Elements of Aeronautics 2020-21

CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCTION

Introduction to Aeronautics:
Aeronautics is the science or art involved with the study, design, and manufacturing of air
flight capable machines, and the techniques of operating aircraft and rockets within the
atmosphere. The British Royal Aeronautical Society identifies the aspects of "aeronautical Art,
Science and Engineering" and "the profession of Aeronautics (which expression includes
Astronautics)."
While the term originally referred solely to operating the aircraft, it has since been
expanded to include technology, business, and other aspects related to aircraft.[2] The term
"aviation" is sometimes used interchangeably with aeronautics, although "aeronautics" includes
lighter-than air craft such as airships, and includes ballistic vehicles while "aviation" technically
does not.
A significant part of aeronautical science is a branch of dynamics called aerodynamics,
which deals with the motion of air and the way that it interacts with objects in motion, such as an
aircraft.
Branches:
Aeronautics may be divided into three main branches comprising Aviation, Aeronautical
science and Aeronautical engineering.
Aviation:
Aviation is the art or practice of aeronautics. Historically aviation meant only heavier-
than-air flight, but nowadays it includes flying in balloons and airships.
Aeronautical science:
Aeronautical science covers the practical theory of aeronautics and aviation, including
operations, navigation, air safety and human factors.
A candidate pilot is likely to study for a qualification in aeronautical science.
Aeronautical engineering:
Aeronautical engineering covers the design and construction of aircraft, including how
they are powered, how they are used and how they are controlled for safe operation.
A major part of aeronautical engineering is aerodynamics, the science of passing through
the air. With the increasing activity in space flight, nowadays aeronautics and astronautics are
often combined as aerospace engineering.

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Early History of Aviation:

The history of aeronautics and aviation talks about the invention, ideas, philosophy of many
great mind that led to successful Powered flight in December 17, 1903 by Wright Brothers and
from 1903 till now the development in Powered flight is enormous.
From ancient time to 18th century human being wanted to fly like the bird and
because of this desire it led to many ideas and invention to successfully enter the 20th century
with Powered flight, that mean a human being can finally fly. So, we will see some of the
contribution of many great minds in field of Aeronautic and aviation
1. The first documented idea of an Aircraft is found in the work of Leonardo da Vinci in
[1486-1490] which is an Ornithopter [Flapping Wings aircraft]. Leonardo’s work did not
have evidence that human had flew during those days.
2. The Mont Golfier Brother also documented their achievement of hot air balloon in 1783
in Paris but this achievement did provide any development in powered flight [Nov 21
1983] the balloon.
3. Sir George cay lay also called as the true inventor of airplane in 1799 he gave the
concept of ‘fixed wing and separate propulsion system for aircraft’ and combined
horizontal and vertical stabilizer of tail for stability. He inscribes his idea a silver coin.
4. William Samuel Henson [1812- 1888]. In April 1843 published a paper of fined wing
powered by a steam engine [It is monoplane].
5. String fellow used triplane powered by steam engine on the idea of William Samuel
Henson.
6. Otto Lilienthal -The Glider man. He designed and flew gliders successfully.
7. He is the one which used the aerodynamics information for designing his gliders. His
books contained the most detailed aerodynamics data at that time.
8. Percy Pilcher- Marine engineer, student of Otto Lilienthal, in 1899 he finished to built
his engine to power the Glider, but died while demonstrating his glides. (HAWK)
9. Octave Chanute, friend of Wright Brothers has collected a lot of information by his
Hand Glider. He built a biplane glider, and Wright brothers are directly influence by the
biplane of Chanute.
10. Samuel Pierpont Langley built the famous aircraft called the aerodrome powered by
steam engine but Pilotless. In October 7th 1903 with Manly at the controls the
aeroplane was ready for the test. But the Aerodrome did not Succeed.
11. Wright Brothers- Inventors of the first practical plane.
December 17th, 1903- Flew the first powered flight called Wright Flyer-1 powered by a
piston engine of 12H.P, it is a biplane and Thrust was achieved through a propeller, it
also has a stabilizer at the front of the Aircraft
Airplane:
An airplane or aeroplane (informally plane) is a powered, fixed-wing aircraft that is
propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine, propeller or rocket engine. Airplanes come in a
variety of sizes, shapes, and wing configurations. The broad spectrum of uses for airplanes
includes recreation, transportation of goods and people, military, and research. Worldwide,
commercial aviation transports more than four billion passengers annually on airliners and
transports more than 200 billion tonne-kilometres of cargo annually, which is

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less than 1% of the world's cargo movement. Most airplanes are flown by a pilot on board the
aircraft, but some are designed to be remotely or computer-controlled.
History:
Leonardo da Vinci researched the wing design of birds and designed a man powered
aircraft in his Codex on the Flight of Birds (1502).
In 1799, George Cayley set forth the concept of the modern airplane as a fixed-wing
flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control. Cayley was building and
flying models of fixed-wing aircraft as early as 1803, and he built a successful passenger
carrying glider in 1853.
In 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first powered flight, by having his
glider "L'Albatros artificiel" pulled by a horse on a beach. Then Alexander F. Mozhaisky also
made some innovative designs.
In 1883, the American John J. Montgomery made a controlled flight in a glider. Other
aviators who made similar flights at that time were Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher, and Octave
Chanute.
Between 1867 and 1896, the German pioneer of human aviation Otto Lilienthal
developed heavier-than-air flight. He was the first person to make well-documented, repeated,
successful gliding flights.
In the 1890s, Lawrence Hargrave conducted research on wing structures and developed
a box kite that lifted the weight of a man. His box kite designs were widely adopted. Although he
also developed a type of rotary aircraft engine, he did not create and fly a powered fixed-wing
aircraft.
The Wright brothers invented and flew the first airplane in 1903, recognized as "the first
sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight".
Biplane:
A biplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with two main wings stacked one above the other. The
first aircraft to fly, the Wright Flyer, used a biplane design, as did most aircraft in the early years
of aviation. While a biplane wing structure has a structural advantage over a monoplane, it
produces more drag than a similar unbraced or cantilever monoplane wing. Improved structural
techniques and materials and the quest for greater speed made the biplane configuration obsolete
for most purposes by the late 1930s.

The tandem wing design differs in that one of the two wings is placed forward and the
other aft, such that no horizontal stabilizer is necessary. The term is also occasionally used in
biology, to describe the wings of some flying animals.

History:

Before any successful powered flight, most aeroplane designs envisaged monoplanes.
The weakness of the materials and design techniques available made it difficult to design wings
which were both light and strong enough to fly. Many designs used external bracing struts and

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wires. The Cody kite, which comprised a box kite with wings attached to its upper surfaces, took
a different approach. By 1896Octave Chanute was flying a biplane hang glider and concluded
that the externally braced biplane offered better prospects for powered flight than the monoplane.
The Wright Flyer biplane of 1903 became the first successful powered aeroplane.

Throughout the pioneer years, both biplanes and monoplanes were common, but by the
outbreak of the First World War biplanes had started to gain favour due to their better
manoeuvrability and inherent strength, as exemplified by the Sopwith Camel. During the period
from 1914 to 1925 almost all aircraft were biplanes. Sesquiplane types included the French
Nieuport 17 and German Albatros D.III.

However as the available engine-power increased so did speeds, and at higher speeds the
bracing - of both biplanes and monoplanes - caused increasing drag. In order to fly faster, it
would be necessary to do away with the external bracing to create a clean "cantilever" wing.

Early cantilever designs were either too weak or too heavy. The Fokker V.4 prototype of
1917 (identified by some as the V.3) was an unusual cantilever triplane but suffered excessive
flexing of the wings, while the Junkers J 1 of 1915 was heavy and had a poor rate of climb. Up
until the 1930s biplanes such as the Bristol Bulldog and Hawker Furyremained commonplace.
But by the 1930s engine power had risen to the point where the fast cantilever monoplane took
over and the slower biplane all but died out.

Several air forces continued to use biplanes in specialist roles such as primary training or
shipboard operation up until WWII and even beyond. Trainers include the de Havilland Tiger
Moth in the Royal Air Force, Stampe SV.4 in the French and Belgian Air Forces, and theBoeing
Stearman in the USAF. The British Fleet Air Arm still flew the Gloster Gladiator and Fairey
Swordfish from its aircraft carriers at the start of the war.

The Stearman is also particularly associated with stunt flying such as wing-walkers.

Modern biplane designs still exist in specialist niche roles such as aerobatics and
agricultural aircraft. The Pitts Special dominated aerobatics for many years and is still in
production, while theWACO Classic YMF is a reproduction of the original Waco design.

The vast majority of biplane designs have been fitted with reciprocating engines of
comparatively low power; exceptions include the Antonov An-3 and WSK-Mielec M-15
Belphegor, fitted withturboprop and turbofan engines respectively. Some older biplane designs,
such as the Grumman Ag Cat and the aforementioned An-2 (in the form of the An-3) are
available in upgraded versions with turboprop engines. Other famous biplanes include the
Antonov An-2, Beechcraft Staggerwing and Curtiss JN-4.

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Mono plane:
A monoplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with one main set of wing surfaces, in contrast to a
biplane or triplane. Since the late 1930s it has been the most common form for a fixed-wing
aircraft.

The main distinction between types of monoplane is how high up the wings are
in relation to the fuselage:

• low-wing, the wing lower surface is level with or below the bottom of the fuselage.
• mid-wing, the wing is mounted mid-way up the fuselage.
shoulder wing, the wing is mounted above the fuselage middle.
• high-wing, the wing upper surface is level with or above the top of the fuselage.
parasol-wing, the wing is located above the fuselage and is not directly connected to it,
structural support being typically provided by a system of struts and often, especially in
the case of older aircraft, wire bracing.

A further distinction is whether the wing is braced with external struts and/or wires, or
whether it is a self-supporting cantilever design.

History:

Some of the first attempts of heavier-than-air flying machines were monoplanes; the
Monoplane built in 1874 by Felix du Temple de la Croix is one example. Other early attempted
flights by monoplanes were carried out in 1884 by Alexander Mozhaysky and Clement Ader in
1890.

The first successful aircraft were biplanes, but many pioneering aircraft were
monoplanes, for instance the Blériot XI that flew across the English Channel in 1909.
Throughout 1909-1910 Hubert Latham set multiple altitude records in his Antoinette IV
monoplane, eventually reaching 1,384 m (4,541 ft). The first all metal aircraft was a monoplane,
the German Junkers J 1 which first flew in December 1915.

The equivalent German language term is Eindecker, which appears in the name of a
number of German aircraft types, such as the Fokker Eindecker fighters (a successful World War
I fighter aircraft produced in 1915). The German military Idflieg designation system prior to
1918 therefore prefixed monoplane type designations with an E, until the approval of the Fokker
D.VIII fighter from its former "E.V" designation.

Nonetheless, relatively few monoplane types were built between 1914 and the late 1920s,
compared with the number of biplanes. The reasons for this were primarily structural. In the days
when wings (whether biplane or monoplane) were thin structures, externally braced by struts,
steel wire or cables, the biplane wing formed a strong and fairly rigid lattice truss structure in
which the two wing surfaces were braced against each other. Early thin monoplane wings, on the
other hand, tended to be liable to twist under aerodynamic loads, rendering proper lateral control
very difficult, or breaking.[citation needed]

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As all-metal construction and the cantilever wing (both having been pioneered by Hugo
Junkers in 1915) became common during the post-WWI period the day of the biplane passed,
and by the 1930s the monoplane was fast becoming the usual configuration for a fixed-wing
aircraft. Most military aircraft of WW2 were monoplanes, as have been virtually all aircraft
since, as biplanes became relegated during the war to specialized applications such as initial
flight training as with the Tiger Moth and Stearman biplanes, and after World War II,
tocompetition aerobatics designs like the Pitts Special.

Air Balloons:

Hot air balloon in flight

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 The hot air balloon is the oldest successful human-carrying flight technology. It is part of
a class of aircraft known as balloon aircraft. On November 21, 1783, in Paris, France, the first
untethered manned flight was performed by Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and François
Laurent d'Arlandes in a hot air balloon created on December 14, 1782 by the Montgolfier
brothers. Hot air balloons that can be propelled through the air rather than just being pushed
along by the wind are known as airships or, more specifically, thermal airships.

A hot air balloon consists of a bag called the envelope that is capable of containing
heated air. Suspended beneath is a gondola or wicker basket (in some long-distance or high-
altitude balloons, a capsule), which carries passengers and (usually) a source of heat, in most
cases an open flame. The heated air inside the envelope makes it buoyant since it has a lower
density than the relatively cold air outside the envelope. As with all aircraft, hot air balloons
cannot fly beyond the atmosphere. Unlike gas balloons, the envelope does not have to be sealed
at the bottom since the air near the bottom of the envelope is at the same pressure as the air
surrounding. For modern sport balloons the envelope is generally made from nylon fabric and
the inlet of the balloon (closest to the burner flame) is made from fire resistant material such as
Nomex. Beginning during the mid-1970s, balloon envelopes have been made in all kinds of

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shapes, such as rocket ships and the shapes of various commercial products, though the
traditional shape remains popular for most non-commercial, and many commercial, applications.

Growth of Indian Aviation:

Aviation in India, broadly divided into military and civil aviation, is the fastest-growing
aviation market in the world (IATA data) and Bangalore with 65% national share is the largest
aviation manufacturing hub of India. UDAN scheme is driving the growth of civil aviation
connectivity and infrastructure in India.

UDAN-RCS, UDAN (Ude Desh ka Aam Naagrik) is a regional airport development

and "Regional Connectivity Scheme" (RCS) of Government of India, with the objective of "Let
the common citizen of the country fly", aimed at making air travel affordable and widespread, to
boost inclusive national economic development, job growth and air transport infrastructure
development of all regions and states of India.

History:
On 18 February 1911, the first commercial civil aviation flight took off from Allahabad
for Naini over a distance of 6 miles (9.7 km) when Henri Pequet, a French aviator, carried 6,500
pieces of mail on a Humber biplane from the exhibition to the receiving office at Allahabad
which was the world's first official airmail service.
On 15 October 1932, J.R.D. Tata flew a consignment of mail from Karachi to Juhu
Airport, an airline later became Air India.

Type of aviation:
Military aviation:
Market size
In its publication the Military Balance 2010, the International Institute for Strategic
Studies (IISS) estimated that the Indian Air Force has a strength of 127,000 active personnel.
However, various reliable sources provided notably divergent estimates of its strength over the
years. Flight global (Flight International) estimates there to be around 1,820 aircraft in service
with the IAF: 905 combat planes, 595 fighters and 310 attackers. The defense sector, Indian
Airforce, and HAL are investing billions of rupees for the development of numerous indigenous
fighter aircraft and new technologies in the aviation industry. HAL Tejas, India’s newly built
indigenous fighter aircraft, is one of the best examples of government initiative’s success.

Management
The President of India serves as the ex-officio Commander-in-Chief of the IAF. The
Chief of Air Staff, an Air Chief Marshal (ACM), is a four-star commander and commands the
Air Force. There is never more than one serving ACM in the IAF at any given time. The rank of
Marshal of the Air Force has been conferred once, to Arjan Singh, by the President of India on

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26 January 2002, and Singh became the first five-star rank-holding officer of the IAF and serves
as its ceremonial chief.
Branches
Main articles: Indian Air Force, Indian Naval Air Arm, Army Aviation Corps and Indian
Coast Guard aviation. The Indian Air Force, Indian Naval Air Arm and Army Aviation Corps are
the air arms of the Indian armed forces. The Indian Air Force is the world's 4th largest air force
with primary responsibility for securing Indian airspace and to conduct aerial warfare during a
conflict.
It was officially established on 8 October 1932 as an auxiliary air force of the British
Empire, and the prefix Royal was added in 1945 in recognition of its services during World War
II. Following the Indian Independence Act 1947, the new states of India and Pakistan became
independent from the United Kingdom, the Royal Indian Air Force served the Dominion of
India, with the prefix being dropped when India became a republic in 1950.
Since independence, the IAF has been involved in four wars with neighbouring Pakistan
and one with the People's Republic of China. Other major operations undertaken by the IAF
include Operation Vijay, Operation Meghdoot, Operation Cactus, Operation Poomalai and
Operation Raahat. Apart from conflicts in the subcontinent, the IAF has been an active
participant in United Nations peacekeeping missions.

Civil aviation:

IndiGo, Jet Airways, Air India, Spicejet and GoAir are the major carriers in order of their
market share. These airlines connect more than 80 cities across India and also operate overseas
routes after the liberalisation of Indian aviation. Several other foreign airlines connect Indian
cities with other major cities across the globe. However, a large section of country's air transport
potential remains untapped, even though the Mumbai-Delhi air corridor was ranked 10th by
Amadeus in 2012 among the world's busiest routes.

Market size:
India is the world's third-largest domestic and overall civil aviation market (January
2018). The number of air passengers grew 16.3% annually from 14 million (1.40 crores in 2000–
1) to 135 million (13.5 crores in 2015-16, both domestic and international). It recorded an air
traffic of 131 million passengers in 2016, estimated to be 60 million international passengers by
2017. The market is also estimated to have 800 aircraft by 2020. In 2015, Boeing projected
India's demand for aircraft to touch 1,740 or 4.3% of global volume, valued at $240 billion, over
the next 20 years in India.

Management and regulation

Ministry of Civil Aviation is responsible for civilian aviation and Ministry of Defence is
responsible for the Indian Air Force. National Civil Aviation Policy 2016 covers the broad policy

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areas, such as Regional connectivity, Safety, Air Transport Operations, 5/20 Requirement for
International Operations, Bilateral traffic rights, Fiscal Support, Maintenance, Repair and
Overhaul, Air-cargo, Aeronautical Make in India. Under the UDAN scheme, the government is
planning to develop a sustainable air network in over 400 tier-2 cities across India with an
estimated expenditure of 50 crore (US$7.0 million).
Investment
According to data released by the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP),
FDI inflows in India’s air transport sector (including air freight) reached US$ 1,658.23 million
between April 2000 and June 2018. The government has 100 per cent FDI under automatic route
in scheduled air transport service, regional air transport service and domestic scheduled
passenger airline. However, FDI over 49 per cent would require government approval. India’s
aviation industry is expected to witness Rs 1 lakh crore (US$ 15.52 billion) worth of investments
in the next five years.
The Indian government is planning to invest US$ 1.83 billion for development of airport
infrastructure along with aviation navigation services by 2026.
Key investments and developments in India’s aviation industry include:
• AAI is going to invest Rs 15,000 crore (US$ 2.32 billion) in 2018-19 for expanding
existing terminals and constructing 15 new ones.
• In June 2018, India has signed an open sky agreement with Australia allowing airlines on
either side to offer unlimited seats to six Indian metro cities and various Australian cities.
• The AAI plans to develop Guwahati as an inter-regional hub and Agartala, Imphal and
Dibrugarh as intra-regional hubs.
• Indian aircraft Manufacture, Repair and Overhaul (MRO) service providers are
exempted completely from customs and countervailing duties

• Allocation to Civil Aviation Ministry has been tripled to Rs 6,602.86 crore (US$
1,019.9 million) under Union Budget 2018-19.
• In February 2018, the Prime Minister of India launched the construction of Navi
Mumbai airport which is expected to be built at a cost of US$ 2.58 billion. The first
phase of the airport will be completed by end of 2019.
• The Government of Andhra Pradesh is to develop Greenfield airports in six cities-
Nizamabad, Nellore, Kurnool, Ramagundam, Tadepalligudem and Kothagudem under
the PPP model.
• Regional Connectivity Scheme (RCS) has been launched under the policy
• In September 2018, Jharsuguda Airport in Odisha and Pakyong Airport in Sikkim were
inaugurated. Pakyong airport is Sikkim’s first ever airport and AAI’s first greenfield
airport construction.

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Differences between Biplane and Monoplane:
Point of
Monoplane
Difference
The unbraced cantilever wing carries The braced box kite structure is
Structural
the entire load internally.
stiffness
Since only wing has to carry the
load, they have to be heavier and
Wing size & structurally stronger.
Material A cantilever wing may be made
lighter by making it thicker (greater
curve) but this increases drag.
Since there is no externally exposed
bracing/wiring, a monoplane has
Aerodynamics smoother air flow around it, hence
reducing unnecessary drag.
The wing size should be large
Engine Power enough to produce lift with low
engine powers.
Lesser due to heavily loaded wing.
Maneuverability
2020-21
Biplane
naturally strong and the 2 wings
support each other.
Since external bracing is used the
wing structure doesn’t experience the
entire load. So, the wing can use less
material to obtain the same overall
strength therefore it is much lighter.
Because of two wings they suffer
aerodynamic disturbance. Hence the
lift produced is not equal to the double
of individual wing’s lift. Also because
of the exposed struts, drag is created.
It meets the requirements to fly with
low engine powers but moves slowly.
More easily maneuvers and hence
these are still used in stunt
performance.
 History of INDIAN AVIATION
1911, Feburary 18: First commercial flight from Allahabad to Naini made by a French pilot
Monseigneur Piguet covering a distance of about 10 km and carrying 6500 mails on a Humber
biplane. This is considered to be the world’s first airmail service and the beginning of civil aviation
in India.
1912, December: The first domestic air route between Karachi and Delhi was opened by the Indian
State Air services in collaboration with Imperial Airways, UK.
1915: The first Indian airline, Tata Sons Ltd., started a regular airmail service between Karachi and
Madras without any patronage from the government.
1920, January 24: Royal Airforce started regular airmail services between Karachi and Bombay.
1924: Construction of civil airports began in India. Construction began at Dum Dum in Calcutta,
Bamrauli in Allahabad and Gilbert Hill in Bombay.
1927, April: Department of Civil Aviation was set up to look after all civil aviation matters. Aero Club
of India was also established.
1932: Tata Airlines came to being as a division of Tata Sons Limited. It started Air Mail services on
the Karachi, Ahmedabad, Bombay, Bellary, Madras routes on 15 October, 1932.
Between 1933 and 1934: Number of Indian airlines – Indian Trans Continental Airways, Madras Air
Taxi Services, Indian National Airways etc. commenced operations.
1937: The Indian Aircraft Act was promulgated in 1934 and was formulated in 1937.
1940: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) was set up by Walchand Hirachand in association with
the then Mysore Government at Bangalore.
1941, July: India’s first aircraft, the Harlow trainer was rolled out for test flight in July 1941.
1945:Deccan Airways was founded – jointly owned by the Nizam of Hyderabad and Tatas. Its first
flight began inJuly 1946.
1946: ‘Air India’ came into being when Tata Airlines changed its name to Air India.
1947: At the time of Independence, Nine Air Transport Companies were operational. Later the
number reduced to eight when the Orient Airways shifted its base to Pakistan. The then operational
airlines were Tata Airlines, Indian National Airways, Air Service of India, Deccan Airways, Ambica
Airways, Bharat Airways and Mistry Airways. These airlines were operating within and beyond the
frontiers of the company, carrying both air cargo and passengers.
1948: Air India signed an agreement with the Government to operate international services under the
name Air India International Ltd. On June 8, Air India inaugurated its international services with a
weekly flight between Bombay and London via Cairo and Geneva.
1953, March: The Indian Parliament passed the Air Corporations Act, 1953 and Indian Airlines and
Air India International were set up after nationalisation of the entire airline industry. Eight formerly
independent domestic airlines: Deccan Airways, Airways India, Bharat Airways, Himalyan Aviation,
Kalinga Air Lines, Indian National Airways, Air India, Air Services of India were merged.
1953: Civil Helicopter Services were introduced in the country
1972: The International Airports Authority of India (IAAI) was constituted.
1981: Vayudoot Airlines (a Government owned Airline Company) started operations.
1985: Pawan Hans Helicopters Limited (PHHL) and Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Academy (IGRUA
in Fursatganj, Rai Bareli in Uttar Pradesh for training of pilots were established.
1986: The National Airports Authority was constituted.
1987: The Bureau of Civil Aviation Security was established.
1990, April: The Government adopted Open-sky policy and allowed air taxi- operators to operate
flights from any airport, both on a charter and on a non charter basis and to decide their own flight
schedules, cargo and passenger fares. East-West Airlines was the first national private airline to
operate in the country after almost 37 years.
1991, September 20: Sahara Airlines started its operations.
1993, May: Jet Airways started its operations.
1994, March 1: Air Corporations Act, 1953 was repealed and was replaced by Air Corporations
(Transfer of Undertaking and Repeal) Act, 1994 thus enabling private operators to operate scheduled
services and number of private players including Jet Airways, Air Sahara, Modiluft Airlines, Damania
Airways, NEPC Airlines and East West Airlines commenced domestic operations.
1995: India’s six private airlines accounted for more than 10% of domestic traffic. Many foreign
airlines started providing international services. In 1995, 42 airlines operated air services to, from,
and through India.
1995, April 1: Airport Authority of India was constituted by merging the International Airport Authority
of India with National Airports Authority.
1997: Policy on Airport Infrastructure of India was developed for the use and development of airport
infrastructure.
1999, June 10: CIAL Airport was the first airport in India which was built with public-private
participation and was made operational. The process for development of CIAL as a private airport
began in 1993.
2000, October 2: Sahara Airlines was rebranded as Air Sahara.
2003: Entry of low cost carriers. Air Deccan started its services
2004: Government approved setting up of private Greenfield airports at Hyderabad and Bangalore.
2004, June: Low Cost Carrier – GoAir started it operations.
2004, December: Indian Scheduled carriers with a minimum of 5 years of continuous operations and
a minimum fleet size of 20 aircraft, were permitted to operate scheduled services to international
destinations.
2005: Indian Airlines was rebranded as Indian. The Government designated Air India, Indian Airlines
Jet Airways and Air Sahara to operate international services.
2005, May: Kingfisher Airlines (Full Service Carrier) and Spice Jet (Low Cost Carrier) commenced
operations.
2006, August: Low Cost Carrier – Indigo started its operations.
2006: The government approved the restructuring and modernisation of Mumbai and Delhi brownfiel
airports through the public-private partnership model.
2007: The Regional Airlines Policy was announced wherein licenses were given for operation of
airlines within a particular region.
2007: Indian aviation saw three mergers :
1. AI-IA merged and was cleared by Empowered Group of Ministers on February 21, 2007.The
Cabinet approved it on March 1, 2007 and was effective from August.
2. Jet Airways acquired Air Sahara for Rs 1,450 cr on April 13, 2007.Air Sahara was renamed
JetLite.
3. Kingfisher Airlines acquired Air Deccan for Rs 550 cr on June 2007 .In October 2007, Air
Deccan was renamed Simplifly Deccan and the old logo was substituted by the Kingfisher
logo.
2008, April 24: The path breaking Greenfield Airport Policy of the Government was announced.
2008, August: Simplifly Deccan was renamed as Kingfisher Red.
2009, May 12: AERA was established to regulate the economic aspects of airports. It is an
autonomous body set up by an Act of Parliament.
 2010: Airport Economic Regulatory Authority Appellate Tribunal (AERAAT) was established.

At present, India is the 9th largest aviation market in the world with 90 operational airports,
1,180 aircrafts, 303 helicopters, 11 operational scheduled airlines and 133 non-scheduled
operators.

Wing Wraping
Wing warping was an early system for lateral (roll) control of a fixed-wing aircraft. The technique, used
and patented by the Wright brothers, consisted of a system of pulleys and cables to twist the trailing
edges of the wings in opposite directions. In many respects, this approach is similar to that used to trim
the performance of a paper airplane by curling the paper at the back of its wings.
Birds visibly use wing warping to achieve control. This was a significant influence on early
aircraft designers. The Wright brothers were the first group to use warping wings. Their first plane
mimicked the bird's flight patterns and wing form.
In practice, since most wing warping designs involved flexing of structural members, they were difficult
to control and liable to cause structural failure. Ailerons had begun to replace wing warping as the most
common means of achieving lateral control as early as 1911, especially
in biplane designs. Monoplane wings of the period were much more flexible, and proved more
amenable to wing warping – but even for monoplane designs, ailerons became the norm after 1915.
Lateral (roll) control in early aircraft was problematic at best. An overly flexible, involuntarily twisting
wing can cause involuntary rolling, but even worse, it can convert attempts at correction, either from
wing warping or ailerons, into a counteracting "servo tab" effect. Once this was fully understood, wing
structures were made progressively more rigid, precluding wing warping altogether – and aircraft
became far more controllable in the lateral plane.
Current technology has allowed scientists to revisit the concept of wing warping (also known as
morphing wings).
Wing warping was a common feature of early aircraft, including:

• The Wright Flyer (1903)

• The Santos-Dumont Demoiselle (1907), the first homebuilt.
• The Antoinette V (1908), a wing-warping variant of the Antoinette IV
• The Blériot XI (1909), which made the first flight across a major body of water, namely
the English Channel.
• The Etrich Taube (1910) originally used a cable-warped horizontal stabilizer to
give elevator functionality as well
• The Nieuport IV (1911) racing and sport monoplane used for the first loop.
• The Bristol Coanda Monoplanes (1912), whose structural failures (along with those of
a Deperdussin monoplane) led to a ban on monoplanes with the Royal Flying Corps.
• The early versions of the Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2 (1912) used wing warping, while the
"C" variant and later used ailerons.
• The Morane-Saulnier L (1913), the first fighter aircraft, and the first to shoot down another
aircraft.
• The Morane-Saulnier N (1914), a World War I French scout derived from the
previous G and H
• The Caudron G.4 (1915), a French biplane with twin engines.
• The Fokker Eindecker (1915), the first German fighter aircraft.
• The Fokker D.III (1916), one of the last operational fighters with wing warping.
• The Christmas Bullet (1919), whose wing warping and unbraced sprung steel spars
contributed to its notoriety.
Wing morphing is a modern-day extension of wing warping in which the aerodynamic shape of the wing
is modified under computer control. Research into this field is mainly conducted by NASA such as with
the Mission Adaptive Wing (MAW) trialed from 1985 on a General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark.
10 T N VIKAS