Energy Methods Struct 1

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Basics of Structural Mechanics
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R.Dhanaraj
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October 28, 2017

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Chapter 1
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Basics-Stress and Strain
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4 CHAPTER 1. BASICS-STRESS AND STRAIN
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Axial Loading
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CHAPTER 2. AXIAL LOADING
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Chapter 3
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Beam - Shear Force and
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Bending Moment
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8CHAPTER 3. BEAM - SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
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CHAPTER 4. STRESSES IN BEAM
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Deflection of Beam
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12 CHAPTER 5. DEFLECTION OF BEAM
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Torsion
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CHAPTER 6. TORSION
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Springs
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CHAPTER 7. SPRINGS
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Chapter 8
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Energy Methods
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8.1 Introduction
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The basics and various approaches of energy method are presented
in this section. The analysis or study on the response of the struc-
tural members subjected to loads is carried out by means of vector
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approach. In this the following three basic ideas are considered to
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perform the analysis.

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1. Consideration of geometry of deformation of the structural

element.
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2. Use of constitutive relation between strain and stress.

3. Applying equilibrium condition.
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The details related to the consideration of the above three steps can
be seen in the derivation of Euler’s beam theory expression consid-
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ered in Chapter 4 on Stresses in Beams, equation 4.3 of Section 4.3.

To arrive at the governing equation for a problem forces and mo-
ments are considered. As against this scalar quantity like work done
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or energy can be considered to arrive at the governing equation. This

approach is classified under Energy method. The energy method is
considered to be one of the most powerful methods used for solving
problems in structural mechanics. Energy principles form the base
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for setting up the governing equation for approximate methods. Fi-

nite element method is one such approach which is most popular
and powerful tool in analysis and design of structures. Also energy
methods are used to solve wide variety of static, dynamic and sta-
bility analysis. Section 8.2 deals with work energy principle, Section
8.3 is on the application od Castigliano’s theorem.
17
18 CHAPTER 8. ENERGY METHODS
8.2 Strain Energy
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The structure/structural element subjected to loads under goes de-
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formation. The work done by the applied load is stored in the form
of energy and this is known as strain energy. The energy stored
will be utilized to bring the structure back to its original configu-
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ration when the loads are removed. It is assumed there is linear
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relation between load/stress and displacement/strain. The general
expression for strain energy is
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ul
Z
1
U = {}t1×6 {σ}6×1 dV
2
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Z
1
U = (σxx xx + σyy yy + σzz zz + τxy γxy + τyz γyz + τzx γzx ) dV
2 Ci
The energy stored for to different loadings is defined in the following.
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8.2.1 Strain Energy due to Axial Loading

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Consider a bar of uniform section subjected to axial load and assume

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x-axis is oriented along the length of the bar. Due to applied only
one stress component is defined, that is stress along x-axis. The
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strain energy expression is defined as shown in the following.

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Z
1
U = xx σxx dV
2
Z 2
1 σxx σxx
= dV Using xx =
2 E E
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Z 2
1 σxx
= A dx dV = A dx
2 E
P2
Z
1 P
= dx σxx =
2E A A
2
P L
U =
2AE
8.2. STRAIN ENERGY 19
The strain energy can be defined in terms of displacement also.
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Z
1
U = xx σxx dV
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2
Z
1
= E 2xx dV Using σxx = E xx
2
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Z
1
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= E 2xx A dx dV = A dx
2
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δ2
Z
1 δ
= A E 2 dx xx =
2 L L
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δ2
Z
1
= AE 2 dx
2 L
rc
A E δ2
U =
2L Ci
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8.2.2 Strain Energy due to Bending

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Consider a beam of uniform section is subjected to bending moment

M. Here again the state of stress in 1-D in nature. Assuming the
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length of the beam is along the x-axis, the strain energy due to
bending is as follows.
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Z
1
U = xx σxx dV
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2
Z 2
1 σxx σxx
= dV Using xx =
2 E E
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Z 2 2
1 M y My
= dA dx σ xx = dV = dA dx
2E I2 I
Z Z
1 2
U = M dx I = y 2 dA
2EI
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M2 L
U = If bending moment is constant along the length of the beam
2EI
The strain energy can be defined using rotation of the cross section
due to bending. Assume a beam of length L is subjected to constant
bending moment M.
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1
U = Mθ θ is the angle subtended by the bent beam at the center of curvature
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2
1 L
= M Using R × θ = L R is the radius of curvature of the bent beam
2 R
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1M2 L M E 1 M
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U = Using = =
2 E IZ I R R EI
1
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U = M 2 dx If bending moment is varying along the length of the beam
2EI
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The strain energy can be written in terms of rotation also.
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U =
1
Mθ
Ci
2
1 EI M E EI
e
= θ Using = M =
2 R I R R
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1 E I θ2 1 θ
U = Using R × θ = L =
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2 L R L
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8.2.3 Strain Energy due to Shear

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Consider shear stress defined in x-y plane alone. The energy expres-
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sion derived can be extended for other components of shear stresses.

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Z
1
U = γxy τxy dV
2
Z
1 2 τxy
= τxy dV Using γxy =
2G G
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The energy expression is completely defined once the relation for

the shear stress in terms of the applied load is known.
8.3. WORK ENERGY PRINCIPLE 21
8.2.4 Strain Energy due to Torsion
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Consider a bar of uniform circular section and length L is subjected
to torque T.
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Z Z
1 1
n
U = γxy τxy dV = γ τ dV
2 2
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Z
1 τ
= τ 2 dV Using γ =
at
2G G
Z 2 2
1 T r τ T T r
= dA dx Using = τ =
ul
2G J 2 r J J
Z Z
1
U = T 2 dx Using J = r2 dA
rc
2GJ
T2 L Ci
U = If T is constant along the length
2GJ
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8.3 Work Energy Principle

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The work energy principle is used to solve structural mechanics

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problem. The work done by the loads is stored in the form strain
energy and it is assumed there is no loss of energy and the entire
work done is converted to strain energy. The statement of this
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principle is: Work done by the applied load is equal to the internal
energy,strain energy.
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The strain energy expression is defined based on the assumption

that there is linear relation between stress and strain (load and dis-
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placement). This expression is simplified for the specified loading.
Example 8.1 A bar of length L and uniform section is fixed

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at its left end and an axial tensile load P is applied at the right end
as shown in Fig.8.1. Determine the elongation of the bar.
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Let the x-axis be oriented along the length of the bar and δ be
the elongation of the bar. Work done by the external load P is,
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assuming gradual application of load,
W =
1
Ci
× P × δ
2
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Strain energy due axial loading is
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P2 L
U =
2AE
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Applying work energy principle

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W = U
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1 P2 L
× P × δ =
2 2AE
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P L
δ =
AE
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Example 8.2 A bar of varying circular section is subjected to

axial load as shown in Fig.8.2. Diameter at top end is d1 and that
at bottom end is d2 . Determine the elongation of the bar.
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Let δ be the elongation of the bar. Work done by the external load
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P is,
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1
W = × P × δ
2
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Load at any section is P and the area changes with diameter d1 at

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top and d2 at the bottom. The diameter at any section is defined

as:
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d = C1 + C2 y y = 0 d = d1 C 1 = d1
d2 − d1
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y = L d = d2 C2 =
L

d2 − d1
d = d1 + y
L
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d2 − d1
d = d1 + k y k =
L
The strain energy is defined as an integral of energy stored in an

element at a distance y from top end.
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Z
1
U = yy σyy dV
2
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2
σyy
Z
1
= dV
2 E
n
2
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σyy
Z
1
= A dy dV = A dy
2 E
at
P2
Z
dy P
= σyy =
ul
2E A A
Z L
2 P2 π d2
rc
dy
= A =
π E 0 (d1 + k y)2 4
"
2 P 2 (d1 + k y)−1
#L
Ci 2 P2

1
L
= = −
πE −k π E k d1 + k y 0
e
0
at
2 P2 1 2 P 2 d1 − d2

1 1
= − − = −
π E k d2 d1 πE d1 d2 d 2 − d1
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L
2 P2 L
U =
-P
π E d 1 d2
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W = U
1 2 P2 L
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× P × δ =
2 π E d1 d2
4P L
δ =
π E d1 d2
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Example 8.3 A cantilever beam of length L is subjected to shear

force P as shown in the Fig.8.3. Determine the deflection at B.
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Let δ be the deflection of beam at B. Work done by applied load is
Ci
1
W = × P × δ
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2
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The strain energy stored is due to bending and the same is defined
by considering bending moment at any section at distance x from
A.
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Z
1
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U = M 2 dx
2EI
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M → Bending moment at x M = P x − P L = P (x − L)
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P x → Moment due to reaction P (↑) at A ()
P L → Fixed end moment at A ( )

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Z L
1
U = P 2 (x − L)2 dx
2EI 0
" #L
P2 (x − L)3 P 2 L3
U = =
2EI 3 6EI
0
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nl
W = U
O
1 P 2 L3
× P × δ =
2 6EI
n
P L3
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δ =
3EI
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Example 8.4 A cantilever beam of uniform section and length L
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is subjected to moment as shown in Fig.8.4. Determine the slope
at B.
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The reacting moment at fixed end is Mo , clockwise, and the bending

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moment remains constant throughout the length of beam. Hence

the beam is subjected to pure bending. Strain energy expression is
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Z
1
U = M 2 dx
2EI
Mo2 L
U = M = Mo
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2EI
Let θ be the slope at B. Work done by applied bending moment is
1
W = × Mo × θ
2
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W = U
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1 Mo2 L
× Mo × θ =
2 2EI
n
Mo L
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θ =
EI
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Example 8.5 A beam of length L and uniform section is sim-
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ply supported at its ends and subjected a shear force as shown in
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Fig.8.5. Determine the deflection at the point of application of load.
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The reaction at the supports are

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P b P a
At A VA = (↑) At C VC = (↑)
L L
Bending moment expressions are:

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P b
For AB × x 0 < x < a
L
P b P a
For BC × x − P (x − a) = (L − x) a < x < L
L L
Strain energy expression is
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Z
1
nl
U = M 2 dx
2EI
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Z a 2 2 Z L 2 2
1 P b 1 P a
= 2
2
x dx + 2
(L − x)2 dx
2EI 0 L 2EI a L
n
2 2 3 a 2 2 " #L
(L − x)3
io
1 P b x 1 P a
= +
2EI L2 3 0 2EI L2 (− 3)
at
a
2 2 2 2
P P a b
b 2 a3 + a2 b 3 =

U =
ul
6EIL2 6EIL
rc
Let δ be the deflection at B, the point of application of load. Work
done by applied load is Ci
1
W = × P × δ
2
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Deflection at the point of application of load is determined by using
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work energy principle.

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W = U
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1 P 2 a2 b 2
× P × δ =
2 6EIL
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P a2 b2
δ =
3EIL
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Note: Consider the case of load applied at midpoint of the beam,

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B is at x = . The reaction at the supports are equal due to

2
symmetry in loading.
P
VA = VC = (↑)
By
2
Due to symmetry in loading, the strain energy stored for the beam
will be twice the energy stored in half of the beam. The bending
moment expression is
P L
M = × x 0 < x <
2 2
Strain energy stored is
y
Z L
nl
1 2 M 2 dx
U = 2 ×
2EI
O
0
Z L 2 2 3 L
1 2 P 1 P x 2
n
= x2 dx =
EI 0 4 EI 4 3 0
io
P 2 L3
U =
at
96 E I
ul
Let δ be the deflection at B, midpoint of the beam. Work done by
applied load is
rc
1
W = × P × δ
2 Ci
The deflection at midpoint is determined using work energy princi-
ple.
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W = U
at
1 P 2 L3
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× P × δ =
2 96 E I
P L3
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δ =
48 E I
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Example 8.6 A beam of uniform section with flexural rigidity EI

and length L is simply supported at its ends and subjected to loads
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as shown in Fig.8.6. Determine the deflection at B.

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Due to symmetry in loading the support reactions will be same.
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The reaction at the supports are
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At A VA = P (↑) At D VD = P (↑)
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For AB P × x 0 < x < a
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For BC P × x − P (x − a) = P × a a < x < L −
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For CD P × x − P (x − a) − P [x − (L − a)] = P × (L − x) L − a < x <
ul
Due to symmetry in loading, the strain energy stored for the beam
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will be twice that for one half of the beam. Hence strain energy is
defined by considering the bending moment expressions for AB and
Ci
BC.
Z a Z L
1 1
e
U = 2 × MAB2
+ 2 × 2 M 2 dx
BC
at
2EI 0 2EI a
Z L
riv
Z a
1 1 2 P 2 × a2 dx
= P 2 × x2 dx +
EI 0 EI a
-P
P 2 a3 a2 P 2 a2

U = + (L − 2 a) = (3 L − 4 a)
EI 3 2 6EI
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Because of symmetry, the beam deflection at B and C will be same

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and let the deflection st these points be δ. Hence work done by

applied loads will be
1
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W = 2 × × P × δ = P × δ
2
The deflection at B is obtained using work energy principle.
W = U
By
P 2 a2
P × δ = (3 L − 4 a)
6EI
P a2
δ = (3 L − 4 a)
6EI
The above expression is used to determine the deflection at B using
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the data given in Example 5.19.
nl
P = 40 kN L = 10 m a = 3m E I = 1.5 × 107 N −m2
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P a2
δ = (3 L − 4 a)
n
6EI
io
40 × 103 × 32
= (3 × 10 − 4 × 3)
at
6 × 1.5 × 107
72 × 10−3 m = 72 mm
ul
δ =
rc
Note: The deflection at B can also determined by considering
Ci
strain energy stored in one half of the beam and correspondingly
work done by external load acting in one half of the beam.
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Example 8.7 Consider the cantilever beam of Example 8.3.
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The cross section of the beam is rectangle , b is the width and d

is its depth. Determine the deflection at B including the effect of
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applied shear force.

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Deflection at B of beam is
δ = δb + δs
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P L3
δb → Deflection due to bending δb =
3EI
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δs → Deflection due to shear

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Energy due to bending is
P 2 L3
Ub =
By
6EI
Deflection due to shear is determined by considering the strain en-
ergy stored in the beam due to shear stress,Us .
Z
1
Us = τ 2 dV
2G
The expression for shear stress is derived in Section 4.3.1. Con-
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sider an element of length dx at a distance x from A as shown
nl
in Fig.8.7(a). Consider an element in the cross section at y from
neutral axis as shown in the Fig.8.7(b).
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The expression for shear stress is

Z
V
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τ = Q where Q = y dA
Ib
V is the shear force at the section
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Q is moment of element area above y about neutral axis

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The moment of element area above is determined as given in the

following. Since the width is constant throughout the depth the
first moment of area of an element can be written directly. The
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moment of area of the element about neutral axis is:

d
Element area = dA = b × − y
2
By

d 1 d
Moment of area = Q = b × − y × y + − y
2 2 2

d 1 d
= b × − y × + y
2 2 2
2
b d 2
= × − y
2 4
The shear force at any section of the beam is V = P. The shear
y
stress at any point y is defined as
nl
V
O
τ = Q
I b 2
P b d 2
= × − y
n
Ib 2 4
io
2
b d3

P d 2
= − y Substitute I =
2I 4 12
at
2
6P d
τ = 3
− y2
bd 4
ul
rc
This shear stress is acting on an element of thickness dy.
Area of element =
Ci
b dy
e
Volume of element = b dy dx
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The energy stored in the beam due shear is

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Z
1
Us = τ 2 dV
2G
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Z Z d
L 2
2 2
1 2 36 P d 2
= − y b dx dy
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2G 0
d b2 d 6 4
−
2
Z d 4
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18 P 2 L d2 y 2

2 d 4
= − + y dy
G b d6 − d 16 2
2
d
By
2
4 2 3 5
18 P L d d y y 2
= y − +
Gbd 6 16 6 5 −d
2
2 5 2
18 P L d 3 P L
Us = 6
× =
Gbd 30 5 Gbd
Total strain energy is
y
nl
U = Ub + Us
O
P 2 L3 3 P2 L
U = +
6EI 5 Gbd
n
io
Let δ be the deflection at B. Work done by applied load is
at
1
× P × δ
ul
W =
2
rc
Hence deflection at B obtained using work energy principle.
W =
Ci
U
e
1 P 2 L3 3 P2 L
at
× P × δ = +
2 6EI 5 Gbd
riv
P L3 6 P L
δ = +
3EI 5 Gbd
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The Euler’s beam theory is based on the assumption of neglecting

the effect of shear. The justification for this can be seen from the
deflection expression. The expression is written in terms of the
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deflection due to bending using the following simplifications.

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1.
E
G =
2 (1 + ν)
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2. Second term multiply and divide by L2 .
3. Denominator of second term is multiplied and divided by d2 .

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nl
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P L3 6 P L
δ = +
3EI 5 Gbd
n
   
io
P L3 P L3 

6 1   1 
= +   
3EI 5 L2 E b d3
  
at
2 (1 + ν) d2
 
ul
P L3  P L3  d2

1
= + (1 + ν) 
b d3 L2
rc
3EI 5

E
12
δ =
P L
3EI
3

1 +
3
5 L
d 2
× 2 (1 + ν)
Ci
e
P L3 d2

4 1
δ = 1 + × 2 ν =
at
3EI 5 L 3
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P L3 d 1
δ = 1.15 × For =
3EI L 5
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P L3 d 1
δ = 1.008 × For =
3EI L 10
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It is seen that when the depth is small, shallow beam, deflection due
to shear is negligible and the effect is significant when the depth is
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large.
Example 8.8 A beam of uniform section is subjected to load

as shown in Fig.8.8. Determine the deflection at C.
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The reaction at the supports are:

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P 3P
VA = (↓) VB = (↑)
2 2
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The bending moment expressions are:

By
P
For AB − x 0 < x < L
2

P 3 3 3
For BC − x + P (x − L) = P x − L L < x < L
2 2 2 2
Strain energy is determined as:
y
nl
Z
1
U = M 2 dx
2EI
O
Z L Z 3L
1 2 1 2 M 2 dx
= MAB dx +
n
BC
2EI 0 2EI L
io
L Z 3L 2
P 2 x2
Z
1 1 2 P 2 x − 3 L dx
at
= dx +
2EI 0 4 2EI L 2
ul
3L
L "
3
3 #
2 3 2 x − 2

P x P L
rc
2
= +
8EI 3 0 2EI 3
L
U =
2
P L 3
Ci
16 E I
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Let δ be the deflection at C. Work done by the applied load is

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1
W = × P × δ
2
-P
Deflection at C is determined by applying work energy principle.

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W = U
P 2 L3
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1
× P × δ =
2 16 E I
P L3
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δ =
8EI
The application of work energy principle is limited due to the fol-

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lowing reasons.
1. The displacement is determined only at the point of appli-

cation of load. In the example problems considered deflec-
tion/slope at points other than the point of application of
load can not obtained.
2. The required displacement must match with load applied.
y
That is if deflection of beam is required then at that point a
nl
shear load must be there. If slope is required correspondingly
bending moment must be present. In Example 8.1 deflec-
O
tion at free end of the cantilever alone can be determined.
The slope at the free end can not be determined at the point
where shear force is applied.
n
io
3. Determination of deflection due to distributed load is also not
possible
at
4. If several loads are applied, determination of displacement at
ul
specific location of one of the loads is difficult. In Example
8.6 since loading on the beam is symmetry, loads of equal
rc
magnitude applied at equal distance from the supports, de-
flection values at these points are same. Hence it is possible
Ci
to apply the work energy principle. If either loads are different
or the points of application of loads are not at equal distance
from the supports then the deflection values will be different
e
and hence work energy principle can not be applied.
at
To overcome the above difficulties it is necessary to develop more

riv
general method.
-P
8.4 Energy Theorems

IT
In this section energy theorems are defined which are applied to

solve structural mechanics problems. Based on the following defini-
-M
tions other form of energy methods are developed.
8.4.1 Strain Energy and Complementary Strain

RD
Energy
The dual concept of strain energy and complementary strain en-
ergy provides the base for some powerful methods of analysis. In
By
the most general form these methods are applicable for both lin-
ear and non-linear structure. Through the concepts for non-linear
structure necessary simplifications can be done such that the meth-
ods can be applied to linear structure. Nonlinearity in the behavior
of the structure is due to two factors. The first is the non linearity
due to material. If the stress-strain relation is not linear, then it
8.4. ENERGY THEOREMS 39
is known as material nonlinearity. The second is due to order of
y
deformation in the structure and is referred as geometric nonlin-
nl
earity. Most of the cases the governing equation is derived based
on the assumption of small displacement. If the deformation due to
O
the applied load is large the strain-displacement becomes nonlinear.
This makes the analysis more complex. The analysis can be carried
out by considering any one or both. When considering nonlinear
n
analysis it is important to note that the principal of superposition
io
is not applicable. Independent of nonlinearity due to material or
geometry, it is assumed that the material is elastic,that is the sys-
at
tem is conservative system. That is the structure comes back to
its original configuration after the removal of load. In the case of
ul
non-conservative system, the structure will not regain its original
rc
configuration and there will be permanent deformation. This is due
to the fact that part of the strain energy stored will be utilized to
over come disturbance like resistance force. Ci
Strain Energy
e
at
The basic definitions of strain energy and complementary strain en-

ergy can be realized by considering the load-displacement or stress-
riv
strain curves shown in Fig.8.9. Also 1-D problem is considered to

have comfort in understanding the definition and can be easily ex-
tended for any complex case.
-P
IT
-M
RD
By
y
nl
O
n
io
at
ul
rc
Ci
e
at
riv
Fig.8.9(i) shows stress-strain curve and Fig.8.9(ii) indicates load-

displacement curve. The area between the curve and any one axis
represents energy stored in the body. The area between curve and
-P
displacement/strain axis represents strain energy and that between

curve and load/stress axis is known as complementary strain energy.
IT
In case if there is linear relation between load and displacement both

will be same.
-M
Consider any load value P and the corresponding displacement be

δ. Consider small variation in the displacement dδ and assume the
load P remains constant over this variation of displacement. The
RD
work done is
dW = P dδ
The total work done during loading up to P is
By
Z δ
W = P dδ
0
This amount of work done will be stored as energy in the body

and is known as strain energy. Since the material is assumed to
be elastic when the load is removed the body will come back to
its original configuration. That is the energy stored will be fully
y
utilized to bring the body back to its original position and hence
nl
there is no loss of energy (conservative system). Hence
Z δ
O
U = W = P dδ U is the strain energy
0
n
The integral represents area included between the curve and dis-
placement axis. The strain energy can be expressed in terms of
io
stress and strain.
at
Z δ
U = P dδ
ul
0
Z δ
P dδ
= A L
rc
0 A L
Z
=
0
Z
σ A L d Ci
U = σ d where U is strain energy per unit volume
e
0
at
For the case of linear relation between load/stress and displace-

ment/strain the above expression can be simplified as follows.
riv
Z
U = σ A L d
0
-P
Z
= E A L d
0
IT
E 2
U = AL
2
-M
E 2
U =
2
Complementary Strain Energy
RD
Let displacement δ corresponds to load P and consider small varia-

tion in the load assuming displacement remains constant. The work
done, complementary work, is defined as
By
dW ∗ = δ dP
Total complementary work done up to displacement δ is

Z Z P
∗ ∗
W = dW = δ dP
0
The complementary strain energy is
y
Z Z P
nl
∗ ∗ ∗
U = W = dW = δ dP
0
O
Z P
∗ δ dP
U = L A
L A
n
Z0 σ
U∗
io
= A L dσ
0
σ
at
Z
U∗ = dσ U ∗ is the complementary strain energy per unit volume
0
ul
Considering Hooke’s law, the complementary strain energy can be
written as
rc
Z σ
∗
U = A L dσ Ci
0
Z σ
∗ σ σ
U = A L dσ =
0 E E
e
2
σ
U∗ =
at
AL
2E
σ2
riv
U∗ =
2E
It is to be noted that
-P
W + W∗ = P δ Total area in load-displacement diagram

IT
8.4.2 Castgliano’s Theorems - Italian Engineer(1879)

-M
Consider a structure subjected to loads P1 , P2 , · · · · · · , Pn . Let the

corresponding displacements be δ1 , δ2 , · · · · · · , δn . It is to be noted
that the loads and displacements are to be taken in general sense.
RD
That is If P1 is the axial load then δ1 is the axial displacement and

in case P3 is the bending moment then δ3 is the slope or rotation of
the beam. If Pn is the torque then δn is the twist of the section. The
strain energy can be expressed in terms of the displacements δi using
By
the relation between Pi and δi (refer definition for strain energy due
to axial load and bending). Now consider a small change in the
displacement δi while all other displacements are kept constant.
The change in strain energy can be expressed as
∂U
dU = dδi
∂δi
This change in strain energy can be defined in another way also.
y
When a small change in the displacement δi is given, some work is
nl
done by the corresponding force Pi and not by other forces as there
is no change in other displacements. Hence work done is
O
Pi × dδi
n
This work done is same as the change in strain energy.
io
dU = Pi × dδi
at
Comparing these two expressions
ul
∂U ∂U
dU = Pi × dδi = dδi Pi =
∂δi ∂δi
rc
This expression corresponds to the Castgliano’s First theorem.
Ci
The partial derivative of strain energy, expressed in terms of the
displacements, with respect to any displacement δi is equal to the
e
corresponding load Pi .
at
Castgliano’s second theorem can be seen by reversing the simplifi-

riv
cations considered for first theorem. Consider a structure subjected

to loads P1 , P2 , · · · · · · , Pn . Let the corresponding displacements
-P
be δ1 , δ2 , · · · · · · , δn . The complementary strain energy U ∗ can be

expressed in terms of loads Pi . Consider change in one of the loads,
Pi . Let the corresponding change in the complementary strain en-
IT
ergy is expressed as
∗ ∂U ∗
dU = dPi
-M
∂Pi
The change in complementary strain energy also can be written as
RD
dU ∗ = δi dPi
Comparing above two expressions

∂U ∗ ∂U ∗
By
dU ∗ = dPi = δi dPi δi =
∂Pi ∂Pi
This expression corresponds to the Castgliano’s Second theorem.
The partial derivative of complementary strain energy, expressed

in terms of the loads, with respect to any load Pi is equal to the
corresponding displacement δi .
y
nl
If there is linear relation between load and displacement then U =
U ∗ and hence the second theorem can be defined in terms of strain
O
energy, U.
∂U
n
δi =
∂Pi
io
at
1. If the stress-strain relation is linear then strain energy (U)
and complementary strain energy U ∗ will be same. The strain
ul
energy can be expressed in terms of either displacements or
forces and accordingly Castigliano’s theorem cam can be ap-
rc
plied.
Ci
2. To apply Castigliano’s theorem there must be a load applied
at the point where the displacement is to determined. In case
e
if there is no load applied, then an imaginary/dummy load
at
is considered at the point where the displacement is to be

riv
determined and the following steps are considered to obtain

the required displacement.
-P
(a) Define the strain energy taking into account the applied
IT
load as well as the imaginary/dummy load.
(b) Apply Castigliano’s theorem by differentiating the strain

-M
energy with respect to the imaginary load.
(c) Simplify the above expression by making dummy load

RD
zero.
This is also known as Dummy Load Method

By
Example 8.9 A cantilever beam of length L and uniform section

is subjected to shear force P and moment Mo at free end as shown in
Fig.8.10. Determine the slope and deflection at free end considering
strain energy due to bending.
y
nl
O
n
io
at
ul
rc
Ci
e
at
riv
Support reactions are:
P → Reaction Force at A (↑)

-P
Mo → Reaction Moment at A ()

IT
P L → Reaction Moment at A due to P at B ( )

-M
Bending moment at a section of distance x from A is

RD
M = P x − P L + Mo = P (x − L) + Mo
Strain energy stored in the beam is

By
Z
1
U = M 2 dx
2EI
Z L
1
U = [P (x − L) + Mo ]2 dx
2EI 0
Deflection at B is determined by applying Castigliano’s theorem.
y
∂U
nl
δ =
∂P
O
Z L
1
= 2 [P (x − L) + Mo ] (x − L) dx
2EI 0
n
Z L
1
io
2
= P (x − L) + Mo (x − L) dx
EI 0
at
( ) 
3 L 2 L
) (
1  (x − L) (x − L)
= P + Mo
ul

EI 3 2
0 0
rc
P L3 Mo L2
δ = −
3EI 2EI Ci
The deflection due to P is downward (positive) and that due to
moment Mo is upward (negative). Let θ be the slope at B and this
e
at
is determined by using Castigliano’s theorem.

∂U
riv
θ =
∂Mo
Z L
1
-P
= 2 [P (x − L) + Mo ] (1) dx
2EI 0
IT
Z L
1
= {P (x − L) + Mo } dx
EI 0
-M
( )L 
1  (x − L)2
= P + Mo (x)L0 
EI 2
RD
P L2 Mo L
δ = − +
2EI EI
By
The shear force P will bend the beam downward, slope is measured
clockwise, and Mo will bend the beam upward, slope is measured in
the anti-clockwise direction. Considering rotation due to moment
as positive rotation due to P will be negative.
Example 8.10 A beam ABC is simply supported at A and B

and subjected to loads as shown in Fig.8.11. Determine the deflec-
y
tion and slope at C.
nl
O
n
io
at
ul
rc
Ci
e
at
riv
Reactions at the support are:

-P
P Mo
+ → Reaction Force at A (↓)
2 L
IT
3P Mo
+ → Reaction Force at B (↑)
-M
2 L
RD

P Mo
For AB M = − + x 0 < x < L
2 L
By

P Mo 3 Mo
For BC M = − + x + P + (x − L)
2 L 2 L

3 3
= P x − L − Mo L < x < L
2 2
Strain energy expression is:
y
nl
O
Z
1
U = M 2 dx
2EI
n
Z 3L
io
Z L 2 2
1 P Mo 1 2 3
U = + x dx + P x − L − Mo dx
at
2EI 0 2 L 2EI L 2
ul
rc
Let δ be the deflection at C and the same is determined using Cas-
Ci
tigliano’s theorem.
e
at
∂U
riv
δ =
∂P
Z L
1 P Mo x
-P
δ = 2 + x dx
2EI 0 2 L 2
IT
Z 3L
1 2 3 3
+ 2 P x − L − Mo x − L dx
2EI 2 2
-M
L
3 L
1 P Mo x
δ = +
2EI 2 L 3 0
RD
3
"
3
3 3
2 # L
1 x − x −2
L 2
L 2
+ P − Mo
EI 3 2
By
L3 L3 L2

P Mo 1 P Mo
δ = + + × + ×
2 L 6EI EI 3 8 2 4
1 P L3 7 Mo L2
δ = +
8 EI 24 E I
Let θ be the slope at C.
y
nl
∂U
θ =
∂Mo
O
Z L
1 P Mo x
θ = 2 + x dx
n
2EI 0 2 L L
io
Z 3L
1 2 3
2 P x − L − Mo (− 1) dx
at
+
2EI L 2
ul
3 L
1 P Mo x
θ = +
EIL 2 L 3 0
rc
" 2 #3 L Ci
3 2
1 x − 2
L
− P − Mo x
EI 2
L
e
2
L2

P Mo L 1 P L
θ = + − − × − Mo ×
at
2 L 3EI EI 2 4 2
riv
7 P L2 5 Mo L
θ = +
24 E I 6 EI
-P
Example 8.11 A beam of length L and uniform section is simply

IT
supported at its ends and subjected to shear force and bending

moment at its mid point as shown in Fig.8.12. Determine the slope
-M
and deflection at the mid point.

RD
By
Reactions at the support are:
y
P Mo
nl
− → Reaction Force at A (↑)
2 L
O
P Mo
+ → Reaction Force at C (↑)
2 L
n
io

P Mo L
at
For AB M = − x 0 < x <
2 L 2
ul

P Mo L
For BC M = − x − P x − + Mo
2 L 2
rc

P Mo L
= + (L − x)
Ci < x < L
2 L 2

e
at
Z
1
U = M 2 dx
2EI
riv
Z L 2 Z L 2
1 2 P Mo 1 P Mo
U = − x dx + + (L − x) dx
-P
2EI 0 2 L 2EI L 2 L
2
IT
Let θ be the slope at B and this is determined as:

∂U
-M
θ =
∂Mo
Z L
RD

1 2 2 P Mo x
θ = − x − dx
2EI 0 2 L L
Z L
1 P Mo (L − x)
+ L 2 + (L − x) dx
By
2EI 2 L L
2
3 L ( )L
(L − x)3

1 P Mo x 2 1 P Mo
θ = − − + +
EI L 2 L 3 0 EIL 2 L (− 3) L
2
P L2 Mo L P L2 Mo L Mo L
θ = − + + + =
y
48 E I 24 E I 48 E I 24 E I 12 E I
nl
O
n
io
Let δ be the deflection at the mid point B.
at
ul
rc
δ =
∂U
Ci
∂P
e
Z L
at

1 2 2 P Mo x
δ = − x dx
2EI 2 L 2
riv
0
Z L
1 P Mo (L − x)
+ 2 + (L − x) dx
2EI L 2 L 2
-P
2
3 L )L
IT
(
(L − x)3

1 P Mo x 2 1 P Mo
δ = − + +
2EIL 2 L 3 0 2EIL 2 L (− 3) L
-M
2
3 2 3 2 3
P L Mo L P L Mo L P L
δ = − + + =
96 E I 24 E I 96 E I 24 E I 48 E I
RD
By
Example 8.12 A frame is subjected to forces P and Q as shown

in the Fig.8.13(a). Determine the displacement along z and y direc-
tions at A. Neglect energy due to axial load and shear.
y
nl
O
n
io
at
ul
rc
Ci
e
at
riv
-P
Effect of Loads on Frame

IT
Segment AB
-M
Load P will act as axial force in AB

Load Q will induce bending moment about x at any point in AB
RD
Segment BC
Load P will cause bending moment about y at any point in BC
By
Load Q will induce bending moment about z at any point in BC

Load Q will also induce twisting moment about x in BC
Neglecting strain energy due to axial load, the strain energy for the
frame is defined as:
U = UAB + UBC
Strain energy in AB is due to bending moment caused by Q about
y
x-axis.
nl
Z
1
UAB = Mx2 dz
O
2 E Ixx
Z L
1
Mx = Q z UAB = Q2 z 2 dz
n
2 E Ixx 0
io
Q2 L3
UAB =
at
6 E Ixx
ul
Strain energy in BC is due to torque at B, transferring load from A
to B, as shown in Fig.8.13(b). Also the energy stored will be due to
rc
bending moments caused by P and respectively about y and z axes.
Ci
e
at
riv
-P
IT
-M
RD
Energy stored in BC is
By
Z 2L Z 2L Z 2L
1 2 2 1 2 2 1
UBC = Q L dx + P x dx + Q2 x2 dx
2GJ 0 2 E Iyy 0 2 E Izz 0
2 3 2 3 2 3
Q L 4 P L 4 Q L
UBC = + +
GJ 3 E Iyy 3 E Izz
Total strain energy is
y
nl
Q2 L3 Q2 L3 4 P 2 L3 4 Q2 L3
U + UAB + UBC = + + +
O
6 E Ixx GJ 3 E Iyy 3 E Izz
n
Displacement along z direction at A is
io
at
∂U
δz =
∂P
ul
8 P L3
δz =
rc
3 E Iyy
Ci
Displacement along y direction at A is
e
at
∂U
δy =
∂Q
riv
1 Q L3 Q L3 8 Q L3
δy = + +
3 E Ixx GJ 3 E Izz
-P
IT
Example 8.13 A beam of uniform section and length L is simply

supported at its ends. It is subjected to uniformly distributed load
-M
through out its entire span. Determine the deflection at the mid
point and slope at the left support.
RD
The required deflection and slope can be determined using the en-
ergy theorem provided at the mid point there must be a shear force
and moment at the left support. Since there is only distributed load
to apply the Castigliano’s theorem introduce dummy loads, Po at
By
the center of the beam and moment Mo at the left support. The
beam with the applied load and dummy loads is shown in Fig.8.14.
The direction of dummy loads can be arbitrary. After solving the
problem if the displacements at the points of application of dummy
loads are positive then the direction of displacements match with
that of dummy loads.
y
nl
O
n
io
at
ul
rc
Support reactions are are:
Ci
e
at
qo L Po Mo
+ − → Reaction Force at A (↑)
2 2 L
riv
qo L Po Mo
+ + → Reaction Force at C (↑)
2 2 L
-P
IT

-M
q o x2

RD
qo L Po Mo L
For AB M = + − x + Mo − 0 < x <
2 2 L 2 2
qo Po Mo L
L x − x2 +

= x + (L − x) 0 < x <
2 2 L 2
By
q o x2

qo L Po Mo L L
For BC M = + − x + Mo − − Po x − 0 < x <
2 2 L 2 2 2
qo Po Mo L
L x − x2 +

= (L − x) + (L − x) < x < L
2 2 L 2
y
nl
Z
1
O
U = M 2 dx
2EI
Z L
n
2
1 2 qo L x − x2 + Po x + Mo (L − x) dx
io
U =
2EI 0 2 2 L
at
Z L 2
1 qo 2
Po Mo
+ Lx − x + (L − x) + (L − x) dx
2EI L 2 2 L
ul
2
rc
Ci
Let δ be the deflection at the mid point B of the beam.
e
at
∂U
δ =
∂Po
riv
Z L
1 2 2 qo L x − x2 + Po x + Mo (L − x) x
-P
δ = dx
2EI 0 2 2 L 2
Z L
1 qo Po Mo (L − x)
IT
2

+ 2 Lx − x + (L − x) + (L − x) dx
2EI L 2 2 L 2
2
-M
Dummy loads are made zero Po = 0 Mo = 0

RD
Z L Z L h
1 2 qo L x2 − x3 dx + 1 qo 2
i
δ = L x − x (L − x) dx
EI 0 4 EI L 4
2
L
By
L
x3 x4 2
4
L2 x2

qo qo x 2 3
δ = L − + − Lx + L
4EI 3 4 0 4EI 4 3 2
2
4
5 qo L
δ =
384 E I
Let θ be slope at A, left support of beam.
y
nl
∂U
θ =
O
∂Mo
Z L
n

1 2 2 qo L x − x2 + Po x + Mo (L − x) L − x
θ = dx
io
2EI 0 2 2 L L
Z L
1 qo Po Mo (L − x)
at
2

+ 2 Lx − x + (L − x) + (L − x) dx
2EI L 2 2 L L
2
ul
Dummy loads are made zero Po = 0 Mo = 0
rc
Z L Ci Z L
1 2 qo L x − x2 (L − x) dx + 1 qo
L x − x2 (L − x) dx

θ = L
EI 0 2L EI 2L
2
e
L
at
4 2 2
4 L
qo x 2 3 L x 2 qo x 2 3 L2 x2
θ = − Lx + + − Lx + L
2EIL 4 3 2 2EI 4 3 2
riv
0
2
1 qo L3
θ =
-P
24 E I
IT
Example 8.14 A frame is subjected to a load P in the vertical

-M
direction as shown in Fig.8.15(a). Determine the deflection in the

vertical and horizontal directions at D considering energy due to
bending.
RD
To determine the deflection in the horizontal direction a dummy

load Q is introduced as shown in Fig.8.15(b). The effect of loads P
and Q in three frame segments is shown in Fig.8.16. Fig.8.16(a) is
By
for DC, for CB Fig.8.16(b) and Fig.8.16(c) corresponds to BA.
Segment DC
Load P will act as axial force in DC
Load Q will induce bending moment at any point in DC
y
nl
O
n
io
at
ul
rc
Ci
e
at
riv
Segment CB
-P
Load P will induce bending moment at any point in CB

Load Q will act as axial force in CB
IT
Load Q will induce constant bending moment in CB

-M
Segment BA
RD
Load P will act as axial force in BA

Load P will induce constant bending moment in BA
Load Q will induce bending moment at any point in BA
By
Load Q will induce constant bending moment in BA
Bending moment expression for DC is
M = Qy
y
nl
O
n
io
at
ul
rc
Ci
e
at
Strain energy in DC is
riv
Z L
1
UDC = M 2 dy
2EI
-P
L
Q2 L3
Z
1
UDC = Q2 y 2 dy =
IT
2EI 0 6EI
-M
Bending moment expression for CB is

M = QL − P x
RD
Strain energy for CB is

Z L
1
UCB = M 2 dx
2EI 0
By
Z L
1
UCB = (Q L − P x)2 dx
2EI 0
Bending moment expression for BA is

M = Q L − P L − Q y = − P L + Q (L − y)
Strain energy for BA is
y
nl
Z 2L
1
UBA = M 2 dy
4EI
O
0
Z 2L
1
UBA = [− P L + Q (L − y)]2 dy
n
4EI 0
io
at
Total strain energy stored in the frame is
ul
U = UDC + UCB + UBA
rc
L 2L
Q2 L3
Z Z
1 2 1
U = + (Q L − P x) dx +
Ci [− P L + Q (L − y)]2 dy
6EI 2EI 0 4EI 0
e
at
δh = Displacement in the horizontal direction at D

riv
∂U
δh =
∂Q
-P
Z L
Q L3 1
δh = + 2 (Q L − P x) (L) dx
3EI 2EI 0
IT
Z 2L
1
+ 2 [− P L + Q (L − y)] (L − y) dy
4EI 0
-M
Dummy load Q is made zero Q = 0

RD
Z L Z 2L
P L P L
δh = − x dx − (L − y) dy
EI 0 2EI 0
P L3
δh = −
By
2EI
The negative sign for deflection value indicates that due to vertical
load P, displacement of point D is opposite to the direction of Q.
If the direction of Q had been assumed towards left then positive
value for horizontal displacement would have been obtained.
y
δv = Displacement in the vertical direction at D
nl
∂U
δv =
∂P
O
Z L Z 2L
1 1
δv = 2 (Q L − P x) (− x) dx + 2 [− P L + Q (L − y)] (− L) dy
n
2EI 0 4EI 0
io
Dummy load Q is made zero Q = 0
at
L 2L
P L2
Z Z
P L 2
δv = x dx + dy
ul
EI 0 2EI 0
rc
4 P L3
δv =
3 EI
Ci
Example 8.15 A curved cantilever beam in the form of quadrant
of a circle is subjected to load P as shown in Fig.8.17(a). Consid-
e
ering energy stored due to bending determine the deflection in the
at
horizontal and vertical directions and slope at B. Flexural rigidity

is constant.
riv
-P
IT
-M
RD
By
To determine the horizontal displacement and slope at B there must
y
be force in the horizontal direction and a moment at B. Hence
nl
dummy loads Q and Mo are applied at B as shown in Fig.8.17(b).
Consider an element of length ds at angle θ from vertical. Moment
O
at this position is
n
M = − P R sin θ − Q (R − R cos θ) − Mo
io
at
Strain energy in the beam is
ul
Z
1
U = M 2 ds
rc
2EI
Z π Ci
1 2 [P R sin θ + Q (R − R cos θ) + M ]2 R dθ
U = o
2EI 0
e
at
riv
δh → Horizontal displacement at B
-P
∂U
δh =
∂Q
IT
Z π
R 2 2 [P R sin θ + Q (R − R cos θ) + M ] R (1 − cos θ) dθ
δh = o
-M
2EI 0
Dummy loads Q and Mo are made zero Q = Mo = 0

RD
Z π
3
P R 2 sin θ (1 − cos θ) dθ
δh =
EI 0
By
3
2
π
P R cos θ 2
δh = − cos θ +
EI 2 0
P R3
δh =
2EI
δv → Vertical displacement at B
y
nl
∂U
δv =
∂P
O
Z π
R 2 2 [P R sin θ + Q (R − R cos θ) + M ] R sin θ dθ
δv =
n
o
2EI 0
io
at
Z π
P R3
ul
δv = 2 sin2 θ dθ
EI 0
rc
Z π
P R3

δv = 2 1 − cos 2 θ dθ Ci
EI 0 2
P π R3
δv =
e
4EI
at
riv
α → Slope/Rotation at B
-P
∂U
α =
∂Mo
IT
Z π
R 2 2 [P R sin θ + Q (R − R cos θ) + M ] (1) dθ
α = o
-M
2EI 0

RD
Z π
P R2 2 sin θ dθ
α =
EI 0
By
π
P R2
α = (− cos θ)02
EI
P R2
α =
EI
8.4.3 Unit Load Method
y
This is a modification of application of Castgliano’s theorem. Con-
nl
sider a set of loads F1 , F2 , · · · · · · , Fn acting on a structure. These
loads will cause axial force, bending moment, shear and torsion in
O
the structure, similar to the case considered in Example 8.12. The
strain energy expression is:
n
P2 M2 T2 V2
Z Z Z Z
io
U = dx + dx + dx + dx
2AE 2EI 2GJ 2GA
at
where P → Axial force due to externally applied loads
ul
M → Bending moment due to externally applied loads
rc
T → Twisting moment/Torque due to externally applied loads
V → Transverse shear force due to externally applied loads
Ci
Applying Castgliano’s second theorem
e
∂U
δi =
at
∂Fi
∂P ∂M ∂T ∂V
Z P Z M Z T Z V
riv
∂Fi ∂Fi ∂Fi ∂Fi

δi = dx + dx + dx + dx
AE EI GJ GA
-P
where the derivative inside each integral can be considered as force

or moment or torque or shear force due to unit load applied at i.
IT
∂P
→ Axial force due to unit load applied at i
∂Fi
-M
∂M
→ Bending moment due to unit load applied at i
∂Fi
∂T
RD
→ Twisting moment/Torque due to unit load applied at i

∂Fi
∂V
→ Transverse shear force due to unit load applied at i
∂Fi
By
This method is particularly needed in some problems where the

applied loads are same in type and magnitude. Let a cantilever
beam of uniform section and length L is subjected to two loads of
magnitude equal to P. One load is applied at free end and other load
is at the mid point of the beam. Let it be required to determine
the deflection at the free end. The strain energy due to bending
is defined in terms of two applied loads both being equal to P. To
y
define the deflection at free end the strain energy expression is to
nl
be differentiated with respect to load applied at free end, which is
P. Since load applied at mid point is also P it is not possible to
O
identify the required deflection by direct application of theorem.
This difficulty can be over come by employing unit load method.
The procedure to be followed in unit load method is as follows:
n
io
1. Determine, depending upon the given problem, the internally
at
developed axial force or bending moment or torque or trans-
verse shear force due to the externally applied loads.
ul
2. Estimate,depending upon the given problem, the internally
rc
developed axial force or bending moment or torque or trans-
verse shear force due to unit load applied at a location where
Ci
the displacement is to be found. The unit load to be applied
must match with required displacement.
e
at
3. Evaluate the integral expression to determine the displace-

ment.
riv
Example 8.16 A cantilever beam of length L and uniform sec-

-P
tion is subjected to load P at its free end as shown in Fig.8.18(a).

Determine the deflection and slope at the free end and at the mid
point.
IT
-M
RD
By
The reaction at the fixed end are:
y
nl
P → Vertical reaction at A (↑)
O
P L → Reacting moment at A ( )
n
io
Bending moment expression is:
at
M = P (x − L) 0 < x < L
ul
To determine the deflection at B apply unit load at B as shown in
rc
Fig.8.18(b).
Ci
e
at
riv
-P
IT
-M
The support reactions are:

RD
1 → Vertical reaction at A (↑)

By
L → Reacting moment at A ( )
Bending moment expression due to unit load is:
M = (x − L) 0 < x < L
Deflection at B is determined as:
y
nl
Z L
1
δB = M M dx
EI
O
0
Z L Z L
1 P
δB = P (x − L) (x − L) dx = (x − L)2 dx
n
EI 0 EI 0
io
P L3
δB =
3EI
at
ul
To determine the slope at B apply unit moment at B as shown in
rc
Fig.8.18(c).
Ci
e
at
riv
-P
IT
-M
RD
1 → Reacting moment at A ( )
By
Bending moment expression due to unit moment is:
M = −1 0 < x < L
Slope at B is determined as:
y
Z L
1
nl
θB = M M dx
EI 0
O
Z L Z L
1 P
θB = P (x − L) (− 1) dx = − (x − L) dx
EI 0 EI 0
n
P L2
io
θB =
2EI
at
To determine the deflection at mid point apply unit load at the
ul
same location as shown in Fig.8.18(d).
rc
Ci
e
at
riv
-P
IT

-M
1 → Vertical reaction at A (↑)

RD
L
→ Reacting moment at A ( )
2
Bending moment expression due to unit load is:

By

L L
M = x − 0 < x <
2 2
L
M = 0 < x < L
2
Let δ be the deflection at mid point and the same is determined as:
y
Z L
nl
Z L
1 2 M M dx + 1
δ = L M M dx
O
EI 0 EI
2
Z L Z L
n

1 2 P (x − L) x − L dx = P 2 (x − L) x − L dx
δ =
io
EI 0 2 EI 0 2
5 P L3
at
δ =
48 E I
ul
To determine the slope at mid point apply unit moment at that
rc
location as shown in Fig.8.18(e).
Ci
e
at
riv
-P
IT
-M

RD
1 → Reacting moment at A ( )
Bending moment expression due to unit moment is:

By
L
M = −1 0 < x <
2
L
M = 0 < x < L
2
Let θ be the slope at the mid point and the same is determined as:
y
nl
Z L Z L
1 2 M M dx + 1
O
θ = L M M dx
EI 0 EI
2
n
Z L Z L
1 P
io
θ = 2 P (x − L) (− 1) dx = − 2 (x − L) dx
EI 0 E I 0
at
3 P L2
θ =
8 EI
ul
rc
The deflection and slope expressions derived at B and at mid point
Ci
are same that obtained in Example 5.1. The slope and deflection
expressions of Example 5.1 are simplified for x = L and x = L2
e
Example 8.17 A beam of length 2L and uniform section is sub-
at
jected to a load P as shown in Fig.8.19(a). Considering strain energy

due to bending determine the deflection and slope at A.
riv
-P
IT
-M
RD
By
P
VB = VD = (↑)
2
Bending moment expressions for various segments of the beam are:
y
nl
L
For AB M = 0 0 < x <
2
O

P L L
For BC M = x − < x < L
2 2 2
n
io

P L
For CD M = x − − P (x − L)
2 2
at

P 3 3
M = L − x L < x < L
ul
2 2 2
rc

P L P 3
For DE M = x − − P (x − L) + x − L
2 2 2 2
M = 0
Ci 3
L < x < 2L
2
e
at
To determine the deflection at A apply unit load at A as shown in

riv
Fig.8.19(b).
-P
IT
-M
RD
By
The support reactions at B and D are:
3 1
VB = (↑) VD = (↓)
2 2
Bending moment expressions, due to unit load at A, for various
y
segments of the beam are:
nl
L
O
For AB M = −x 0 < x <
2
n

3 L
For BD M = −x + x −
2 2
io

1 3 L 3
at
M = x − L < x < L
2 2 2 2
ul

3 L 1 3
For DE M = −x + x − − x − L
2 2 2 2
rc
3
M = 0 Ci L < x < 2L
2
e
Deflection at A is determined as:
at
riv
Z L Z L Z 3L
1 2 M M dx + 1 1 2
δA = L M M dx + E I M M dx
EI EI
-P
0 L
2
Z 2L
1
IT
+ 3 M M dx
EI L
2
-M
Z L
1 P L 1 3
δA = x − x − L dx
EI L 2 2 2 2
2
RD
Z 3L
1 2 P 3 1 3
+ L − x x − L dx
EI L 2 2 2 2
Z 3L
By
Z L 2
P 2 3 2 P 2 3
δA =
4EI L x − 2Lx + 4 L dx −
4EI L
x − L
2
dx
2
P L3
δA = −
32 E I
The negative sign indicates the deflection at A is in the direction
y
opposite to that of unit load. Hence deflection at A is
nl
O
P L3
δA = (↑)
32 E I
n
io
Also it can be seen that due to applied load P deflection at C will
at
be downward and that at A will be upward. If the direction of unit
ul
load is considered upward then deflection at A will turn out to be
positive.
rc
To determine the slope at A apply unit moment at A as shown
in Fig.8.19(c). Ci
e
at
riv
-P
IT
-M
RD
By
The support reactions at B and D are:
1 1
VB = (↓) VD = (↑)
L L
Bending moment expressions, due to unit moment at A, for various
y
segments of the beam are:
nl
L
For AB M = 1 0 < x <
2
O

1 L
For BD M = 1 − x −
n
L 2
io

1 3 L 3
M = L − x < x < L
L 2 2 2
at

1 L 1 3
For DE M = 1 − x − + x − L
ul
L 2 L 2
rc
3
M = 0 L < x < 2L
2
Slope at A is determined as:

Ci
Z L Z 3L
e
Z L
1 2 M M dx + 1 1 2
at
θA = L M M dx + E I M M dx
EI 0 EI L
2
riv
Z 2L
1
+ 3 M M dx
EI L
-P
2
Z L
1 P L 1 3
θA = x − L − x dx
IT
EI L 2 2 L 2
2
Z 3L
-M

1 2 P 3 1 3
+ L − x L − x dx
EI L 2 2 L 2
RD
Z L Z 3L 2
P 2 3 2 P 2 3
θA =
2EIL L −x + 2Lx − 4 L dx +
2EIL L 2
L − x dx
2
By
P L2
θA =
16 E I
It can be seen that the deflection at A is obtained as:

L P L3
δA = × θA =
2 32 E I
Example 8.18 A cantilever beam of length 6 m is subjected to
y
uniformly distributed load of intensity 20 kN/m over the right half
nl
of the span as shown in Fig.8.20(a). Determine the deflection and
slope at C and B. Flexural rigidity is constant.
O
n
io
at
ul
rc
The support reactions at A are:
Ci
60 kN → Vertical reaction at A (↑)
e
at
270 kN − m → Reactingmoment at A ( )
riv

-P
For AB M = 60 x − 270 0 < x < 3

IT
For BC M = 60 x − 270 − 10 (x − 3)2

-M
M = − 10 x2 + 120 x − 360 3 < x < 6

RD
By
To determine the deflection at C apply unit load at C as shown in
y
Fig.8.20(b). The support reactions at A are:
nl
O
6 kN − m → Reacting moment at A ( )
n
io
at
x − 6
ul
M = 0 < x < 6
rc
Deflection at C is determined as: Ci
Z 3 Z 6
1 1
δ = M M dx + M M dx
EI EI
e
0 3
at
Z 3
1
δ = (60 x − 270) (x − 6) dx
EI
riv
0
Z 6
1
− 10 x2 + 120 x − 360 (x − 6) dx

+
EI
-P
3
Z 3
1
60 x2 − 630 x + 1620 dx

δ =
IT
EI 0
Z 6
1
− 10 x3 + 180 x2 − 1080 x + 2160 dx

-M
+
EI 3
1 3
δ = 20 x3 − 315 x2 + 1620 x
RD
EI 0
6
1 5 4 3 2
+ − x + 60 x − 540 x + 2160 x
EI 2 3
By
5535 × 103
δ =
2EI
To determine the slope at C apply unit moment at C as shown in

Fig.8.20(c).
y
nl
O
n
io
at
ul
The support reaction at A is:
rc
1 kN − m → Reacting moment at A ( )
Ci
e
at
riv
M = −1 0 < x < 6
-P
Slope at C is determined as:

IT
Z 3 Z 6
1 1
θ = M M dx + M M dx
-M
EI 0 EI 3
Z 3 Z 6
1 1
− 10 x2 + 120 x − 360 (− 1) dx

θ = (60 x − 270) (− 1) dx +
RD
EI 0 EI 3
6
1 2
3 1 10 3 2
θ = − 30 x + 270 x 0 + x − 60 x + 360 x
EI EI 3 3
By
630 × 103
θ =
EI

Fig.8.20(d).
y
nl
O
n
io
at
The support reactions at A are:
ul
rc
3 kN − m → Ci
Reacting moment at A ( )

e
at
M = x − 3 0 < x < 3
riv
M = 0 3 < x < 6
-P

Z 3 Z 6
1 1
IT
δ = M M dx + M M dx
EI 0 EI 3
-M
Z 3
1
δ = (60 x − 270) (x − 3) dx
EI 0
RD
Z 3
1
60 x2 − 450 x + 810 dx

δ =
EI 0
1 3
δ = 20 x3 − 225 x2 + 810 x 0
EI
By
945 × 103
δ =
EI
To determine the slope at B apply unit moment at B as shown in

Fig.8.20(e).
y
nl
O
n
io
at
ul
The support reaction at A is:
1 kN − m →
rc
Reacting moment at A ( )

Ci
e
M = −1 0 < x < 3
at
M = 0 3 < x < 6
riv
-P

Z 3 Z 6
1 1
IT
θ = M M dx + M M dx
EI 0 EI 3
Z 3
1
-M
θ = (60 x − 270) (− 1) dx
EI 0
1 3
RD
θ = − 30 x2 + 270 x 0
EI
540 × 103
θ =
EI
By
Using Macaulay’s method
Consider bending moment expression for BC.
M = 60 x − 270 − 10 (x − 3)2
The bending moment expression for AB is obtained by omitting
y
third term. The governing equation is
nl
d2 v
EI = − M = − 60 x + 270 + 10 (x − 3)2
O
dx2
The slope expression is
n
dv 10
io
EI = − 30 x2 + 270 x + (x − 3)3 + C1
dx 3
at
The deflection expression is
ul
5
E I v = − 10 x3 + 135 x2 + (x − 3)4 + C1 x + C2
6
rc
The arbitrary constants are determined using fixed end conditions
at A.
dv
Ci
At x = 0 = 0 C1 = 0 using slope expression, omitting third term
dx
e
at
At x = 0 v = 0 C2 = 0 using defletion expression, omitting third term

The expressions for slope and deflection are:
riv
dv 10
EI = − 30 x2 + 270 x + (x − 3)3
-P
dx 3
5
E I v = − 10 x3 + 135 x2 + (x − 3)4
IT
6
The slope and deflection at B are determined by substituting x =
-M
3.
dv 540 × 103 945 × 103
θ = = δ = v =
RD
dx EI EI
The slope and deflection at C are determined by substituting x =
6.
dv 630 × 103 5535 × 103
By
θ = = δ = v =
dx EI 2EI
Example 8.19 A beam of length L and uniform section is simply
supported at its ends and subjected to loads as shown in Fig.8.21(a).
Determine the deflection at B and maximum deflection. Also de-
termine the slope at A.
y
nl
O
n
io
at
ul
rc
Ci
e
at
P → Vertical Reaction at A (↑)

riv
P → Vertical Reaction at D (↑)

-P
IT

-M
AB M = P x 0 < x < a
RD
BC M = P x − P (x − a) = P a a < x < L − a
CD M = P x − P (x − a) − P [x − (L − a)] = P (L − x) L − a < x < L

By
To determine the deflection at B, apply unit load at B as shown in

Fig.8.21(b).
y
nl
O
n
io
at
ul
rc
Ci
e
at

riv
-P
L − a a
VA = (↑) VD = (↑)
L L
IT
-M

RD
By

L − a
For AB M = x 0 < x < a
L

L − a a
For BD M = x − 1 × (x − a) = (L − x) a < x < L
L L
y
nl
Z a Z L−a Z L
1 1 1
δ = M M dx + M M dx + M M dx
EI EI a E I L −a
O
0
a Z L−a
L − a
Z
1 1 a
δ = P x x dx + P a (L − x) dx
n
EI 0 L EI a L
io
Z L
1 a
+ P (L − x) (L − x) dx
at
EI L−a L
Z a Z L−a
P (L − a) P a2
ul
2
δ = x dx + (L − x) dx
EIL 0 EIL a
rc
Z L
P a
+ (L − x)2 dx
E I L L−a Ci
a " #L − a " #L
x3 P a2 (L − x)2 (L − x)3

P (L − a) P a
δ = + +
e
EIL 3 0 EIL (− 2) EIL (− 3)
a L−a
at
P a2
δ = (3 L − 4 a)
riv
6EI
-P
The deflection value at B is computed using the data given Exam-

ple 5.19.
IT
P = 40 kN L = 10 m a = 3m E I = 1.5 × 107 N −m2

-M
RD
P a2 40 × 103 × 32
δ = (3 L − 4 a) = (3 × 10 − 4 × 3)
6EI 6 × 1.5 × 107
δ = 72 × 10−3 m = 72 mm
By
Due to symmetry about mid point of the beam deflection will be

maximum at the midpoint. To determine the mid point deflection
apply unit load at mid point,E, as shown in Fig.8.21(c).
y
nl
O
n
io
at
ul
rc
Ci
e
at
1 1
VA = (↑) VD = (↑)
2 2
riv
-P

IT
x L
For AE M = 0 < x <
-M
2 2

x L 1 L
For ED M = − 1 × x − = (L − x) < x < L
RD
2 2 2 2
By
The bending moment expressions due to the applied load are de-
fined by considering 3 sections and that due to unit load at E are
defined by considering 2 sections. One bending moment expression
is defined between a and (L - a) for applied load; but there are two
bending moment expressions between a and (L - a) for unit load.
Hence two integral terms have to be considered between a and (L -
a). Deflection at E is determined as:
y
Z L
nl
Z a Z L−a
1 1 2 M M dx + 1
δ = M M dx + L M M dx
EI EI EI
O
0 a
2
Z L
1
+ M M dx
n
EI L −a
io
Z a Z L Z L−a
1 x 1 2 P a x dx + 1 1
at

δ = P x dx + L P a × (L − x) dx
EI 0 2 EI a 2 EI 2
2
ul
Z L
1 1
+ P (L − x) (L − x) dx
rc
EI L −a 2
δ =
P
Z a
x2 dx +
P a
Z L Ci
2 x dx + P a
Z L−a
(L − x) dx
2EI 0 2EI a 2EI L
2
e
at
Z L
P
+ (L − x)2 dx
2EI L−a
riv
a L " #L − a " #L
x3 x2 (L − x)2 (L − x)3

P P a 2 P a P
δ = + + +
-P
2EI 3 0 2EI 2 a 2EI (− 2) L 2EI (− 3)

L−a
2
IT
P a
3 L 2 − 4 a2

δ =
24 E I
-M
The deflection value at E is computed using the data given Exam-

ple 5.19.
RD
P = 40 kN L = 10 m a = 3m E I = 1.5 × 107 N −m2
P a 2 2
40 × 103 × 3 2 2

δ = 3L − 4a = 3 × 10 − 4 × 3
24 E I 24 × 1.5 × 107
By
δ = 88 × 10−3 m = 88 mm
The slope at A is determined by applying unit moment at A as

shown in the Fig.8.21(d).
y
nl
O
n
io
at
ul
rc
Ci
e
at

riv
-P
IT
1 1
VA = (↓) VD = (↑)
L L
-M
RD

By
x L − x
M = − + 1 = 0 < x < L
L L
y
nl
Z a Z L−a Z L
1 1 1
θ = M M dx + M M dx + M M dx
EI 0 EI a E I L −a
O
a Z L−a
L − x L − x
Z
1 1
θ = P x dx + P a dx
EI L EI a L
n
0
io
L
(L − x)
Z
1
+ P (L − x) dx
EI L −a L
at
Z a Z L−a
P P a
θ = x (L − x) dx + (L − x) dx
ul
EIL 0 EIL a
rc
Z L
P
+ (L − x)2 dx
EIL L −a
P

L x2 x3
a
P a
Ci
"
(L − x)2
#L − a
θ = − +
EIL 2 3 EIL (− 2)
e
0 a
at
" #L
P (L − x)3
+
riv
EIL (− 3)
L −a
P a (L − a)
θ =
-P
2EI
IT
The slope at A is computed using the data given Example 5.19.

-M
P = 40 kN L = 10 m a = 3m E I = 1.5 × 107 N −m2

RD
P a (L − a) 40 × 103 × 3 × 7
θ = =
2EI 2 × 1.5 × 107
θ = 280 × 10−4 rad. = 0.028 rad.

By
Example 8.20 A simply supported beam is of length 5 m and

subjected to moments as shown in Fig.8.22(a). Determine the slope
at the ends and deflection at the mid point. Flexural rigidity is
constant.
y
nl
O
n
io
at
ul
rc
VA = 4 kN (↑) Ci VB = 4 kN (↓)
Bending moment expression is

e
M = 4 x + 20 0 < x < 5
at
To determine the slope at A apply unit moment at A as shown in

riv
Fig.8.22(b).
-P
IT
-M
RD

By
1 1
VA = kN (↓) VB = kN (↑)
5 5
1 5 − x
M = − x + 1 = 0 < x < 5
5 5
y
Z 5
1
nl
θ = M M dx
EI 0
O
Z 5 Z 5
1 5 − x 1
100 − 4 x2 dx

= (4 x + 20) dx =
EI 0 5 5EI 0
n
200 × 103
io
θ =
3EI
at
Slope at B is determined by applying unit moment at B as shown
ul
in Fig.8.22(c).
rc
Ci
e
at
riv
-P

1 1
IT
VA = kN (↑) VB = kN (↓)
5 5
-M
1
M = x 0 < x < 5
5
RD

Z 5
1
θ = M M dx
EI 0
By
Z 5 Z 5
1 x 1
4 x2 + 20 x dx

= (4 x + 20) dx =
EI 0 5 5EI 0
250 × 103
θ =
3EI
The deflection at midpoint is determined by applying unit load at
y
the center of the beam as shown in Fig.8.22(d).
nl
O
n
io
at
ul
rc
VA =
1
kN (↑)
Ci VB =
1
kN (↑)
2 2
e
at
x
M1 = 0 < x < 2.5
riv
2
x 5 − x
M2 = − 1 × (x − 2.5) = 2.5 < x < 5
-P
2 2
IT
Deflection at midpoint is determined as:

Z 2.5 Z 5
1 1
-M
δ = M M1 dx + M M2 dx
EI 0 E I 2.5
Z 2.5 Z 5
1 x 1 5 − x
RD
= (4 x + 20) dx + (4 x + 20) dx
EI 0 2 E I 2.5 2
2.5 5
1 2 3 2 1 2 3
= x + 5x + 50 x − x
EI 3 0 EI 3 2.5
By
93.75 × 103
δ =
EI
Example 8.21 A beam of length 10 m is simply supported at its

ends and subjected to loads as shown in Fig.8.23(a). Lengths of AC
and DF are equal to 3 m and that of CD is 4 m. Loads are applied
y
at B and E, midpoints of AC and DF respectively. Second moment
nl
of area of AC and DF are equal to I and that of CD is 2I and the
modulus of elasticity of beam material is E. E I = 4 × 107 N −m2
O
. Determine the slope at the supports and deflection at B, E and
center of the beam.
n
io
at
ul
rc
Ci
e
at
riv
-P

IT
VA = 63 kN (↑) VF = 77 kN (↑)
-M

RD
For AB M = 63 x 0 < x < 1.5
For BE M = 63 x − 60 (x − 1.5) = 3 (x + 30) 1.5 < x < 8.5

By
For EF M = 63 x − 60 (x − 1.5) − 80 (x − 8.5) = 77 (10 − x) 8.5 < x < 10
The slope at left support at A is determined by applying unit mo-

ment as shown in Fig.8.23(b).
y
nl
O
n
io
at
ul
rc
Ci
e
VA = 0.1 kN (↓) VF = 0.1 kN (↑)
at

riv
M = − 0.1 x + 1 = 0.1 (10 − x) 0 < x < 10

There are three bending moment expressions for applied load and
-P
one bending moment expression for unit moment. Since there are
two different sections of beam the expression for slope at A is defined
IT
using five terms as shown here.

1. First term is defined using bending moment for AB due to
-M
applied load and that for unit moment. Flexural rigidity is

EI. (0 to 1.5).
RD
2. Second term is based on bending moment for BE due to ap-

plied load and that for unit moment. Flexural rigidity is EI.
(1.5 to 3).
3. The bending moment expression for BE due to applied load
By
and that for unit moment are used to define third term. Flex-
ural rigidity is 2 EI. (3 to 7).
4. Fourth term is defined using the bending moment for BE due
to applied load and that for unit moment. Flexural rigidity is
EI. (7 to 8.5).
5. The bending moment for EF due to applied load and that for
y
unit moment are used to define fifth term. Flexural rigidity is
nl
EI. (8.5 to 10).
O
n
io
at
ul
rc
Z 1.5 Ci Z 3
1 1
θ = 63 x × 0.1 (10 − x) dx + 3 (x + 30) × 0.1 (10 − x) dx
EI 0 EI 1.5
Z 7 Z 8.5
1 1
e
+ 3 (x + 30) × 0.1 (10 − x) dx + 3 (x + 30) × 0.1 (10 − x) dx
at
2EI 3 EI 7
Z 10
1
riv
+ 77 (10 − x) × 0.1 (10 − x) dx

E I 8.5
Z 1.5 Z 3
6.3 0.3
-P
2
− x2 − 20 x + 300 dx

θ = 10 x − x dx +
EI 0 E I 1.5
IT
Z 7 Z 8.5
0.3 2 0.3
− x2 − 20 x + 300 dx

+ − x − 20 x + 300 dx +
2EI 3 EI 7
-M
Z 10
7.7
+ (10 − x)2 dx
E I 8.5
RD
327.175 × 103 327.175 × 103

θ = = = 81.79375 × 10−4 rad.
EI 4 × 107
By
The same problem has been solved using moment area method, Sec-
tion 5.4, Example 5.22. Slope at F is determined by considering
unit moment applied at F as shown in Fig.8.23(c).
y
nl
O
n
io
at
ul
rc
Ci
e
at
riv
-P

IT
-M
VA = 0.1 kN (↑) VF = 0.1 kN (↓)

RD

By
M = 0.1 x 0 < x < 10

The slope at F is determined as:
y
nl
Z 1.5 Z 3
1 1
θ = 63 x × 0.1 x dx + 3 (x + 30) × 0.1 x dx
EI 0 EI 1.5
O
Z 7 Z 8.5
1 1
+ 3 (x + 30) × 0.1 x dx + 3 (x + 30) × 0.1 x dx
2EI 3 EI 7
n
Z 10
io
1
+ 77 (10 − x) × 0.1 x dx
E I 8.5
at
Z 1.5 Z 3
6.3 2 0.3
x2 + 30 x dx

θ = x dx +
ul
EI 0 E I 1.5
Z 7 Z 8.5
rc
0.3 2 0.3
x2 + 30 x dx

+ x + 30 x dx +
2EI 3 EI 7
+
7.7
Z 10
10 x − x2 dx

Ci
E I 8.5
e
355.325 × 103 355.325 × 103
at
θ = = = 88.83125 × 10−4 rad.

EI 4 × 107
riv

-P
Fig.8.23(d).
IT
-M
RD
By
y
nl
VA = 0.85 kN (↑) VF = 0.15 kN (↑)
O
n
io
M1 = 0.85 x 0 < x < 1.5
at
ul
M2 = 0.85 x − 1 × (x − 1.5) = 0.15 (10 − x) 1.5 < x < 10
rc
Ci
e
Z 1.5 Z 3
1 1
at
δ = 63 x × 0.85 x dx + 3 (x + 30) 0.15 (10 − x) dx

EI 0 EI 1.5
riv
Z 7 Z 8.5
1 1
+ 3 (x + 30) 0.15 (10 − x) dx + 3 (x + 30) 0.15 (10 − x) dx
2EI 3 EI 7
-P
Z 10
1
+ 77 (10 − x) 0.15 (10 − x) dx
E I 8.5
IT
Z 1.5 Z 3
53.55 2 0.45
− x2 −

δ = x dx + 20 x + 300 dx
EI E I 1.5
-M
0
Z 7 Z 8.5
0.45 0.45
− x2 − 20 x + 300 dx + − x2 − 20 x + 300 dx

+
2EI 3 EI
RD
7
Z 10
11.55
+ (10 − x)2 dx
EI 8.5
455.325 × 103 455.325 × 103

By
δ = = = 113.83125 × 10−4 m = 11.38 mm

EI 4 × 107
The deflection at E is determined by applying unit load at E as

shown in Fig.8.23(e).
y
nl
O
n
io
at
ul
rc
Ci
e
at
riv

-P
IT
VA = 0.15 kN (↑) VF = 0.85 kN (↑)

-M
RD

By
M1 = 0.15 x 0 < x < 8.5
M2 = 0.15 x − 1 × (x − 8.5) = 0.85 (10 − x) 8.5 < x < 10

Deflection at E is determined as:
y
1.5 3
nl
Z Z
1 1
δ = 63 x × 0.15 x dx + 3 (x + 30) 0.15 x dx
EI 0 EI 1.5
O
Z 7 Z 8.5
1 1
+ 3 (x + 30) 0.15 x dx + 3 (x + 30) 0.15 x dx
2EI 3 EI 7
n
Z 10
io
1
+ 77 (10 − x) 0.85 (10 − x) dx
E I 8.5
at
Z 1.5 Z 3
9.45 2 0.45
x2 + 30 x dx

δ = x dx +
ul
EI 0 E I 1.5
Z 7 Z 8.5
0.45 0.45
rc
2
x2 + 30 x dx

+ x + 30 x dx +
2EI 3 EI 7
+
65.45
Z 10
(10 − x)2 dx
Ci
EI 8.5
e
489.675 × 103 489.675 × 103
at
δ = = = 122.41875 × 10−4 m = 12.24 mm

EI 4 × 107
riv
The deflection at midpoint is determined by applying unit load at

the center as shown in Fig.8.23(f).
-P
IT
-M
RD
By
y
nl
VA = 0.5 kN (↑) VF = 0.5 kN (↑)
O
M1 = 0.5 x 0 < x < 5
n
io
M2 = 0.5 x − 1 × (x − 5) = 0.5 (10 − x) 5 < x < 10
at
Deflection at the center is determined as:
ul
Z 1.5 Z 3
1 1
rc
δ = 63 x × 0.5 x dx + 3 (x + 30) 0.5 x dx
EI 0 E I 1.5
+
1
Z 5
3 (x + 30) 0.5 x dx +
Ci 1
Z 7
3 (x + 30) 0.5 (10 − x) dx
2EI 3 2EI 5
e
Z 8.5 Z 10
1 1
+ 3 (x + 30) 0.5 (10 − x) dx + 77 (10 − x) 0.5 (10 − x) dx
at
EI 7 E I 8.5
riv
Z 1.5 Z 3
31.5 2 1.5
x2 + 30 x dx

δ = x dx +
EI 0 E I 1.5
-P
Z 5 Z 7
1.5 2 1.5
− x2 − 20 x + 300 dx

+ x + 30 x dx +
2EI 3 2EI 5
IT
Z 8.5 Z 10
1.5 38.5
2
(10 − x)2 dx

+ − x − 20 x + 300 dx +
EI 7 E I 8.5
-M
853.125 × 103 853.125 × 103

δ = = = 213.28125 × 10−4 m = 21.33 mm
EI 4 × 107
RD
By

Energy Methods Struct 1

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Energy Methods Struct 1

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y

October 28, 2017

perform the analysis.

1. Consideration of geometry of deformation of the structural

2. Use of constitutive relation between strain and stress.

ered in Chapter 4 on Stresses in Beams, equation 4.3 of Section 4.3.

or energy can be considered to arrive at the governing equation. This

for setting up the governing equation for approximate methods. Fi-

8.2 Strain Energy

8.2.1 Strain Energy due to Axial Loading

Consider a bar of uniform section subjected to axial load and assume

strain energy expression is defined as shown in the following.

The strain energy can be defined in terms of displacement also.

8.2.2 Strain Energy due to Bending

Consider a beam of uniform section is subjected to bending moment

8.2.3 Strain Energy due to Shear

sion derived can be extended for other components of shear stresses.

The energy expression is completely defined once the relation for

8.2.4 Strain Energy due to Torsion

8.3 Work Energy Principle

The work energy principle is used to solve structural mechanics

The strain energy expression is defined based on the assumption

placement). This expression is simplified for the specified loading.

Example 8.1 A bar of length L and uniform section is fixed

Applying work energy principle

Example 8.2 A bar of varying circular section is subjected to

Load at any section is P and the area changes with diameter d1 at

top and d2 at the bottom. The diameter at any section is defined

The strain energy is defined as an integral of energy stored in an

element at a distance y from top end.

Applying work energy principle

Example 8.3 A cantilever beam of length L is subjected to shear

P x → Moment due to reaction P (↑) at A ()

P L → Fixed end moment at A ( )

Applying work energy principle

The reacting moment at fixed end is Mo , clockwise, and the bending

moment remains constant throughout the length of beam. Hence

Let θ be the slope at B. Work done by applied bending moment is

Applying work energy principle

The reaction at the supports are

Bending moment expressions are:

Strain energy expression is

work energy principle.

Note: Consider the case of load applied at midpoint of the beam,

B is at x = . The reaction at the supports are equal due to

Strain energy stored is

Example 8.6 A beam of uniform section with flexural rigidity EI

as shown in Fig.8.6. Determine the deflection at B.

Due to symmetry in loading the support reactions will be same.

Because of symmetry, the beam deflection at B and C will be same

and let the deflection st these points be δ. Hence work done by

The above expression is used to determine the deflection at B using

The cross section of the beam is rectangle , b is the width and d

applied shear force.

δs → Deflection due to shear

Energy due to bending is

The expression for shear stress is derived in Section 4.3.1. Con-

The expression for shear stress is

Q is moment of element area above y about neutral axis

The moment of element area above is determined as given in the

moment of area of the element about neutral axis is:

The shear force at any section of the beam is V = P. The shear

P x → Moment due to reaction P (↑) at A ()

Mo → Reaction Moment at A ()