives in the affective domain are mainly focused on
attitude and value formation.
4. Work on significant and relevant lesson objectives
Lesson objective must be connected to students’ life experiences. The

level of their self-motivation all the more increases when lesson objective is
relevant to their daily life.
5. Lesson objective must be aligned with the aim of education as embodied

in the Philippine Constitution and other laws and on the vision-mission
statements of the educational institution of which you are part.
It clarifies that syllabi, curriculum, and lesson plan are aligned with vision-
mission of the educational institutions.. This will help our country to attain the
general goals of the Philippines in the field of education.
6. Aim at the development of critical and creative thinking.
It expresses that teachers should not only ask and make an activity that cater
students’ knowledge-based skills but rather on creative, reflective, and open-
ended questions that will develop their higher order thinking skills.
For this reason the whole brain must be used for balanced learning not just
the left for critical thinking but also the right for creative thinking.
7. For accountability of learning, lesson objectives must be SMART.
When lesson objective is SMART it is quite easy to find out at the end of
the lesson if we attained our objective or not. SMART stands for:
S pecific - says exactly what the learner will be able to do.

M easurable - can be observed by the end of the lesson.
A ttainable for the students within scheduled time and specified conditions
R elevant to the needs of the students.
T ime-framed - achievable by the end of the lesson.

TAXONOMY OF OBJECTIVES in the Three Domains
➢ COGNITIVE DOMAIN (Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy)
• Knowledge or Recall
 Knowledge of terminology and conventions, trends and sequences,
classifications and categories, criteria and methodologies, principles,
theories, and structures; (e.g. Identify the capital of the Philippines)
 Remembering of prior learned materials in terms of facts, concepts,

theories and principles. It is the lowest cognitive level.
• Comprehension
 Relate to translation, interpretation, and extrapolation. (e.g. Interpret
a table showing the population density of the world)
 Ability to grasp the meaning of material. It indicates the lowest form

of understanding.
• Application
 Use of abstraction in particular situations; (e.g. Predict the probable
effect of a change in temperature on a chemical.
 The ability to use learned material in new and concrete situation.
• Analysis

 Objectives relate to breaking a whole into parts; (e.g. to deduce facts
from a hypothesis.
 Ability to break down material into component parts so that its

organizational structure may be understood.
• Synthesis
 Putting parts together in a new form such as a unique
communication, a plan of operation, and a set of abstract relations;
(e.g. to produce an original piece of art.
• Evaluation
* Judging in terms of internal evidence or logical consistency and
eternal evidence or consistency with facts developed elsewhere;
(e.g to recognize fallacies in an argument.
 Ability to pass judgment on something based on given criteria.
➢ Anderson’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Domains
➢ AFFECTIVE DOMAIN ( David Krathwohl’s Taxonomy)

The levels of affective behavior are arranged according to level of
internalization. Internalization of a value begins with awareness of the value.
This value awareness leads to a point where the values become internalized
and it becomes part and parcel of a person’s character consequently guiding or
controlling his/her behavior. (Seels & Glasgow, 1990)
• Receiving
 Verbs like: differentiates, accepts, listens, to responds to, asks,

chooses, identifies, locates, points to, sits erect, etc. (e.g. listens
attentively
• Responding
 Acquiescence, willing response, active participation on the part of the
students, feelings of satisfaction; e.g. to contribute to group
discussions by asking questions.
• Valuing
 acceptance, preference, commitment, concerned with the worth or
value of a student to a particular phenomena, object or behavior; e.g.
to argue over an issue involving health care.
• Organization
 conceptualization of values, organization of value system, concerned
with bringing together different values and building a value system;
e.g. to organize a meeting concerning neighborhood’s housing
integration plan.
• Characterization
 Generalized set of values, characterization or philosophy of life.
➢ PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN ( Anita Harlow’s Taxonomy)

It is organized according to the degree of coordination including involuntary
responses as well as learned capabilities. Simple reflexes begin at the lowest level of
the taxonomy, while complex neuromuscular coordination make up the highest levels
(Seels & Glasgow, 1990).
• Reflex Movements
 Relate to reflexes; e.g. to contract a muscle
 Fundamental movements – relate to walking, running, jumping,
pushing, pulling, manipulating.
• Perceptual Abilities
 Objectives relate to kinaesthetic, visual, auditory, tactile, and coordination
abilities; e.g. to distinguish distant and close sounds.
• Physical Abilities
 Relate to endurance, strength, flexibility, agility, reaction-response time,
dexterity; e.g. to do five sit ups.
• Skilled Movements
 Objectives relate to games, sports, dances and arts; e.g. to dance the basic
steps of the waltz.
• Non-Discursive Communication
 Expressive movements through posture, gestures, facial expressions,
creative movements; e.g. to act a part in a play.
How to Write Lesson Objectives

Characteristics of Objectives as cited by Mager (1998)
a.) It describes student performance.

It doesn’t say anything about what the teacher will do or try to accomplish.
b.) An objective is about ends rather than means.

It describes a product of instruction rather than the process of instruction.
c.) An objective describes the condition under which the performance occurs on the
job; i.e., the tools, equipment, environment and circumstances that will influence
the performance.
d.) An objective describes the standard of acceptable performance.

We should focus on the thing that the students can do within their level and
capacity.
In short, an objective will describe: performance, conditions and acceptable

performance.
Benefits for Formulating SMART Objectives:
o Specific: The lesson will be more focus on what the students should
demonstrate after the lesson.
o Measurable: It is easier to formulate a test that is valid to measure the

attainment of the lesson objective.
o Attainable: It will guide the teacher if the objectives were attained.
o Result-oriented and Relevant: This will serve as a guide to the teacher if the
lesson has significance and interest to the students.
o Time-bound and Terminal: The teacher could budget the time wisely, if the
lesson will be finished on specified time.
Standards and Competencies in the K to 12 Curriculum
The K to 12 Program covers Kindergarten and 12 years of basic education (six

years of primary education, four years of Junior High School, and two years of Senior
High School [SHS]) to provide sufficient time for mastery of concepts and skills,
develop lifelong learners, and prepare graduates for tertiary education, middle-level
skills development, employment and entrepreneurship.

The Curriculum Guide of the K to 12 Curriculum contains content and
performance standards and competencies, not objectives. It makes use of
standards-based instruction.
➢ Content Standards – define what students should know and be able to do.
Examples - activities, songs, poems, stories, and illustrations are based on local
culture, history, and reality.
➢ Performance Standards (or Indicators) – describe how well students need to
achieve in order to meet content standards.
➢ Competencies - are most specific versions of the standards. They are specific
tasks performed with mastery. They also refer to the ability to perform activities
within an occupation or function to the standards expected by drawing from
one’s knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
Here is a sample of content and performance standards and competencies for

Health subject lifted from the draft of the Curriculum Guide for K to 12 of the
department of education:
▪ Content Standard: The learner demonstrates understanding of the

importance of good eating habits.
▪ Performance Standard: The learner observes healthy eating habits daily.
▪ Competencies: The Learner …

✓ distinguishes healthful from unhealthful foods.
✓ relates the consequences of eating unhealthful foods.
✓ practices good eating habits that can help one grow healthy.
✓ eats regularly meals without skipping breakfast.
✓ chooses healthful foods.
The content and performance standards are broader statements than the
competencies. The competencies look like objectives. But objectives are even more
specific than competencies.

MASTERY CHECK:
Unit 3- Management of Instruction

Chapter 1- Objective-Related Principles of Teaching
Selection Type:
A. The following are principles in determining and formulating learning

objectives. Select your answers from the list given that best describes the principle.
Write letters only.
c 1. “Begin with the end in mind”.

a 2. Share lesson objective with students.
d 3. Work on significant and relevant lesson objectives.
e 4. Aim at the development of critical and creative thinking.
b 5. Lesson objectives must be in the two or three domains.
B. List of answers:
a. Make your students own the lesson objective.

b. Lesson must be wholistic and complete; must dwell on knowledge and
values or on skills and values or on knowledge, skills and values.
c.There is a sense of directionwith a clear and specific lesson objective.
d.The level of motivation increases when lesson objectives are connected to
the students’ life experiences.
e.The scope of questions must be high-level, divergent or open-ended.
Essay:
1. Compare Bloom’s taxonomy with that of Anderson’s taxonomy of cognitive

domains.
Evaluation is no longer the highest level of the pyramid. Creating is
at the top. Bloom’s taxonomy uses nouns and Anderson’s taxonomy uses
verbs. So, the objectives are meant to describe learners’ thinking
processes rather than behaviors.
2. Discuss the levels of psychomotor domain.

*Reflex Movement- Relate to reflexes
*Perceptual Abilities- Objectives relate to kinaesthetic, visual, auditory,
tactile, and coordinationabilities
*Physical Abilities-Relate to endurance, strength, flexibility, agility, reaction-
response time,dexterity.
*Skilled Movements- Objectives relate to games, sports, dances and arts
*Non-Discursive Communication- Expressive movements through posture,
gestures, facial expressions,creative movements.
3. What are the levels of affective behavior?

Receiving, Responding, Valuing, Organization, Characterization

4. What pedagogical benefits can you derive from formulating SMART
objectives?
*Specific: The lesson will be more focus on what the students should
demonstrate after the lesson.
*Measurable: It is easier to formulate a test that is valid to measure the
attainment of the lesson objective.
*Attainable: It will guide the teacher if the objectives were attained.
*Result-oriented and Relevant: This will serve as a guide to the teacher
if thelesson has significance and interest to the students.
*Time-bound and Terminal: The teacher could budget the time wisely,
if thelesson will be finished on specified time.
5. Formulate at least one good lesson objective from each domain in the
taxonomy of objectives. Prepare a detailed lesson plan.

Chapter 2-- SELECTION AND ORGANIZATION OF CONTENT
“There are dull teachers, dull textbooks, dull films, but no dull subjects.”
Guiding Principles in the Selection and Organization of Content:
1. One guiding principle related to subject matter content is to observe the

following qualities in the selection and organization of content:
• Validity – teaching the content that we ought to teach according to national

standards explicit in the K to 12 Basic Education Curriculum; it also means
teaching the content in order to realize the goals and objectives of the course
as laid down in the basic education curriculum.
• Significance – respond to the needs and interest of the learner, hence

meaningful and significant.
• Balance – Content includes not only facts but also concepts and values, The
use of the three-level approach ensures a balance of cognitive, psychomotor
and affective lesson content.
• Self-sufficiency – Content fully covers the essentials. Learning content is not

“mile-wide-and-inch-deep”. The essentials are sufficiently covered and are
treated in depth. This is a case of “less is more”.
• Interest – Teacher considers the interest of the learners, their developmental

stages and cultural and ethnic background.
• Utility – Will this content be of use to the learners? It is not meant only to be
memorized for test and grade purposes. What is learned has a function even
after examinations are over.
• Feasibility – feasible in the sense that the essential content can be covered
in the amount of time available for instruction.
2. At the base of the structure of cognitive subject matter content is facts. We

can’t do away with facts but be sure to go beyond facts by constructing an
increasingly richer and more sophisticated knowledge base and by working
out a process of conceptual understanding.
Here are a few ways cited by cognitive psychologists (Ormrod), 2000) by

which you can help your students:
a.) Providing opportunities for experimentation – Our so-called experiments in

the science classes are more of this sort-following a cook book recipe where

students are made to follow step-by-step procedure to end up confirming a
law great scientists ahead of us instead of the students coming up their own
procedure and end discovering something new.
b.) Presenting the ideas of others – While it is beneficial for you to encourage
your students to discover principles for themselves, it will not jeopardize your
students if you present the ideas of others who worked hard over the years
to explain phenomena.
c.) Emphasizing conceptual understanding – Many a time, our teaching is

devoted only to memorization of isolated facts for purposes of examinations
and grade. When we teach facts only, the tendency is we are able to cover
more for your students to commit to memory and for you to cover in a test
but our teaching ends up skin-deep or superficial, thus meaningless. If we
emphasize conceptual understanding, the emphasis goes beyond facts. We
integrate and correlate facts, concept and values in a meaningful manner.
3. Subject matter content is an integration of cognitive, skill, and affective

elements.
Subject matter content is an integration of facts, concepts, principles, hypotheses,

theories, and laws, thinking, skills, manipulative skills, values, and attitudes.
The Structure of Subject Matter Content

Subject matter content includes cognitive, skill, and affective components.
➢ COGNITIVE (Ormrod, 2000)

▪ Fact – an idea or action that can be verified. Facts are the basic unit of
cognitive subject matter content. From facts, we go higher to concepts,
principles, hypotheses, theories and laws. It is, therefore, necessary that the
facts that we begin with are updated and accurate.
▪ Concept – a categorization of events, places, people, ideas. Example – The
concept furniture includes objects as chairs, tables, beds, and desks. The
concept swim encompasses different actions like breast stroke, crawl,
butterfly that involve propelling oneself through water.
▪ Principle – the relationship(s) between and among facts and concepts.
These are arrived at when similar research studies yield similar results time
after time. Example – The number of children in the family is related to the
average scores on nationally standardized achievement tests for those
children.
▪ Hypothesis – educated guesses about relationships (principles) Example
– For lower division undergraduate students, study habits is a better
predictor of success in a college course than is a measure of intelligence or
reading comprehension.
▪ Theories – set of facts, concepts and principles that describe possible
underlying unobservable mechanisms that regulate human learning,
development, and behavior.
▪ Laws – firmly established, thoroughly tested principle or theory. Example:
Thorndikes law of effect, law on the conversion of matter and energy, the
law of supply and demand and the law of gravity.
➢ SKILLS
• Manipulative Skills There are courses that are dominantly skill-oriented
like Computer, Home Economics and Technology, Physical Education,
Music and the like. In the biological and physical sciences manipulative skills
such as focusing the microscope, mounting specimens on the slide,
operating simple machines and other scientific gadgets, mixing chemicals
are also taught.
▪ Thinking Skills – These refer to the skills beyond the recall and
comprehension. They are skills concerned with the application of what was
learned, (in problem- solving or in real life) synthesis, evaluation and critical
and creative thinking.
a. Divergent thinking – this includes fluent thinking, original thinking,

flexible thinking, and elaborative thinking:
✓ Fluent thinking – is characterized by the generation of lots of ideas.
Thought flow is rapid. It is thinking of the most possible ideas.
✓ Flexible thinking – is characterized by a variety of thoughts in the
kinds of ideas generated. Different ideas from those usually
presented flow from flexible thinkers.
✓ Original thinking – is thinking that differs from what’s gone before.
Thought production is away from the obvious and is different from the
norm.
✓ Elaborative thinking – embellishes on previous ideas or plans.
(Torres, 1994) It uses prior knowledge to expand and add upon things
and ideas.
b. Convergent thinking – it is narrowing down from many possible

thoughts to end up on a single best thought or an answer to a problem.
c. Problem solving – it is made easier when the problem is well-defined.

"The proper definition of a problem is already half the solution." It is
doubly difficult when the problem is ill-defined. When it is ill-defined, then
the first thing to teach our students is to better define the problem.
Problems can be solved by using an algorithm which means following
specific, step-by-step instructions. And heuristics – informal, intuitive,
speculative strategies that sometimes lead to an effective solutions and
sometimes do not.
d. Metaphoric thinking – This type of thinking uses analogical thinking, a
figure of speech where a word is used in a manner different from its
ordinary designation to suggest or imply a parallelism or similarity.

e. Critical thinking - It involves evaluating information or arguments in
terms of their accuracy and worth. (Beyer, 1985) It takes a variety of
forms – verbal reasoning, argument analysis, hypothesis testing, and
decision making.
a) Verbal reasoning – an example is evaluating the persuasive
techniques found in oral or written language. You employ this
when you evaluate the reliability and the truth of advertisements
that bombard you every day.
b) Argument analysis – You are engaged in this critical thinking
process when you discriminate between reasons that do and do
not support a particular conclusion.
c) Hypothesis testing – It is evaluating the value of data and
research results in terms of the methods used to obtain them and
their potential relevance to particular conclusions.
d) Decision making – we are engaged in critical thinking when we
weigh the pros and cons of each proposed alternative approach.
f. Creative thinking - This type of thinking involves "producing something

that is both original and worthwhile. (Sternberg, 2003) It is original
thinking, one type of divergent thinking. It is the process of bringing
something new into birth. It is seeing new relationships and the use of
imagination and inventiveness. What creative thinking behaviors should
be developed?
a) )Awareness – The ability to notice the attributes of things in the
environment so as to build a knowledgebase that is the beginning
of all other forms of creative thinking.
b) Curiosity – The ability and inclination to wonder about things and
mentally explore the new, novel, unique ideas.
c) Imagination – The ability to speculate about things that are not
necessarily based on reality.
d) Fluency – The ability to produce a large quantity of ideas.
e) Flexibility – The ability to look at things from several different
perspectives or view points.
f) Originality – The ability to produce new, novel, unique ideas.
g) Elaboration – the ability to add on to an idea; to give details; build
groups of related ideas or expand on ideas.
h) Perseverance - The ability to keep trying to find an answer; to see
a task through completion.
➢ AFFECTIVE / ATTITUDES AND VALUES
In the three-level approach to teaching, values are at the apex of the triangle.
It is because it is in the teaching of values that the teaching of facts, skills and
concepts become connected to the life of the students, thus acquiring meaning.
Without the value- level of teaching, we contribute to the development of persons
who have big heads but tiny hearts. We contribute to the formation of "intellectual
giants" but emotional dwarfs. Affective component is concerned with values and
attitudes. When we teach values, we connect facts, skills and concepts to the life
of students.
How can we teach values?

• Deutero-learning : Your student learns by;
- being exposed to the situation,
- acquainting himself with a setting
- following models
- pursuing inspirations
- copying behavior
• Positive reinforcing good behavior.
• Teaching cognitive component of values in the classroom.
MASTERY CHECK:

Chapter 2- Selection and organization of content
Identification: Identify the following principles in the selection and organization of content.
SIGNIFICANCE 1.Learning content should respond to the needs and interests of

the learners
SELF-SUFFICIENCY 2. Learning content is not “mile-wide-and-inch-deep”.
BALANCE 3.Content includes facts, concepts and values.
UTILITY 4. What is learned has a function even after examinations are over.
FEASIBILITY 5. Essential content covers the amount of time
available for instruction.
FACT6.The basic unit of cognitive subject matter content.
CONCEPT 7.The categorization of events, places, people and ideas.
THINKING SKILLS 8. Skills concerned with the application of what was learned,
also called skillsbeyond recall and comprehension.
PROBLEM SOLVING 9. Solving problem using step-by-step instructions.
VALUES 10.They are both taught and caught.
Essay:
1. List down and describe the cognitive structure of subject matter content.
*Fact – an idea or action that can be verified. Facts are the basic unit of
cognitive subject matter content.
*Concept – a categorization of events, places, people, ideas.
*Principle – the relationship(s) between and among facts and concepts.
*Hypothesis – educated guesses about relationships (principles)
*Theories – set of facts, concepts and principles that describe possible
underlying unobservable mechanisms that regulate human learning,
development, and behavior.
*Laws – firmly established, thoroughly tested principle or theory.
2. Differentiate the different skills content of subject matter.

*Manipulation skills refer to the ability to move and position objects within
one hand without the help of the other hand.
*Thinking skills are the mental activities use to process information, make
connections, make decisions, and create new ideas
*Convergent thinking is the process of finding a single best solution to a
problem that you are trying to solve
*Problem-solving skills help you determine why an issue is happening and
how to resolve that issue.
*Metaphorical Thinking can help when considering a problem and its
solution. Thoughts are exposed to related concepts and those are then
compared to each other.
2. Why are fluent, flexible, original and elaborative thinking classified as

divergent thinking?
Fluent, flexible, original, and elaborative thinking are
classified as divergent thinking because it can create a creative
ideas by exploring to find solutions and it can create different ideas

and responses and look things from different point of views.
3. What is the best way in teaching values?

The best way in teaching values is to demonstrate your daily life.
Combine your examples with activities such as volunteering to help your kid
practice values in their own life. Teaching values is an ongoing effort, but as
long as you live the values you encourage, it can be done easily and
impactfully.
Taking it to the Net:
1.Surf the Internet for activities that can develop each of the creative thinking
behaviors.
• Creative Teaching
• Questions Without Answers
• Dipping Deeper Through Art
• Magical Movement
• "Just-Imagine" Games
• Indoor Picnic
• Poetic Pathways
• Arranging for Creativity
Chapter 3 --SELECTION AND USE OF TEACHING STRATEGIES

“Different folks, different strokes”

Guiding Principles in the Selection and Use of Teaching Strategies
1) Learning is an active process. It simply means that we should actively

engaged our students in the learning process and activities if we want them to
learn what we intend to teach. The students should be the center of the learning
activities; it should be more on students’ work and participation rather than
teacher talking in the whole learning process.
2) The more sense that are involved in learning, the more and he better the
learning. “Humans are intensely visual animals. The eyes contain nearly 70
percent of the body’s receptors and send millions of signals along the optic
nerves to the visual processing centers of the brain…we take in more
information visually than through any of the other senses” (Wolfe,2001).
3) Emotion has the power to increase retention and learning. When the child’s
emotion is engaged in the teaching process, there will be more possibilities that
it retains in their minds because it is the fact that cognitive processing is
emotionally charged.
4) Learning is meaningful when it is connected to students’ everyday life. The

meaningfulness and relevance of what we teach is considerably reduced by our
practice of teaching simply for testing.
5) Good teaching goes beyond recall of information. Good thinking concerns

itself with higher-order-thinking skills to develop creative and critical thinking.
Most teachings are confined to recall of information and comprehension. Ideally,
our teaching should reach the levels of application, analyzing, evaluation and
synthesis to hone our students’ thinking skills.
6) An integrated teaching approach is far more effective than teaching

isolated bits of information. Corpuz and Salandanan (2003) claim that an
instructional approach is integrated when it considers the multiple intelligences
(MI) and varied learning styles (LS) of students.
Brain-Based Strategies
1. Involving students in real-life or authentic problem solving – Sometimes

students ask us when and where they need this and that they are learning in
school. This question implies that students hardly see the relevance and the
practical application of what they’re taught in school maybe because sometimes,
if not most of the time, what we give are hypothetical cases that are far removed
from real life. Here is an example of real-life or authentic problem-solving.
Students in a fifth grade class were challenged by their teacher to determine

whether public opinion in their ll at the school, they tabulated their results,
compared to the national results, and discussed the reasons for the differences.
(adapted from Wolfe, 2001)
2. Using projects to increase meaning and motivation – Projects may not

necessarily be based on problems but the example in item number 1 may be
made a project.
Another example of a project is a project-based multi-media like this one:

The class will work together on a presentation of World II memories and
produce an extremely poignant recording of a song from the era and display
collages of photographs and other memorabilia. (Michel Simkins, 2002)
3. Simulations and role plays as meaning makers – Not all curriculum topics
can be addressed through authentic problem solving and projects. At a times
these activities are not feasible, so simulations which are not real events, are
our resort. Examples of simulations are: a sari-sari store to give elementary
students experience in making budget, stay within budget, counting change for
bills.
4. Classroom strategies using visual processing – “A picture is worth ten

thousand words.” This being the case we make it a point to have visual aids.
Visuals are powerful aids in retention as well as in understanding. To help
students organize their thinking, teachers use graphics. Below are examples of
graphics given by Robert J. Marzano et al, (2001) in their book, Classroom
Instruction that Works.
GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS FOR CLASSIFICATIONS
: Categories

: Hierarchical topical organizer
: For Analogy
people as plants
oxygen carbon dioxide
5. Songs, jingles, and raps – Content can be more easily learned when they give
it a tune or make it into rhyme through their personally composed songs, jingles,
and raps.
Adding movement to the music or rhyme provides an extra sensory input

to the brain and probably enhances the learning. Spelling a word is also easier
if you sing it to a familiar tune. The “ABC” song is an example of a piggyback
song, a song in which new words or concepts are set to a familiar melody.
Here’s an example: Teach grade I pupils to end a sentence with a period with
this song sang to the tune of Row, Row, Your Boat.
Stop, stop, stop the words

With a little dot
Use a period at the end
So they’ll know to stop. (Wolfe, 2001)

6. Mnemonic strategies – These mnemonic strategies assist students in recalling
important information. Examples are: We remember the number of days each
month with the help of the rhyme, “30 days has September…” or we count the
peaks and valleys of our knuckles. StalaGmites are found on the ceiling while
stalaGmites are found on the ground.
7. Writing Strategies – Make students write their own word problems and make
them ask their classmates to solve them. Or by the use of incomplete
statements, ask the students to write down that they are learning or what they
are confused about. Examples are: I think calculators…; Factoring is easy if….;
I am hard up in…
8. Active review – Instead of the teacher conducting the review, students are
giving their turn. Review days are planned and organized to give enough time
for the students to prepare for the holding of a review. This technique
strengthens synapses.
9. Hands-on-activities – Concrete experience is one of the best ways to make

long-lasting neural connections. Aristotle said: “What we have to learn to do, we
learn by doing.”
 An integrated approach is also interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary.

 An instructional approach is also integrated when it includes the
acquisition of knowledge, skills as well as values.
10. There are no such thing as best teaching method. The best method is the
one that works, the one that yields results. There are factors to consider in
the choice of the teaching method.
 Instructional objective – when our lesson is focused on the mastery of a

skill like writing a paragraph we will need a strategy different from the which
we employ when we intend to teach an appreciation lesson.
 Nature of the subject matter – when subject matter is quite difficult, it is

necessary that we employ the deductive method. We might end up more
inefficient and ineffective when we proceed inductively.
 Learners – the learners’ level of readiness is the factor we cannot ignore.

That’s why educators talk about assessing the entry knowledge and skills
of our pupils/students to determine their level of readiness.
 Teacher – is another factor to look into in the choice of strategy. Beginning

teachers do not feel very confident in the use of the inductive method.
 School Policies – how do school policies come in the choice of a method?

Educational fieldtrips are hands-on strategy proven for its effectiveness for
all the years. But if school policy does not allow it for one reason or another,
then let us not insist on its use.
MASTERY CHECK:

Chapter 3- selection and use of teaching strategies

I. Selection Type: The following are principles in the selection and use of teaching
strategies. Select your answers from the list given below which describes the principle. Write
letters only.
b 1. Learning is an active process.
e 2. The more senses that are involved in learning, the more and the better the
learning.
d 3. Emotion has the power to increase retention and learning.
a 4. Learning is meaningful when it is connected to students’ everyday life.
c 5. Good teaching goes beyond recall of information.
List of answers:
a. The meaningfulness and relevance of what we teach is considerably reduced
by our practice of teaching simply for testing.
b. Teaching should reach levels of application, analysis, evaluation and synthesis
to hone students’ thinking skills.
c. Give varied learning activities to students for “hands-on-minds-on learning.
d. Those that strike our hearts are more learned and remembered.
e. The use of multi-sensory aids promotes better learning
II- Filling the blanks: Fill in the blanks with the correct word/s to complete the statement.
1. Without rehearsal, information remains in our working memory for only about 30
seconds.
2. Our brains have difficulty comprehending very large numbers because we have
nothing in our experience to hook them to.
3. Several research studies show how well the mind processes and remembers
information .
4. Using projects is a strategy that can increase meaning and motivation.
5. Strategies which are called meaning makers simulations and role plays .
6. Strategies that can assist students in recalling important information as in counting the
peaks and valleys of our knuckles. Mnemonic.
7. Hands-on-activities are concrete experiences which are best in making long-
lastingneural connections.
8. The best method is the one that works, the one that yields results.
9. It is easier to recall information when it is embedded in higher-order-thinking skills.
10. Learning is a process of building learning networks starting from concreteand the
like.
Essay:
1. What is meant by “hands-on-minds-on-hearts-on learning?
“Hands-on-minds-on-hearts-on learning” meaning it encourages the children to

experience and engage in the learning with their hands, analyze with their minds, and
invest with their hearts as they are deeply involved in their learning process.
2. How can a teacher cater to all learners with varied learning styles and multiple
intelligences?
A teacher should cater all learners with different learning styles and multiple
intelligences by providing variety of learning materials, have different strategies and
techniques in teaching, prepare group activities, and reinforce all types of intelligences
in every student.

Chapter 4 -- DIFFERENT APPROACHES AND METHODS
“A thousand teachers, a thousand methods”
-Chinese Proverb
Teaching Approach, Strategy, Method and Technique
➢ Teaching approach – is a set principles, beliefs, or ideas about the nature of

learning which is translated into the classroom. It springs from a teacher’s own
philosophy of education, the role of the teacher and that of the student.
➢ Teaching strategy – is a long term plan of action designed to achieve a

particular goal. Strategy applies to many disparate fields such as military
strategy, economic strategy, teaching strategy and the like.
➢ Teaching method – is a systematic way of doing something. It implies an

orderly logical arrangement of steps. It is more procedural.
➢ Teaching technique – is a well-defined procedure used to accomplish a

specific activity or task. It is a teacher’s particular style or trick used to
accomplish an immediate objective. More than one technique may be available
for accomplishing a specific activity or task.
Techniques are consistent with a given approach, strategy and method.

The relationship among the three is shown below:
Approach Strategy Method Technique
An approach gives rise to a strategy which may use more than one
method teaching. One teaching method may be employed differently by two
different teachers whose teaching style may lead to the use of different
techniques. Technique has something to do with teacher’s personal style of
teaching.
Teaching Approaches
Teacher-centered Learner-centered
Subject matter-centered Learner-centered
Teacher-dominated Interactive
“Banking” approach Constructivist
Disciplinal Integrated
Individualistic Collaborative
Indirect, guided Direct

• Teacher-centered approach - the teacher is perceived to be the only reliable
source of information in contrast to the learner centered approach which is
premised on the belief that the learner is also an important resource.
• Subject matter-centered approach - subject-matter gains:

▪ primacy over that of the learner.
▪ also teacher dominated.

• Constructivist approach – students are expected to construct knowledge and
meaning out of what they are taught by connecting them to prior experience. In
the “banking” approach, teacher deposits knowledge into the “empty” minds of
students for students to commit to memory.
• Integrated approach – the use of this teaching approach makes the teacher
connects what he/she teaches to the other lessons of the same subject
(intradisciplinary) or connects his/her lessons with other subjects thus making
his/her approach interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary.
✓ Direct approach – teacher directly tells or show or demonstrates what is to be

taught while in the guided approach, teacher guides the learner to discover
things for himself/herself.
Teaching approaches cited in education literature:

1) Research-based approach – As the name implies teaching and learning are
anchored on research findings.
2) Whole child approach – The learning process itself takes into account not only
the academic needs of the learners, but also their emotional, creative,
psychological, spiritual and developmental needs. A highly cerebral approach
is far from wholistic, neither that approach which emphasizes only the physical
development of the child.
3) Metacognitive approach – The teaching process brings the learner to the

process of thinking about thinking. The learner reflects on what he learned and
on his/her ways of learning. He reflects on why he/she succeeded one time but
failed the other time.
4) Problem-based approach – As the name implies, the teaching-learning process

is focused on problems. Tim is spent on analyzing and solving problems.
Direct/Expository Approach
1) Direct Instruction /Lecture Method
➢ aimed at helping students acquire procedural knowledge which is knowledge

exercise in the performance of some task. Examples are focusing the
microscope, doing power point presentation, playing basketball, sewing a
pair of pajamas.
➢ Is also used for lessons that are factual and non controversial.
Steps of the Direct Method or Lecture Method:
a) Provide the rationale

b) Demonstrate the skill

c) Provide guided practice until mastery
d) Check for understanding and provide feedback
e) Provide extended practice and transfer
f) Assess learning at the end
2) Demonstration Method
➢ The teacher or an assigned student or group shows how a process is done

while the students become observers.
➢ This approach is employed in presenting lessons that use sophisticated
equipment and technical know-how.
Advantages of demonstration method:
a. It follows a systematic procedure making students learn from well-tried

procedure.
b. Use of expensive equipment and machines will be maximized.
c. Possible wastage of time, effort and resources will be avoided.
d. It will not result to trial and error learning.
e. The findings are reliable and accurate since the procedure has been tried
before.
Indirect/Guided / Exploratory Approach

Indirect instruction method is best used when the learning process is inquiry –
based; the result is discovery and the learning context is a problem.
1). Inquiry Method
➢ Sometimes termed “discovery”, “heuristic”, and “problem solving” is defined
simply as a teaching method which is “modeled after the investigative
processes of scientists.”
➢ The core of inquiry is a spontaneous and a self-directed exploration.

Steps in the Inquiry Method:
1. Define the topic or introduce the question.
2. Guide students to plan where and how to gather data, information. They
may research in the topic/questions by viewing, constructing,reading,
designing an experiment, recording observations and interviewing experts.
3. Students present findings through graph, charts, powerpoint presentation,
models, and writing.
2). Problem Solving Method
➢ Is a teaching strategy that employs the scientific method in searching for

information.
Five basic steps of the scientific method or investigatory process:
a. Sensing and defining the problem
b. Formulating hypothesis
c. Testing the likely hypothesis (by observing, conducting an experiment,
collecting and organizing data through normative surveys)
d. Analysis, interpretation and evaluation of evidence
e. Formulating conclusions
➢ Is used most often in science and mathematics classes.
3). Project Method
➢ Requires the students to present in concrete form the results of information

gathered about a concept, principle or innovation.
➢ Focuses on applying, not imparting, specific knowledge or skills, and on
improving student involvement and motivation in order to foster independent
thinking, self confidence, and social responsibility.
Advantages:
1. It is a teaching method that emphasizes “learning by doing.”

2. Constructing projects develops the students’ manipulative skill.
3. The planned designed of the project tests the student’s originality in
choosing the materials to be used. They become resourceful and
innovative.
4. It can be employed among students who are weak in oral communications.
The finished product can serve as evidence of learning achieved.
5. The completed project adds to one’s feeling of accomplishment and
satisfaction, thus motivating students to continue constructing new projects
in school and at home.
6. It instills the values of initiative, industry and creativity.
7. Working on a project in groups develop the spirit of cooperation and
sharing of ideas.
8. In addition to learning a concept, students become productive and
enterprising.
4). Cooperative Learning
➢ Makes use of a classroom organization where students work in groups to

teams to help each other learn.
➢ This approach evolved strategies and procedures that can help small groups
solve their own problems and acquire information through collective effort.
Characteristics Features

1. It has two important components, namely:
a. cooperative incentive structure – one where two or more individuals are
independent for a reward. They will share if they are successful as a
group.
b. cooperative task structure – a situation in which two or more
individuals are allowed, encouraged or required to work together on
some task, coordinating their efforts to complete the task.
2. Students work in teams to tackle academic tasks.
3. Reward systems are group-oriented rather than individually-oriented.
4. The interactions within the group is controlled by the members themselves.
5. Teams are made up of mixed abilities – high, average and low achievers.
6. Each individual learner is accountable for his/her learning.
7. The group reflects on and evaluates the group process they underwent.
5). Peer Tutoring/Peer Teaching
“The best way to learn something is to teach it.” Make students teach each other
in a “Think, Pair, Share” manner. Peer tutoring is commonly employed when the
teacher requests the older, brighter, and more cooperative member of the class to
tutor (coach, teach, instruct) other classmates.
Kinds of peer tutoring
✓ Instructional tutoring –older students help younger ones on a one-to-one or

one-to- a group basis.
✓ Same age tutoring –works with children who acts as interactive pairs.
✓ Monitorial tutoring- class maybe divided into groups and monitors are assigned
to lead each group.
✓ Structural tutoring- this usually administered by trained tutors.
✓ Semi-structured tutoring- tutor guides tutee through a carefully-planned
learning guide but is free to modify it according to the tutee’s own interests and
skills.
6.) Deductive Method versus the Inductive Method
All teaching methods can be classified into two, namely deductive and
inductive methods. The direct method and the demonstration method of
instruction are deductive. The inquiry method, problem-solving method, and project
method are inductive.
Deductive Method
➢ The teacher tells or shows directly what he/she wants to teach.

➢ Is referred to as direct instruction.
➢ Is teacher dominated. Teacher begins with the abstract rule,
generalization, principle and ends with specific examples and concrete
details.
Inductive Method
➢ Is also referred to as indirect instruction.

➢ The learners are more engaged in the teaching-learning process. With
our facilitating skills, the learners formulate the generalization or rule.
➢ Learning becomes more interesting at the outset because we begin with
the experiences of our students. We begin with what they know.
➢ It helps the development of the learners’ higher-order-thinking skills
(HOTS). To see patterns and analyze the same in order to arrive at
generalizations requires analytical thinking.
Other Approaches
1) Blended Learning
➢ Is learning that is facilitated by the effective combination of different modes
of delivery, models of teaching and styles of learning, and is based or
transparent communication amongst all parties involved with a course.
Heinze, A.; C. Procter (2004).
➢ Is described as “integrative learning”, “hybrid learning”, “multi-method
learning” combines classroom learning, mobile learning and online learning.
2) Reflective Teaching
➢ Students/teachers learn through an analysis and evaluation of past
experiences.
Strategies
a) Self Analysis
➢ A reflective student/teacher is able to keep a record of his/her success or
failure in employing a strategy, problems and issues confronted, and
significance of learning events that occurred.
➢ A student/teacher engages himself/herself in self-analysis when s/he

reflects on why s/he succeeded or failed at some task.

b) Writing Journals
A journal entry includes:
✓ a description of the teaching/learning event
✓ outcomes of the event
✓ value or worthiness of the outcomes
✓ causes of success or failures
c) Keeping a portfolio
✓ A portfolio is a very personal document which includes frank, honest and
on-the-spot account of experiences.
✓ It includes a student’s first hand observations and personal knowledge that
will be needed in analyzing changes in values being developed.
3) Metacognitive Approach
➢ The prefix “meta” means beyond.
➢ Is an approach that goes beyond cognition.
➢ Is an approach that makes our students think about their thinking.
➢ “Students learn more effectively when they are aware on their learning of
how they learn and know how to monitor and reflect”. –Hammond
4) Constructivist Approach
➢ “students come to the classroom with prior understandings and experiences
and to promote student learning, teachers must address and build upon this
prior knowledge.” – Hammond
➢ View learning as an active process that results from self-constructed
meanings.
➢ Is anchored on the belief that every individual constructs an reconstructs
meaning depending on past experiences.
➢ Is to have our students identify what is known in a situation or problem.
Instructional Characteristics
1. Teaching –is not considered as merely transmitting knowledge and

information such as facts, concepts and principles but rather as providing
students with relevant experiences from which they can construct their
own meaning.
2. Constructivism – is anchored on the assumption that “the absorption or

assimilation of knowledge is somewhat personal and therefore no two
learners can build up the same meaning out of one situation.”

3. The teacher’s role -is to facilitate learning by providing opportunities for a
stimulating dialogue so that meanings could evolve and be constructed.
4. The instructional materials – include learning activities and events rather

than fixed documents (laws, principles) that almost always are learned
unquestioned and simply recalled.
5. Lessons – are activity-centered in order for them to experience or gain

personal knowledge through active involvement. Participation with
understanding enables them to “live through” a learning episode.
5) Integrated Approach
➢ Is intradisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary. There are no walls
that clearly separate one subject from the rest:
 Intradisciplinary approach – observed when teachers integrate the

subdisciplines within a subject area. Integrating listening, reading, writing,
speaking and viewing in language arts is a common example.
 Interdisciplinary teaching – is done when teaching science concepts in

teaching reading skills in language and when teaching concepts in Araling
Panlipunan in teaching reading and writing skills in Filipino. This is what
we call content-based instruction (CBI). Interdisciplinary teaching takes
place when in Araling Panlipunan you also teach research skills, critical
thinking skills and all other scientific skills such as hypothesizing, data-
gathering, data-analysis and interpretation, drawing conclusions.
 Transdisciplinary Approach – to integration, teachers organize curriculum

around students’ questions and concerns. Students develop life skills as
they apply interdisciplinary and disciplinary skills in a real-life context. Here
is an example: Problem-based Learning (PBL) – it is the learning that
results from the process of working toward the understanding of the
resolution of a problem. This is also known as project-based learning or
place-based learning.
Appropriate Learning Activities in the Different Phases of the Lesson
Inductory/ opening /initiatory activities
➢ The opening activities are supposed to serve as starters, as unfreezing

activities to make the students feel at ease, to motivate the students to
participate and to set the tone for the day.
➢ Opening activities serve as launching pad for the day’s lesson.

➢ They are preparatory to the real thing.
Some effective opening activities:
• KWL (Know, Want to Know, Learned) – what do your students Know

about the lesson? What do they Want to know?
• Video clip from a news story that relates to content
• Editorial from a current newspaper related to a lesson
• Posing a scientific problem and require students to formulate a
hypothesis or predict what’s going to happen next
• Cartoon or comic strip related to the topic
• Game
• Simulation
• Puzzle, brain teaser
• Mysterious scenario – launch a lesson using a puzzling scenario to pull
students into the content and nudge them into higher levels of thinking
• Song followed by its analysis
• Picture without a caption – after teacher states the objectives of the day’s
lesson, s/he asks students to put a caption to the picture and later to
explain the why and the meaning of their caption.
• Quotable quote
• Anecdote
• Compelling stories from history, literature related to course content
• Current events to introduce curricular topic
• Diagnostic test
• Skit, role playing
• Voting – ask students to vote on an issue by raising hands, then asking
them to explain their stand
• Rank ordering – students are asked to rank objects, qualities, etc.
according to importance
• Values continuum – students are ask to find their location in a Likert scale
of values.
• Devil’s advocate – teacher acts “contravida” in order to make students
think.

• Conflict story – teacher presents a conflict situation then asks the
students for the right thing to do.
• Brainstorming
• Buzz session
• Interactive computer games
• Question and answer
• Anticipation guide – this will give you insight into how students think and
feel about a topic related to your curriculum.
Characteristics of teaching methods that have been proven (ten features of

an effective teaching methodology):
1. Interactive – you make learners interact with you (their teacher), with
their classmates and with learning material.
2. Innovative – your teaching is fresh because you do introduce new
teaching method/s. You don’t overuse one teaching method.
3. Integrative – you connect your lesson to one another, to other disciplines
and to life.
4. Inquiry-based – you ask questions and the learners look for answers.
5. Collaborative – you make learners work together.
6. Constructivist – you make learners construct knowledge and meaning
by connecting lesson with their past experiences.
7. Varied – you don’t stick to just one teaching method. You have ready
repertoire of teaching methods from which to draw any time.
8. Experiential (Hands-on, minds-on, hearts-on) – you engage learners in
varied activities.
9. Metacognitive – you make learners think about their cognitive and

thought processes.
10. Reflective – you make your students reflect on what they have learned
and how they have learned.

MASTERY CHECK:
Chapter 4- Different Approaches and Methods
Answer the following questions:
1. Why is direct instruction often used in lessons that are implemented

through a step-by-step procedure?
Direct instruction often used in lessons that are implemented a
step-by-step procedure because it is very important to prepare the
students for success by pre-teaching key vocabulary words that
are essential to understanding the concept or text you will introduce to
them. When students know these key words in advance, they can
focus more of their energy into learning the concept or understanding
the text.
2. How can the passive observers/students be helped after the

demonstration?
Passive observers/students be helped after the demonstration by

giving the students the opportunity to articulate their ideas, ask
questions, be exposed to different perspectives, make connections,
and learn to “play” and fearlessly interact with new information.
In my opinion, today teaching should not be imposed with a closed

program, but to be the doorway to concerns of students. That is, to
set minimum levels in each subject and each student find a way to
acquire them, with the help of the teacher.
3. Is cooperative learning a matter of “sink or swim together”? Elaborate on

your answer.
Yes, because cooperative associated with student accountability, active
learning, awareness of individual differences, and positive
interdependence. With that cooperative learning, students will do
teamwork in learning and engaging with other students they will learn how
to respect to other’s ideas and opinions, also they will practice social skills,
leadership skills, and critical thinking.
4. Between the deductive and the inductive method,:
-which method is more teacher-directed?

Deductive

-which one engages the learners more in conceptual understanding?
Inductive
-which demands more teacher’s skillful questioning?

Deductive
Chapter 5 -- SELECTION AND USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

“We learn by example and by direct experience because there are limits to
the adequacy of verbal instruction.”
-Malcolm Gladwell
➢ Instructional materials enhance the effectiveness of a teaching strategy.

➢ Instructional material no matter how good cannot replace the good teacher.
Guiding Principles
1. All instructional materials are aids to instruction. They do not replace the
teacher.

2. Choose the instructional material that best suits your instructional objectives.
Instructional objectives serve as basis in the selection of instructional material
and not availability instructional material.
3. If possible, use a variety of tools. The use of variety of tools is a “come-on” in

the teaching-learning process. Using videos, computers, overheads and the
chalkboard not only keeps students’ interest but also responds to the needs of
those who receive information in different ways.
4. Check out your instructional material before class starts to be sure it is

working properly. There is no substitute for preparation. Check your
instructional material before use.
5. For results, abide by the general utilization guide on the use of media given
below:
• Learn how to use the instructional material.
• Prepare introductory remarks, questions or initial comments you may need.
• Provide a conducive environment.
• Explain the objectives of the lesson.
• Stress what is to be watched or listened to carefully.
• There is need to summarize or review the experience.

MASTERY CHECK:
Chapter 5 -- Selection and use of instructional materials
1. What are instructional materials in teaching and learning? Give examples of

instructional materials.
Instructional materials are those materials used by a teacher to simplify
their teaching. They include both visual and audio-visual aids and could either
be concrete or non-concrete. These instructional materials bring life
to learning by stimulating students to learn.
Examples of instructional materials:
-lectures
-digital media
-graphic organizers
-teacher-made resources
-others….
2. Do you believe that the teacher is the best instructional material? Support
your answer.
Yes, I believed that the teacher is the best instructional material
because they are the one who manage the classroom. Without
teachers, syllabi, books or other instructional material used in learning is
useless.

Chapter 6 – ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING
“If the proof of the pudding is in eating, then the proof of learning is results
obtained from assessing.”
Assessment is a sine qua non of teaching. Without assessment the teaching cycle
is not complete.
Guiding Principles in the Assessment of Learning
1. Assessment of learning is an integral part of the teaching-learning

process. We teach with a certain objective to attain. The process is an
integral part of teaching. The formative evaluation must be done frequently to

determine learning that early for us to be able to make adjustments to our
lesson in accordance with information gathered.
2. Assessment tool should match with performance objective. A valid

assessment tool matches with our lesson objective. If our assessment tool is
aligned with our performance objective, we can claim our assessment tool to
be valid. Other that written and performance test as assessment
methodologies, is “product assessment” classified into written and physical.
3. The results of assessment must be fed back to the teachers. If the main
purpose of assessment is to find out how well the learner has attained a
particular learning objective, it goes without saying that the assessment
process serves it purpose only when we return corrected quizzes, tests, seat
works, assignments, and evaluated projects at the soonest time possible.
4. In assessing learning, teachers must consider learners’ learning styles

and multiple intelligences and so must come up with a variety of ways
of assessing learning. Considering multiple intelligences and varied
learning style, assessment of learning must be done in a variety of ways.
These learning styles and multiple intelligences are considered in our
assessment activities if they are integrated in our assessment activities
themselves.
5. To contribute to the building of the culture of success in the school, it

is pedagogically sound that in our assessment techniques we give
some positive feedback along with not so good ones. Comments like
“nicely put”, “well done”, “fine idea” “good point” on students’ papers boost
their ego and add to their level of confidence.
6. Emphasize on self-assessment. If our pupils/students make learning

objectives their own, it is but fitting and proper that in the assessment stage
they do their self-assessment against the standard or criterion of success
established at the beginning of the class in the performance objective.
Danielson asserts: “assessment should not force students to compete
against one another; any competition should be between students and their
own prior performance”. (Danielson, 2002). Self-assessment is also termed
as assessment as learning.
7. If we believe that our task as teachers is to teach all pupils/students,

and that it is possible that all students, even those from limited
backgrounds, will have access to opportunities and therefore can
achieve, then the bell curve mentality must be abandoned. All learners
can achieve. Therefore it is not “normal” that students fail. If we insist on the
mentality we will be made to think that it is normal and is expected if some
fail. If some pupils/students fail, we have a ready excuse. “It is normal
anyway. Some are really expected to fail”. We wish to build the culture of
success in the classroom because success breeds success. Concentrate on
the thought that all can learn.
8. Assessment of learning should never be used as punishment or as a

disciplinary measure. We hear of teachers who give an unscheduled quiz
because the class is noisy or teachers who give a very difficult test in order to
punish students who do not study. When we resort to this sort of practice, we
veer away from the true purpose of assessment, i.e. to validate learning. We
also contribute in a sense to the development of students who frown on any
form of learning assessment for this gets identified with punishment.
9. Results of learning assessment must be communicated regularly and

clearly to parents. Parents are keenly interested in the progress of their
children in school. They like to know how their children are doing in school
and how they can help their children learn. Parents are also our customers
and more than that, our partners in the education of the young.
10. Emphasize on real world application that favors realistic performances

over out-of-context drill items.… “ Such assessments require students to
generate rather than choose a response, and to actively knowledge new
learning and relevant skills.”
11. To ensure learning, do formative assessment. Do not wait until the end of
the chapter or unit to check if your students understood the lesson. While you
are in the process of teaching, check for understanding. If you do discover
that your students failed to understand the lesson, then by all means come
up with an intervention or a remedial measure. This will endure learning.
12. To ensure reliability of assessment results, make use of multiple

sources. Don’t rely on just one source of assessment data. Make use of
multiple sources – written test, performance test, portfolios, and
observations.
Assessment in the Different Phases of Instruction
• Prior to instruction – you may give pre-teaching assessment to determine

where your students are in relation to your lesson. Research found that “teachers
in schools with high achievement rates use pre-assessments to support targeted
teaching of skills important to learn for standardized tests, as well as to group
students for re-teaching.”

• During instruction – we can immediately find out if our pupils/students can follow
the lesson by posing oral questions or by observing them as they perform
classroom activities or exercises. Giving a quiz is the most popular. Formative
evaluation is referred to as assessment for learning in the process of our
teaching.
• After instruction – you would like to find out proof of learning after you spent an
hour or less teaching. You will do formative evaluation. This is also referred to as
assessment of learning. If you gave a pre-test after instruction,then you give a
post-test after instruction.
Appropriate Assessment Tools
The teacher made- test or the paper-and-pencil test in many forms is the most
common tool used to assess learning. Many a time the paper-and-pencil test is not
appropriate as an evaluation tool and yet because it is the tool with which we are
most familiar, it is used. Teachers are beginning to use more authentic tools of
assessment. Performance tests are said to be more authentic than mere paper-
and-pencil tests. The so-called practical test in skill subjects like Physical
Education, laboratory subjects. Computer and the like are examples of
performance tests. If indeed “the proof of the pudding is in the eating”, the most
reliable way to test is by way of hands-on exercise, by way of actual performance.
Another example of an authentic evaluation tool is the portfolio assessment.
MASTERY CHECK:
Chapter 6- Assessment of learning
1. Distinguished between summative and formative evaluation, criterion-

referenced and norm-referenced evaluation.
Formative evaluation is conducted during the development or

improvement of a course while summative evaluation it involves
making judgments about the efficacy of a course.
Norm referenced evaluation may measure the acquisition of
skills and knowledge from multiple sources such as notes, texts and
syllabi while criterion referenced evaluation measure performance on
specific concepts and are often used in a pre-test / post-test.
2. What is meant by performance assessment? Give examples.
Performance assessment is an alternative or authentic assessment. It is

a form of testing that requires the students to perform a task rather than
selecting an answer from a ready-made list of questions.
For example:
The teacher gives a task to students to write a spoken poetry and the
students should perform it inside the classroom. The criteria for the task will
be shown before they write and perform.
3. What are the strengths of portfolio assessment?

A portfolio assessment provides an opportunity for a student to reflect on
their learning, to self assess, and to formulate a deeper understanding to the
concept they learn. Because portfolio offer students tangible evidence to show
their academic achievement.

UNIT 4 “Effective Questioning and Reacting
Techniques”
“Children go to school as question marks and leave school as periods.” Neil Postman
Learning Outcomes:
What Will You Learn?
1. enumerated the types of questions according to purpose and level.
2. demonstrated skillful questioning for interactive classroom discussion.
3. encouraged openness for active participation.

Introduction
A question is taken as a request for information. It is simply an inquiry about

something. It takes the form of a problem at the start of an investigation or query
about a current issue such as time or classroom management in teaching. It is
statement that demands an explanation, a purpose or an argument. A daily lesson is
seldom without even a single question. It is the question, stated in any form that
unlocks thinking. It is integral in the teaching practice.
Types of Questions according to purpose
We ask questions for varied purposes such as:
• For Assessing Cognition
✓ This type of questions is used to determine one’s knowledge in

understanding.
✓ They promote high level thinking.
✓ Divergent questions and open-ended inquiries call for analysis and
evaluation.
• For verification
✓ It determines the exactness or accuracy of the results of an activity or

performance.
• For Creative Thinking
✓ It probes into one’s originality.

✓ The question may ask for pupils’ own ideas or new ways of doing things.
• For Evaluating
✓ It elicits responses that include judgements, value and choice.

✓ It also ask personal opinions about an event, a policy or a person.
• For Productive Thinking
✓ It includes cognitive reasoning.

✓ It analyses facts, recognizes patterns or trends and invokes memory and
recall.
• For Motivating

✓ Before discussing the lesson, a number of questions about the topic can
serve to arouse their interest and focus attention.
✓ It attempts to put students in the right mood.
• For Instructing
✓ The question asks for useful information.

✓ It directs, guides and advise on what and how to do an activity.
Types of Questions according to Level/Answer
• Low level questions – they include memory questions or those that require
simple recall.
• High level questions – these questions call for a respondent’s ability to
analyze, evaluate and solve problems.
• Convergent questions – they are questions that require a single predictable
answer. Examples: 1) defining, 2) stating, 3) interpreting, and 4)
summarizing.
• Divergent questions – they require the respondents to think in “different
directions”, to think of alternative actions or to arrive at own decision. There
are several possible answers.
Questioning Skills
Effective questioning techniques generate class interaction:
1) Varying type of question – ask convergent, divergent and evaluative questions.

 Convergent questions - have only one acceptable correct answer.
 Divergent questions - are open and may have more than one acceptable
answer.
 Evaluative question - requires judgement concerning the subject of
focus.
2) Rephrasing – if you sense a question was not understood, simplify it or ask it
in another way.
3) Sequencing logically – it is asking related questions one from simple to
complex one after another.
4) Require abstract thinking – this means going beyond simple recall questions.
5) Asking open-ended question – this means asking divergent questions to
develop higher-order-thinking skills.
6) Involving as many as possible – distribute your questions to as many students.
Widen participation. Don’t just call on students who raise their hands. By their
facial expression, you can sense who among your students would like to recite.

7) Calling on non-volunteers – don’t just call on those who raise their hands.
8) Allowing for sufficient wait time - wait time refers to the pause needed by the
teacher asking a question. This is the time when she waits for an answer.
A number of things to consider are:

 the level of difficulty of the question
 the type of response required
 the background knowledge of the respondents
 intellectual ability of the respondents.
Providing sufficient wait time can achieve the ff:
a) Motivates slow thinking students to respond

b) Improves the quality of the responses made
c) Decreases the amount of guessing or wrong inferences
d) Increases the number of correct responses
e) Leads the teacher to vary her questions
f) Provides time for the teachers to evaluate the answers given
g) Encourages the students to ask their own questions. Give students
enough time to think about the answers.
9) Assessing Compressions – Ask questions to test comprehension. Now and
then find out if your students are with you.
How to Improve Questioning Technique
Reflect on your own questioning technique and be open to constructive criticism

for purposes of improvements.
1) Know your own style of questioning.

2) Request a colleague to critique your own style as to :
 Kind of questions often asked
 Amount of wait time provide
 The type of responses required
3) Increase your own repertoire of type of questions. Training in employing
divergent, high level and open-ended questions improves your questioning
technique. Fully aware of the instructional objectives set for a particular lesson.

4) Consider the individual abilities and interests of the students. Experiencing
success in giving correct answers promotes a feeling of confidence among
them.
5) Spend time reflecting on the type of questions you ask. Improve on them.
How to Encourage Questions from students
The teacher’s reaction to the students’ inquisitiveness can motivate or de-

motivate students from asking more questions.
1) The teacher’s questioning technique is the key in encouraging students to ask

correct, relevant and high level questions.
2) Attend to their questions. Avoid dismissing irrelevant questions. Assist in
clarifying or refocusing in order to solicit correct responses.
3) Praise the correctly formulated questions. It develops confidence and makes
knowledge search easy and satisfying.
4) Allot an appropriate time slot for open questioning. This will encourage the
slow thinkers to participate freely.
Handling pupil’s Response
Handling response is a crucial. By the way a teacher handles students’

responses, s/he either encourages or discourages them from actively
participating in class interaction.
Some reacting techniques that have been proven to be effective:
1. Providing feedback on the correctness or incorrectness of a response.

2. Giving appropriate praise to high quality responses.
3. Making follow up questions.
4. Redirecting questions
5. Following up a student’s response with related questions.
6. Re-phrasing the seemingly unclear question.
7. Showing non-verbal encouragement.
8. Encouraging learners to ask questions.

MASTERY CHECK:
Unit 4- Effective Questioning and Reacting
Techniques
1. It is said that “children come to school as question marks but leave school
as periods”! What does this imply?
Before and during the class discussion, there are lot of questions in mind of
the children. Raising their questions to their teacher about a certain thing
made them enlightened by answering, explaining, and broaden the
knowledge of the child.
2. The teacher’s reaction to students’ inquisitiveness can motivate or de-

motivate students from asking more questions. Agree or disagree?. Explain
It depends on how the teacher explain the answer to the question of the
student. For me, if the student is curious about a certain thing, they will
ask one thing, and after the teacher answered, there is always a follow-
up question until the student satisfy and enlightened. Some teachers
don’t have the patient to explain it broad and they feel disgusted when
the student repeat his/her questions, and that is the reason why some
students are afraid and ashamed to raised their questions.
Module in Principles of Teaching I

UNIT 5
“HOMEWORK”
“Homework is an extension of the classroom”
Learning Outcomes:
What Will You Learn?
1. discussed guiding principles of homework.
2. applied functions of homework based on its principles.
3. constructed homework assignments based on the subject matter.


Homework:
➢ Is an extended practice.
➢ Is advance preparation for the next lesson.
➢ Helps cultivate good study habits.
➢ Is an assessment tool.
➢ Have also several learning and assessment functions.
Some guiding principles can be effectively used:
1) Amount and length of work to be given;

2) Parents’ minimum involvement;
3) Assessment of homework;
4) Factors to consider in the giving of homework.
Functions of Work
1) Pre-learning
- the homework is a preparation for an in-depth discussion of the next
lesson by getting introduction or a backround.
- It is also a way of finding out what students already know about a topic
or what they are interested to learn more about the topic by asking the
students to write down questions about what they were assigned to read.
2) Checking for understanding
- By way of homework, teachers gain insight into student learning.
- Asking students to identify literary devices in a short story shows
whether students understood the lesson on literary devices.
3) Practice
- Homework is an opportunity for practice of rote skills such as
multiplication tables, spelling words, or facts that need to be
memorized for internalization and mastery.
4) Processing
- Homework is used when teachers want students to reflect on
concepts discussed in class, integrate and apply learned concepts
and skills in real life, and think of new questions.
A Good Homework

• Is differentiated in terms of level and purpose.
• Enhances the facilitative role of parents.
• Observes school policy on homework.
• Has a relevant purpose understood by all.
• Is evaluated and commented on.
• Comments are fed back to the learners and parents.
MASTERY CHECK:
Unit 5- Homework
1. One sound advice in giving homework is: Implement homework equitably.”

What does this mean?
To implement homework equitably, we must give reasonable amounts
of homework. Also, we have to differentiate homework to individual needs. Be
sensitive enough about the limitations of the home environment. Accept that not all
students can or will work at home.
2. “Good mother is bad mother.” What does this mean in relation to

homework?
It means that some parents are the one who do the homework of
their child, they tolerating their child to be lazy.
3. In what sense is homework an extension of the classroom?
Homework is material a presented in class so as to reinforce learning and

facilitate mastery of specific skills. It is also a preparation assignments to
introduce as part of a lesson that will teach for the next meeting.
References:
Corpuz, Brenda B. & Salandanan, Gloria G. (2015) Principles of Teaching I 4th

Edition. Quezon City. Lorimar Publishing Co.
Corpuz, Brenda B. & Salandanan, Gloria G. (2003) Principles and Strategies

Teaching. Quezon City. Lorimar Publishing Co.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). Performance Counts: Assessment Systems that

Support High-Quality Learning . Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School
Officers.
Hattie, J. (2011). Visible Learning for Teachers: Maximizing Impact on Learning. New
York, NY: Routledge.
Tomlinson, C. A. (2014). The Differentiated Classroom: Responding to the Needs of

All Learners. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
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start.net/search#gsc.q=what%20is%20multiple%20intelligence%20definition&gsc.sor
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UNIT 1 THE ELEMENTS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

“Every child is a potential genius”

1. Explain and discuss teaching and learning concepts as presented by

3. Understand Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory, Kolb's

4. Identify and understand attributes of a professional teacher.

5. Compose and interpret song/verses that describe(s) the commitment of a

6. Share research works and integrate social responsiveness and concerns in

Teaching and Learning Concepts

Various definitions of teaching obtained from certain authorities and experts

• Teaching is a form of pouring-in process of knowledge (Pacita

• “Teaching is the process of stimulating, directing, guiding, and encouraging

• Watkins and Mortimore (1999) define teaching as “any conscious activity by

• Cohen defines teaching as “the deliberate activity of increasing the probability

2 Module in Principles of Teaching I

• Globe and porter (1977) specifically describe this change as a transformation

George Kneller (1971) described these interactions as:

• “Teaching is both familiar and intriguing.”(Morrison & D. McIntyre, 1972)

4. Teaching as basically an adjustive act on the part of the teacher to promote

3 Module in Principles of Teaching I

• A good teacher is humble: he naturally feels that the accumulated wisdom of

• Goldenberg (2006) generally defines teaching as a “clear goals, appropriate

5. Teaching as providing the learner with basic tools of learning so in the

• Teaching is to develop further skills of students through thinking speaking and

• According to Stanford Center for Research and Development in Teaching

6. Teaching as inherently a humane activity.

4 Module in Principles of Teaching I

• “Teaching is the highest of the ministerial or cooperative arts, is devoted to the

• “Teaching is a noble calling or vocation and fostered a professional esprit de

• Scheffler (1973) viewed teaching as an activity aimed at the achievement of

As a humane activity, teaching is extending a professional help or assistance

7. Teaching as structuring the learning environment for students. The word

• Pacita Fernandez (1985) pinpointed such elements in her definition of teaching

This perspective on teaching presupposes that teaching cannot take place in a

8. Teaching as an inquiry process. Socrates is noted for his question-and-answer

• In this regard, teaching is defined by World Book Encyclopedia (1957) as “a

9. Teaching is the process of concretizing and actualizing the fundamental

• Nerbovig and Klausmeier (1974) elaborated on this statement as: “Teaching

• “Teaching is both an art and a science.” (Silberman,1966)

10. Teaching as a complex process. When one decides to be a teacher, he should

6 Module in Principles of Teaching I

These varied activities inherent in teaching are identified in these definitions:

• The process of teaching includes selection and development of instructional

• Teaching is an activity with four phases: (1) a curriculum-planning phase;

• Teaching includes shaping behavior, shaping knowledge and belief,

Chapter 1 --THE LEARNER

Nature of the Learner

• The learner is an embodied spirit, a union of a sentient body and a rational

The Fundamental Equipment of the Learner

7 Module in Principles of Teaching I

• Imagination. It is the ability to form a mental image of something that is not

8 Module in Principles of Teaching I

Factors that Contribute to the Differences among Learners

4. Faculty and cultural background. Different socioeconomic background of

9 Module in Principles of Teaching I

GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORY

The Multiple Intelligence Theory is a psychological theory about the human

These different modalities should be put into consideration when designing an

Gardner defines intelligence as "bio-psychological potential to process

Gardner summarizes his approach with three recommendations for educators:

GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

10 Module in Principles of Teaching I

Excellent problem-solving skills, Scientist

Good at dancing and sports Dancer