MODULE – III DATA ANALYSIS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

 Data Processing: Significance in Research, Stages in Data Processing: Editing, Coding,

Classification, Tabulation, Graphic Presentation
 Statistical Analysis: Tools and Techniques, Measures of Central Tendency, Measures of Dispersion,
Correlation Analysis and Regression Analysis.
 Testing of Hypotheses –
 Parametric Test-t test, f test, z test
 Non-Parametric Test -Chi square test, ANOVA, Factor Analysis
 Interpretation of data: significance and Precautions in data interpretation

DATA PROCESSING

Data processing is the conversion of data into usable and desired form. This conversion or
“processing” is carried out using a predefined sequence of operations either manually or
automatically. Most of the processing is done by using computers and thus done automatically.
The output or “processed” data can be obtained in various forms. Example of these forms include
graph, table, charts or any other desired format.

Significance of data processing in Research

1) Filter out relevant data: It is difficult for researcher to work on raw data. Because every bit
of information collected may not be that useful for the researcher. He/she require to filter out
relevant content. Researcher can’t every time refer to huge pile of raw data and select that
relevant information he/she is looking for. This will make research work more tedious and
bulky. Data processing helps to arrange the filtered out content into a homogenize form and
make it easy for researcher to look for any relevant information and also makes his/her work
easy.

2) Cost Effective: Data processing makes this whole procedure more cost effective. As
arranging those big figures into well-structured tables saves from that risk of losing important
information. And also some of the information gets filtered out thus cost of saving that
irrelevant information is also saved.
3) Easy to modify and edit the data: Data processing also makes it easier to modify and edit
processed data. Processed data can be codified, classified and presented in tabulated format
which makes data analysis easy.

4) Ease of making reports: Since data is already processed, it can be obtained and used
directly. These processed facts and figures can be arranged appropriately such that it helps
executives in making quick analysis and making reports speedily.

5) Accuracy and Speed: Digitization helps to process the information quickly. During data
processing, the system itself checks for and takes care of invalid data or errors. Such
processes thus help companies ensure a high accuracy in information management.

6) Easy Storage: Data processing helps to increase the storage space for adding, managing and
modifying information. By eliminating unnecessary paperwork, it minimizes clutter and also
improve search efficiency by elimination the need to go through data manually.

Stages in Data Processing

a) Editing

The first step in data processing is editing of complete schedules/questionnaires. Editing is

a process of checking to detect and/or correct errors and omissions.

Editing consists of scrutinizing the completed research instruments to identify and minimize errors,
incompleteness, misclassification and gaps in the information obtained from the respondents.

Irrespective of the method of data collection, the information collected is called raw data. The first step in
processing our data is to ensure that the data are “clean” that is free from inconsistencies and
incompleteness. This process of cleaning is called “editing”. Editing is required in case of:
 Researcher / Field staff forgot to ask questions.
 Researcher / Field staff forgot to record a response.
 Respondent write only half a response.
 Respondent Write illegibly.
Example - If in a questionnaire question is asked, “How much red chilies do you use in a month” The
answer is written as “4 kilos”. Can a family of three members use four kilo chilies in a month? The
correct answer could be “0.4 kilo”.

Another example - Sometimes “don’t know” answer is edited as “no response”. This is wrong. “Don’t
know” means that the respondent is not sure and is in a double mind about his reaction or considers the
questions personal and does not want to answer it. “No response” means that the respondent is not
familiar with the situation/object/event/individual about which he is asked.

These problems to a great extent can be reduced simply by:

 Checking the contents for completeness
 Checking the response for internal consistency

Types of Editing
 Field Editing: In this type, the researcher / field staff may go through the questionnaire as soon as it
is filled by respondent to find out whether or not there is a need for completing partial or correcting
vague answers.
 Central Editing: In this type, all the questionnaires are brought at the office and one by one it is
scrutinized to check deficiency in it.

b) Coding

Coding means assigning numerals or other symbols to the responses in the questionnaire. For
each question a coding scheme is designed. The coding scheme, assigned symbol together with
specific coding instruction may be recorded in a book. The codebook will identify
variables/observation (options of questions) and the code number assigned to them. If the data
are to be transferred in the computer, the codebook will also identify the column in which it
is entered.

Example of how codebooks is prepared and codes are assigned to variables/observations

Questionnaire:

1) Age
 21-30
 31-40
  41-50
 51-60
 60 and above

2) Marital Status
 Married
 Unmarried

3) Monthly Income
 Less than Rs.10,000/-
 10,001/- to 30,000/-
 30,001/- to 50,000/-
 50,000/- and above

4) How do you find overall service of hospital?

 Extremely satisfactory
 Satisfactory
 Somewhat Satisfactory
 Not Satisfactory

5) Tick the problems you faced during hospitalization.

 Poor services of doctors and nurse
 Unavailability of Machinery
 Poor Cleanliness
 Lots of Documentations
 Others
Codebook

Question Variable Name Responses Code

No.
1 Age  21-30 1
 31-40 2
 41-50 3
 51-60 4
 60 and above 5
2 Marital Status  Married 1
 Unmarried 2
3 Monthly Income  Less than Rs.10,000/- 1
 10,001/- to 30,000/- 2
 30,001/- to 50,000/- 3
 50,000/- and above 4
4 How do you find overall  Extremely satisfactory S1
service of hospital?  Satisfactory S2
 Somewhat Satisfactory S3
 Not Satisfactory S4
5 Tick the problems you  Poor services of doctors and nurse P1
faced during  Unavailability of Machinery
hospitalization  Poor Cleanliness P2
 Lots of Documentations P3
 Others P4
P5

c) Classification
The method of arranging data into homogeneous classes according to some common features present in
the data is called classification. It is the process of arranging data into homogeneous (similar) groups
according to their common characteristics.

Raw data cannot be easily understood and it is not fit for further analysis and interpretation. Classification
of data helps users in comparison and analysis. For example, the Population of town can be grouped
according to sex, age, marital status etc.

Definition of Classification Given by Prof. Secrist “Classification is the process of arranging data into
sequences according to their common characteristics or Separating them into different related parts.”
Method of Classification

1) Geographical Classification: When data are classified with reference to geographical locations such
as countries, states, cities, districts, etc. it is known as Geographical Classification. It is also known as
‘Spatial Classification’.

2) Chronological Classification: When data are grouped according to time, such a classification is
known as a Chronological Classification. In such a classification, data are classified either in
ascending or in descending order with reference to time such as years, quarters, months, weeks, etc. It
is also called ‘Temporal Classification’.

3) Qualitative Classification: Under this classification, data are classified on the basis of some
attributes or qualities like honesty, intelligence, literacy, marital status etc. For example, Population
can be divided on the basis of marital status as married or unmarried etc.

4) Quantitative Classification: This type of classification is made on the basis some measurable
characteristics like height, weight, age, income, marks of students, etc.

d) Tabulation

It refers to transferring the classified data in a tabular format for the purpose of analysis and
interpretation. It involves sorting of data into different categories and counting the number of responses
that belong to each category.

Variables in Tabulation
1) Uni-variate: The tabulation can be univariate wherein only one variable is involved in tabulation.
2) Multi-variate: When two or more variables are involved in tabulating the data, it is called as
mechanical tabulation.

Guidelines / Principles of Tabulation

Methods of Tabulation
1) Manual Tabulation: When tabulation is done manually without the help of computer, it is called as
manual tabulation. It is possible when number of variables is few and sample size is limited.

2) Mechanical Tabulation: When tabulation is done with the help of computer, it is called as
mechanical tabulation. It is necessary when number of variables is large and sample size is also large.

e) Graphic Presentation

It is a visual display of data. It is an attractive and easily understandable way of presenting data. It
represents complex data in a simple form. Comparative analysis of data is easily possible. It facilitates
readers to draw conclusions easily and quickly. There are different types of graphical presentation which
depends on the nature of data and the type of statistical results. The following are the main types of
graphical presentation.
Interpretation of data
Data Interpretation is the process of making sense out or finding relation of a collection of data that has
been processed. The data collection may be present in various forms like bar graphs, line charts and
tabular forms and other similar forms. Afterwards the researcher try to find out connection in the data
for drawing a conclusion.

In other words, Data interpretation refers to the implementation of processes through which data is
reviewed for the purpose of arriving at an informed conclusion. The interpretation of data assigns a
meaning to the information analyzed and determines its signification and implications.

After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to accomplish the task of drawing inferences
followed by report writing. Only through interpretation that the researcher can expose relations and
processes that underlie his findings.

All this analytical information and consequential inferences may well be communicated, preferably
through research report, to the concerned authority.

Significance of interpretation of data

1) Informed decision-making: Data interpretation is important to make an informed decision and gain
knowledge. It helps researcher to find out relation between variables and draw conclusions. This
conclusion can help to make decisions.

2) Anticipating needs with trends identification: Data interpretation helps to predict the future trends.
By identifying the future trend, researcher can get better insights and in-depth visibility. Eg. A
research data on “Consumer Behaviour” helps to know customers buying pattern and evaluate
consumers requirements. This way gathering data and interpretation process can help to grow
business and provide high returns.

3) Cost efficiency: In case of applied (commercial) research, when the process of data interpretation is
done properly, it provides the business with various cost benefits. Data analysis has the potential to
alert management to cost reduction opportunities without any significant effort from human capital.

4) Guide for future research: Data interpretation leads to establishment of relationship between
concepts that can serve as guide for future research studies. The researcher can undertake further
researches on the basis of data interpretation.
5) Stimulates quest for more knowledge: Data interpretation opens new avenues of intellectual
adventure and stimulates quest for more knowledge of the researcher.

6) Understand abstract principles: It is through data interpretations the researcher can well understand
the abstract principles i.e. the data collected is in the raw form. But when it is processed and analysed
it helps to understand the abstract (unclear) information in concrete form.

7) Data interpretation is essential for the simple reason that the usefulness and utility of research
findings lie in proper interpretation.

Precautions in data interpretation

1) The data are appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences.

2) The data reflect good homogeneity

3) Proper analysis has been done through statistical methods.

4) The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the process of
interpreting results. He should be well equipped with and must know the correct use of
statistical measures for drawing inferences concerning his study.

5) Precautions should be taken while analyzing the data. Because wrong analyzing of data
would lead to wrong interpretation.

https://www.datapine.com/blog/data-interpretation-methods-benefits-problems/

https://ezdatamunch.com/data-interpretation-benefits-problem/

https://www.unisoftdatatech.com/importance-data-processing-business/

https://www.academia.edu/11882335/Data_editing_and_coding_in_quantitative_and_qualitative
_research

https://byjus.com/commerce/meaning-and-objectives-of-classification-of-data/

https://www.slideshare.net/bala1957/research-data-interpretation