SAUMIK KARFA

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LIMIT
MATERIAL - 1 (THEORY PART)
Q1. Whose limit is to be calculated?
Q2. Why limit is to be calculated?
Q3. How should we calculate?

If one can give the answers to the above questions then he knows all about limit(in calculus).

We will try to answer the above questions.

A1. In the study of Real Analysis we try to find the limit of a real function. By the term real function I meant a
function 𝑓 from a non-empty set 𝑋 ⊆ R to R such that 𝑓- image of all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 i.e., 𝑓(𝑥) is a real number. (The set
of all real numbers) .

A2. Let 𝑓: 𝐷(⊆ R) →R be a function and 𝑐 be fixed point in the domain of 𝑓. By calculating limit of 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 𝑐
we can get a real number 𝑙 what should be the functional value of 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 𝑐. If we take some values approaching
to 𝑐we can see that the functional value is getting closer to 𝑙 . You may get as close to 𝑐 as you want will see that
functional values are also getting really close to 𝑙. But in reality 𝑓(𝑐)[the functional value of 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 𝑐] may not
be equal to 𝑙.It may not even exist.
2
𝑥
Let us try to understand by an example : let 𝑓: R − {0} →R defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
. Now you may say that this is
0
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥. Oh! You are a little wrong please observe that at 𝑥 = 0 the function takes a 0
form and we know that
this is prohibited in mathematics, we can not divide anything by zero. So at 𝑥 = 0 the function is undefined. Now
let's take a look at the graph of the function ---

As you can see as the values getting closer to 0 through the 𝑋axis the function is also getting closer to the 0 , we can
say that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0. But 𝑓(0) does not exist.
𝑥→0
Now lets see the formal definition of limit. You will get the answer to the 3rd question as we move further through
our learning.

Definition : L (a finite number) for all x sufficiently close to ‘𝑎’ we say that 𝑓(𝑥) approaches the limit L as x
approaches ‘𝑎’ and
we write 𝑥approaches 𝑎

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lim 𝑙 = 𝐿 and say “the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches a, equals 𝐿”.
𝑥→𝑎

This implies that if we can make the value of 𝑓(𝑥) arbitrarily close to 𝐿 (as close to 𝐿 as we like) by taking 𝑥 to be
sufficiently close to 𝑎 (on either side of 𝑎) but not equal to 𝑎.

LEFT HAND LIMIT AND RIGHT HAND LIMIT OF A FUNCTION :

−
The value to which 𝑓(𝑥) approaches, as 𝑥 tends to ‘𝑎’ from the left hand side ( 𝑥 → 𝑎 ) is called left hand limit
of 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎. Symbolically, 𝐿𝐻𝐿 = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑎 − ℎ)
−
𝑥→𝑎 ℎ→0
+
The value to which 𝑓(𝑥) approaches, as 𝑥 tends to ‘𝑎’ from the right hand side ( 𝑥 → 𝑎 )is called right hand limit
of𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎. Symbolically, 𝑅𝐻𝐿 = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ)
+
𝑥→𝑎 ℎ→0
Limit of a function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to exist when lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = finite quantity.
− +
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
(Limit point of a set: Let 𝑆 be a subset of R . A point 𝑝 in R is said to be a limit point (or accumulation point
or cluster point) of 𝑆 if every neighbourhood of 𝑝 contains a point of 𝑆 other than 𝑝. Therefore 𝑝 is a limit point of
𝑆 if for each positive ε, [𝑁(𝑝, ε) − {𝑝}] ∩ 𝑆 ≠ ϕ. )

SEQUENTIAL CRITERION OF LIMIT :

Let 𝐷 ⊆R and 𝑓: 𝐷 →R be a function. Let 𝑐 be a limit point of 𝐷 and 𝑙 ∈R . Then lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙 if and only if
𝑥→𝑐
for every sequence {𝑥𝑛} in 𝐷 − {𝑐}, converging to 𝑐, the sequence {𝑓(𝑥𝑛)} converges to 𝑙.

Important note :
1. lim 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑥 → 𝑎 necessarily implies 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎 . That is while evaluating limit at 𝑥 = 𝑎, we are not
𝑥→𝑎
concerned with the value of the function at𝑥 = 𝑎. In fact the function may or may not be defined at
𝑥 = 𝑎.
2. Also it is necessary to note that if 𝑓(𝑥) is defined only on one side of ‘x = a’, one sided limits are good
enough to establish the existence of limits, & if f(x) is defined on either side of ‘a’ both sided limits are to be
considered.

FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS ON LIMITS :

Let lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑚 if 𝑙 & 𝑚exists finitely then :
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
a. lim {𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)} = 𝑙 ± 𝑚
𝑥→𝑎
b. lim {𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)} = 𝑙. 𝑚
𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑙
c. lim { 𝑔(𝑥) } = 𝑚 , provided 𝑚 ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎
d. lim 𝑘{𝑓(𝑥)} = 𝑘𝑙
𝑥→𝑎

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𝑝/𝑞 𝑝/𝑞
e. If 𝑝 & 𝑞 are integers then lim {𝑓(𝑥)} = 𝑙 , provided 𝑝/𝑞 is a real number.
𝑥→𝑎
f. lim {𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))} = 𝑓 ( lim {𝑔(𝑥)}) = 𝑓(𝑚) ; provided 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑚.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

FREQUENTLY USED LIMITS :

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
1. lim 𝑥 = 1
𝑥→0
2. lim 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = 1
𝑥→0
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
3. lim 𝑥
=1
𝑥→0
−1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
4. lim 𝑥
=1
𝑥→0
−1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
5. lim 𝑥
=1
𝑥→0
1/𝑥
6. lim (1 + 𝑥) =𝑒
𝑥→0
1 𝑥
7. lim (1 + 𝑥
) =𝑒
𝑥→∞
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎(1+𝑥) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒(1+𝑥)
8. lim 𝑥
= 1 , in particular when 𝑎 = 𝑒 lim 𝑥
=1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
𝑥
𝑎 −1
9. lim 𝑥
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 (𝑎 > 0)
𝑥→0
𝑥
𝑒 −1
10. lim 𝑥
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑒 = 1
𝑥→0
𝑚
(1+𝑥) −1
11. lim 𝑥
= 𝑚 , 𝑚 is real number.
𝑥→0
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥
12. lim 𝑚 = 0, 𝑚 > 0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥
𝑛 𝑛
𝑥 −𝑎 𝑛−1
13. lim 𝑥−𝑎
= 𝑛𝑎
𝑥→0

INDETERMINATE FORM :
0 ∞ ∞ ∞ 0
0
, ∞
, ∞ → ∞, 1 , 0 , ∞ these are some indeterminate forms.
We cannot plot ∞ on paper . Infinity(∞) is a symbol , not a number . It does not obey the laws of elementary
algebra.
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∞ ∞
We have ∞+∞→∞, ∞×∞→∞ , ∞ →∞, 0 → 0.

L’HOSPITAL’S RULE :
0
1. ( 0 form) If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are differentiable functions on (0, δ)such that
a. 𝑔 '(𝑥) ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑥 ∈ (0, δ)
b. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 = lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥 → 0+ 𝑥 → 0+
𝑓 '(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
c.lim 𝑔 '(𝑥) = 𝐿, then lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥 → 0+ 𝑥 → 0+
2. (when 𝑥 → ∞) If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are differentiable function on [𝑎, ∞) such that
a. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 = lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞
𝑓 '(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
b.
lim 𝑔 ' (𝑥) = 𝐿, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞
3. (∞/∞ form) If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are differentiable functions on (0, δ) such that
a. 𝑔 '(𝑥) ≠ 0 for any 𝑥 ∈ (0, δ)
b. 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞ & 𝑔(𝑥) → ∞ as 𝑥 → 0 +
𝑓 ' (𝑥) 𝑓 (𝑥)
c. lim 𝑔 ' (𝑥)
= 𝐿, then lim 𝑔 (𝑥)
= 𝐿,
𝑥 → 0+ 𝑥 → 0+

The following series expansions are usef ul in evaluating limits :

𝑝 𝑝(𝑝−1) 2 𝑝(𝑝−1)(𝑝−2) 3
1. (1 + 𝑥) = 1 + 𝑝𝑥 + 2!
𝑥 + 3!
𝑥 +......(|𝑥| < 1 and 𝑝 ∈ Q)
2 3
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
2. 𝑒 = 1 + 𝑥 + 2!
+ 3!
+........
2 3
𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑥 3
3. 𝑎 = 1 + 𝑥 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑎) + 2!
(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑎) + 3!
(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑎) +........
2 3 4
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
4. 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2
+ 3
− 4
+........ (|𝑥| < 1)
2 3 4
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
5. 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (1 − 𝑥) =− 𝑥 − 2
− 3
− 4
−........ (|𝑥| < 1)
3 5
𝑥 𝑥
6. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 3!
+ 5!
.......
2 4
𝑥 𝑥
7. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2!
+ 4!
.......
3 5
𝑥 2𝑥
8. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 3
+ 15
.......
3 5
−1 1.𝑥 1.3.𝑥
9. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥+ 2. 3
+ 2.4.5
....... (− 1 < 𝑥 < 1)
3 5
−1 𝑥 𝑥
10. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥− 3
+ 5
− ......... (− 1 < 𝑥 < 1)

SANDWICH THEOREM :
If 𝑓 , 𝑔 and ℎ are functions having a common domain 𝐷 and defined near 𝑎. Suppose that ℎ(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥)
for 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷 and lim ℎ(𝑥) = lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑙 then lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙 .
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

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IMPORTANT RESULTS :
𝑥 𝑎
𝑥 𝑥 −𝑥 𝑥 𝑒 −𝑒 𝑎
lim 𝑒 = 1, lim 𝑒 = ∞, lim 𝑒 = 0, lim 𝑒 = 0, lim 𝑥−𝑎
=𝑒 .
𝑥→0 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 → −∞ 𝑥→∞

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