Experiment 1

STATEMENT
To perform tension test on!
• Hot rolled deformed steel bars (ASTM A615:2019)
• Hot rolled deformed steel bars (ASTM A706:2016)
• Hot rolled deformed steel bars (BS 4449:2005)
• Cast iron specimen

1.1 PURPOSE
• To study the stress strain behavior of different reinforcing bars
• To check the adequacy of rebars according to the standards

1.2 APPARATUS
• 200 ton Shimadzu UTM
• Betty’s Extensometer; L.C=0.001mm
• Spring Divider
• Vernier Calipers; L.C=0.05mm
• Weighing balance
• Steel Tape

1.3 RELATED THEORY

1. Manufacturing Process of Steel:
Iron is never available in pure nature. It has been extracted in the form of pig
iron from various iron ores.

2. Iron Ores:
• Magnetite (Fe3O4) (70% to 75% iron)
• Hematite (Fe2O3) (70% iron)
• Iron pyrites (FeS2) (45% iron) [not preferred due to sulpher content which
make it brittle, also uneconomical]
• Siderite FeCO3 (40% iron)

3. Steel:
For a material to be classified as steel there should not have any free graphite
in its composition.
Steel is a metal alloy that is mainly composed of iron and carbon

4. Classification of Steel:
a. Low carbon Steel: Carbon content = 0.05 - 0.25%
b. Medium carbon steel: Carbon content = 0.3 - 0.59%
c. High Carbon Steel: Carbon content = 0.6 - 0.99%
d. Ultra High Carbon Steel: Carbon content = 1.0 – 2.0%

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 (It is used for tool making)
e. Mild Steel: Carbon content = 0.16 - 0.29%
5. Chemical Composition of Mild Steel:
Element Maximum % age
Carbon 0.25%
Sulpher 0.06%
Phosphorus 0.06%

6. Effect of Change of Carbon Content Mechanical Properties:

1. It is seen that ultimate strength and hardness value increase together with
increase in carbon content.
2. The elastic limit (yield point) is increasing at a reduced rate.

Ultimate Stress
900 300
Brinell Hardness

Elastic Limit
600 200
Stress
(MPa) Brinell
% age Elongation Number

300 100
% age Reduction
In Area

0
0.5
0.1 1.0
Carbon Content (%)

7. Ductility:
It is indicated by reduction in area and percentage elongation.

With the increase in carbon content, strength of material increases, ductility

decreases and E remains constant.

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 εl = 0.75%
εl < 2% C=0.75%

εl = 2% C=0.45%
C=0.18%
Stress
(MPa)

Strain (%)

8. Reduction/Extraction Process:
Coke
Oxide of iron + Flux Pig iron + water
2300oC

Pig iron + Admixture Steel (molten form)

This molten steel is molded into different sizes known as Billet (Ingot)

75mm 100mm

75mm
100mm

9. Hot rolled deformed steel bars (ASTM A706:2016)

a. Different Grades of Steel:

Grade 60 80
σumin Psi(MPa) 80,000(550) 100,000(690)
σymin Psi(MPa) 60,000(420) 80,000(520)
σymax Psi(MPa) 78,000(420) 98,000(520)
% Elongation in 8" 12
#3 bar 14 12
#4 & #5 bars 14 12
#6 bar 14 12
#7 & #8 bars 12 12
#9,#10 &#11 bars 12 12

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b. The Relationship between Yield Strength and Ultimate Strength:

σyt=(0.55---0.65) σut

T.R.S

σu
U.Y.P
Stress L.Y.P
(MPa) R.S

σy
E.L Necking
Zone
P.L

E
Yielding
Zone Strain Hardening Zone

εy εu εf
Strain (%)
c. Stress ~Strain Diagram:

i.Proportional Limit:
Maximum stresses that may be developed during a simple tension test such
that the stress is linear function of strain. (No proportional limit for brittle materials).

ii. Elastic Limit:

Maximum stresses that may be developed during a simple tension test such
that there is no permanent set or residual deformation when the load is entirely
removed.
Hook’s Law is not valid after E.L and the numerical values of P.L and E.L are
usually identical.

iii. Yield Point:

A point on the stress strain curve after which there is increase in strain with
no significant increase in stress is called yield point. The phenomenon is called
yielding. The stress corresponding to Y.P is known as yield strength of the material
which if represented in ksi (kips per square inch) gives the grade of steel. The yield
stress is also known as Proof Stress.
The stress may actually decrease momentarily resulting in upper and lower
yield points.

iv. Strain Hardening Zone:

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 If a ductile material can be stressed considerably beyond the yield point
without failure, the material is said to be “strain hardened”. It is a zone after yielding
when the particles of materials rearrange themselves and start taking load again, so
stress starts increasing. This is true for many structural metals.
v. Ultimate Strength:
Maximum or highest stress on the stress strain diagram is called as the tensile
or ultimate strength of the sample. It is commonly considered as the maximum
strength of the material.

vi. Necking:
“Localized decrease in cross sectional area of the sample after the ultimate
strength is called Necking.”
Necking continues up to rupture/failure. Due to necking (Cup & Cone
formation), the cross sectional area is reduced.

vii. Actual Rupture Strength:

Actual rupture strength can be obtained by dividing the rupture load with
actual rupture area.
So, the point of actual rupture strength will obviously be higher than the
rupture strength on the stress strain diagram because the rupture area is less than
the original cross sectional area of the sample.

viii. Normal Rupture Strength:

“Rupture strength or breaking strength is the stress at failure.” Rupture
strength is always less than the ultimate strength. For brittle materials the ultimate
and the rupture strength are almost the same.

ix. Modulus of Elasticity:

“It is the ratio of unit stress to the unit strain.” It is determined as the slope of
straight line from zero to proportional limit from the stress strain diagram.
The stress strain linear relationship was discovered by Robert Hook in 1676
and is known as Hook’s Law. It is mathematically represented by the following
equation.
σ=E.ε
Where E is termed as the Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus with
units of stress. For Mild Steel E~200GPa (200×106Psi)

x. Resilience:
The ability of material to absorb energy in the elastic range (i.e. without
permanent deformation) is called as resilience.

xi. Modulus of Resilience: (M.O.R)

Modulus of Resilience is the amount of work done on a unit volume of
material as a simple tensile force is increased from zero to proportional limit (P.L). It
is calculated as the area under the stress strain diagram from zero to P.L.
Its unit is MPa or Psi.

xii. Toughness:
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 The ability of material to absorb energy in plastic range(i.e. permanent
deformation) is called as toughness.

xiii. Modulus of Toughness :( M.O.T)

Modulus of toughness is the amount of work done on a unit volume of
material as a simple tensile force is increased from zero to the failure of the
specimen. It is calculated as the total area under the stress-strain diagram.
Its unit is MPa or Psi.

xiv. Gauge Length:-

“It is the length between two marks on a bar.”
• For mild steel G.L = 5d
• For cold formed steel G.L = Lo=5.65√So
Where So=M/ (0.00785xL)

d. Various Methods for the Determination of Yielding:-

i.
Halting of Machine or Drop of Beam Methods:
The yield point during a simple tension test can be observed by Halting of
machine or Drop of beam.
This method is suitable only for grade 40 steel.
If we apply it to grade 60 the Y.P may not occur.

ii. Offset Method:

For the materials that do not have well defined yield point, yield strength is
determined by offset method. This consists of drawing a line parallel to the initial
tangent of the stress strain diagram at 0.2 %( 0.002m/m or in/in) strain.

iii. Specific Strain Method:

According to this method yielding will occur at 0.5% of strain (Proof Stress).

σy σy

Stress Stress
(MPa)
(MPa)

0.2% Strain (%) 0.5% Strain (%)

Offset Method Specific Strain Method

iv. Luder Line Method:

According to this method during a simple tension test yielding takes place
when small pieces of material drop down from the outer periphery.

a. Terminology:-

i. Nominal diameter:
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 It is that diameter which gives us the effective diameter. It depends upon the
properties of materials (weight, length, shape).

ii. Sample Length:

Minimum length ≥ 0.5m
And larger of!
• 600mm
• 20D
Reasons:
• For true representation of the sample.
• For proper gripping.
iii. Nominal Density:
The value of 0.00785kg/mm2/m or 490lb/ft2/ft is taken for the purpose of
converting the length and cross sectional area of the bar to its mass.

ρ=
M
ρ=
M
A=
M π d2 M
=
V ( A × L) ( ρ × L) 4 ( ρ × L)
Thus diameter of the bar can be calculated.

iv. Yield Stress:

Yield stress is the stress corresponding to 0.2% of strain.

σy

Stress
(MPa)

0.2% Strain (%)

b. Cross Sectional Area and Mass:

Tolerence in size = ±8%

M
Dia according to specipication − dia calculated fromρ =
Tolerence in size = A× L
Dia according to specification

Tolerence in M = ±4.5%
L

M according to specipication − M calculated

Tolerence in M = L L
L M according to specification
L

If the difference is towards the negative side and more than 4.5% then steel is less
than the required and fault in the design.

Remedy:-

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 1. Replace the steel.
2. Revise the design.
3. Adjust the steel according to design.

11. Cast Iron

C = 2.0% to 4.5% (main difference)
In cast iron free graphite is available.

a. Physical Properties:
1. Its structure is Coarse crystalline and fibrous.
2. It is brittle.
3. It cannot be welded.
4. It does not rust.
5. S.G of cast iron is 7.2 to 7.5

b. Uses:
1. It is used for rain water pipes.
2. It is used for gratings.
3. It is used for man whole covers.
4. It is used in manufacturing of mild steel.

12. Difference between Steel and Cast Iron:

1. In steel carbon content ranges from 0.1% to 1.5% with 2% maximum but
for cast iron carbon content ranges from 2% to 4.5%.
2. Specific gravity of steel is 7.85 but that of cast iron ranges from 7.2 to 7.5

1.4 PROCEDURE:

A. Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bar: (BS 4449-1998)

1. Note the shape, size length, weight and determine the cross sectional area by
using the relation A=M/ (0.00785L) and determine the effective diameter and
compare this diameter with specification diameter.
2. Mark the half gauge length on the sample.
3. Fix the Betty’s Extensometer to measure the elongation up to 90% of the
ultimate load. (For safety purposes)
4. Calculate the expected yield and ultimate load consequently decide suitable
load increment.
5. Apply the load in decided increments and take the readings of extensometer.
6. Join the two pieces of extensometer and measure the final diameter.

B. Cast Iron:-
Same as above the two with the difference only!
(d + d 2 + d 3 ) (π d 2 )
d= 1 , A=
3 4

1.5 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS (sample):

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A. Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bar:

Mass = M = 724gm
Length = L = 756mm

M 0.724 A = 122 mm 2
A= A=
0.00785 × L 0.00785 × 0.756

π × d2 3.1415 × d 2
A= 122 = d = 12.46mm 2
4 4

M
Dia according to specipication − dia calculated fromρ =
Tolerence in size = A×L
Dia according to specification

 12.46 − 12 
Tolerence in size =   × 100
 12 

Tolerence in size = 3.83% < 8% (O.K)

M 0.724 M
= = 0.958kg / m
L 0.756 L
M according to specipication − M calculated
Tolerence in M L = L L
M according to specification
L

 0.958 − 0.88 
Tolerence in M L =   × 100
 0.958 

Tolerence in M L = 7.31% > 4.5% (Not good but acceptable)

B. Cast Iron Specimen:

G.L = 50 mm

1.6 MODE OF FAILURE:

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 Cast Iron Specimen
(Brittle Failure)

1.7 Comments:

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