Mathematics in the Modern World

Chapter 3.1: Problem Solving

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

A. Problem Solving

What is a Problem?

 In general, a problem is a statement or a situation where there is an obstacle between what we

have and what we want.

What is a Problem Solving?

Problem Solving is the ability to make decisions, view, formulate, model and investigate problem
situations, and communicate solutions effectively. In plain language, problem solving is the ability to
solve or eliminate obstacle so that we can get what we want.

Types of Problem Solving:

A. Routine Problem Solving 

- Stresses the use of sets of known or prescribed procedures (algorithms) to solve problems.

B. Nonroutine Problem Solving

- Stresses the use of heuristics and often requires little to no use of algorithms.

Two types:

1. Static Non-Routine Problems - Problems have a fixed, known goal and fixed, known elements
that are used to resolve the problem.
2. Active Non- Routine Problems - May have a fixed goal with changing elements, a changing goal
or alternative goals with fixed elements, or changing or alternative goals with changing
elements.
Benefits of Problem Solving

1. It can be an avenue for the application of concept.

2. It can identify students who have the ability to transfer the knowledge learned into new

situations.

3. It can make distinction among students with varied mathematical abilities.

4. It is an interesting and enjoyable way to learn mathematics.

5. It gives variety of mathematical class.

6. It enhances critical thinking skills and creativity.

7. It can be made a springboard to the discussion of the new lesson.

8. It can serve as a value of integration.

9. It can be utilized to promote cooperative learning.

B. Reasoning

- Sophisticated capacity for logical thought and actions, such as analyzing, providing, evaluating,
explaining, justifying, and generalizing.

Conjecture/ hypothesis – the conclusion formed as a result of inductive reasoning which may or

may not be true.

Counterexamples – A statement is a true statement provided it is true in all cases. If you can find

one case in which a statement is not true, called a counterexample then the statement is a false

statement.

Types of Reasoning

1. Inductive Reasoning – generates a conclusion based on the examination of specific examples.

Conclusion form is called conjecture.
Application of Inductive Reasoning in Problem Solving

 Can be used to predict the next number.

 Can be used to Make Conjectures
2. Deductive Reasoning – the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions,
principles and procedures. It is also the process of proving a specific conclusion from one or
more general statements.

Application of Deductive Reasoning in Problem Solving

 Can be used to make conjecture.

C. Polya’s Four Step in Problem Solving

Step 1: Understand the Problem

Step 2: Devise a Plan

Step 3: Carry out the Plan

Step 4: Look back and check if your solution works.

 3.2 Problem Solving with Patterns

Fibonacci Sequence - Fibonacci rabbit problem in chapter 1 is not realistic model of population growth
of rabbits but is a very good example of a mathematical problem solved using patterns.

Sequence - an ordered list of numbers.

Terms of Sequence– each number in the sequence separated by commas.

The Fibonacci Formula

F 2 = 1 and F 2 = 1

F n = F n-1 + F n-2 , for n ≥ 3

3.3 Problem Solving Strategies

1. Guess and Check - This strategy involves guessing a solution, checking the guess and, if
necessary,

using information gained from the checking process to revise the guess.

Steps:

 Understand the problem

 Devise a plan
 Carry out the plan
 Look back
2. Use a Variable - The use of a variable strategy is one of the most useful problem-solving
strategies. It is extensively used in algebra and in mathematics that involves algebra.
3. Draw a Diagram/Picture - At this stage you must draw the diagram/picture and mark down all
the given information before you try to solve it. Drawing a picture helps to motivate the
students to pursue an otherwise vague problem.
4. Working Backwards - This strategy may be appropriate when:
 The final result is clear and the initial portion of a problem is obscure.
 A problem proceeds from being complex initially to being simple at the end.
 A direct approach involves a complicated equation.
  A problem involves a sequence of reversible actions.

Chapter 4: Statistics

4.1 Measures of Central Tendency

A. Statistics and its Importance

Statistics is a discipline that deals with the structured approach of gathering, classifying, displaying,

assessing, and measuring qualitative and numerical data for successful decision-making.

Branches of Statistics

1. Descriptive Statistics – method of organizing, summarizing, and presenting data in the form which will
make them easier to analyze and interpret. In this branch of statistics, the goal is to describe the data.
Several items belong in this portion of statistics, such as:

a. Measures of Central Tendency

b. Measures of Position

c. Measures of Dispersion or Variability

d. Measures of Shape

2. Inferential Statistics - refers to the drawing of valid conclusions or inferences about a population
based on a representative sample systematically taken from the same population.

Types of Data as to Manner of Presentation

a. Grouped Data - Data presented/Organized into groups like categories or classification.

b. Ungrouped Data - A set or array of things or observation that has not undergone any classification.

B. Measures of Central Tendency

- A measure of central tendency is a summary statistic that represents the center point or typical value
of a dataset. These measures indicate where most values in a distribution fall and are also referred to as
the central location of a distribution.
Three Most Common Measures of Central Tendency

1. Mean - Also known as arithmetic mean or average.

2. Median – The middle value or center of the given data set.

3. Mode – The most frequent value in the distribution.

B.1. Calculating the Measures of Central Tendency for Ungrouped Data

1. Mean/Arithmetic Mean - To find the mean of the ungrouped data, use the formula

Where:

 Get the sum of all the given data.

 Divide the sum by the number of data (n)
2. Median - To find the median of a given set of data, take note of the following steps

Step 1. Arrange the data in either increasing or decreasing order

Step 2. Locate the middle value

a.) If the number of cases is odd, the middle value is the median
b.) If the number of cases is even, the average of the two middle value is the median
3. Mode – the most frequent value in the distribution.

Types of Mode

1. No mode – no mode

2. Unimodal – 1 mode

3. Bimodal – 2 modes

4. Trimodal – 3 modes

5. Multimodal – 4 or more modes

 4. Weighted Mean (WM) - An average calculated by taking into account not only the
frequencies of the values of a variable but also some other factors such as variance.

Where: w – weight
x – observed value
B.2. Calculating the Measures of Central Tendency for Grouped Data
1. Mean

Steps on how to solve:

 Get the midpoint of each classinterval(x)

 Multiply each midpoint by the corresponding frequency to obtain fx.
 Find the sum of these products,
 Divide the sum by n

2.Median

Formula:

3.Mode
Formula:

Where 
Mo = Mode
fmo = Frequency of the modal class
LBmo = Lower class boundary containing the modal class
f1 = Frequency of the class boundary before the modal class
f2 = Frequency of the class boundary after the modal class
i  = Class size

Lesson 4.2 Measures of Dispersions or Variability

 Dispersion/Variation- Measures the tendency of numerical data to spread around the average
value. Measures of Dispersion/Variability. Describes the distribution or variance of the data
across the central value.  It shows the scatterings of the data. 

1. Range – the interval between the highest and the lowest score. The range is a measure of variability
or scatteredness of the variates or observations among themselves and does not give an idea about the
spread of the observations around some central value.

2. Mean Absolute Deviation – The average of the absolute deviation of the individual score from the
mean of the entire set of data.

3. Variance- The square distance from the mean

4. Standard Deviation – The positive square root of the variance.

A. Calculating the Measures of Dispersion of the Ungrouped Data.

1. Range

The formula for finding the range is

R = HV – LV.

Where:

HV – Highest Value

LV – Lowest Value

2. Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD) - is a way to explain data variability.

Steps in Calculating the MAD for Ungrouped Data.

 Find the mean(ungrouped)

 Find the distance between each data value and the mean. Find the absolute value of the
difference between each data value and the mean.
 Sum up the absolute values of the deviation
 Divide the sum by the number of observations.

3. Variance (Var) and Standard Deviation (SD)

To compute for the Variance and Std. Deviation, we will use the formulas

B. Calculating the Measures of Dispersion of the Grouped Data.

1. Range

To compute for the range of a grouped data, we will use the formula:

R=

Where:

– Upper boundary limit of the highest-class interval

- Lower boundary limit of the lowest class interval

2. Mean Absolute Value

To compute for the Mead Absolute Value of a grouped data, we will use the formula

Where: n – total frequency or observation

f – frequency

3. Variance and Standard Deviation

To compute for the Variance and Std. Deviation, we will use the formulas: Variance and Std. Deviation

Lesson 4.3 Correlation and Regression Analysis

  Correlation Analysis – The process to measure, analyze, and interpret the strength of such a
relation of two variables.
 Correlation – the test to use or measure the degree of relationship between variables, which
seeks to determine how well a linear or other question describes or explains the relationship
between variables.

Correlation Coefficient (r) – a number between -1 and +1 which provides a measure of the strength or
degree of the linear association.

 Degree of Relation – the descriptive relationship between two variables.

Types of Correlation

a. Positive correlation – implies a direct relationship between variables, that is, as one variable increases
(decreases) the other variable also increases(decreases).

b. 0 (Zero) correlation – indicates the absence of the relationship between two variables.

c. Negative correlation – shows the inverse relationship between two variables such that if one variable
increases, the other variable decreases, and vice versa.

Scatter Diagram – a graphic visualization of the relationship between 2 variables (bivariate data). It plots

the value of each pair of observations (x, y).

Steps in Constructing the Scatter Diagram

1. Designate one variable as x and y.

2. Draw axes of equal length for the graph.

3. Label convenient points along each axis.

4. plot each ordered pair (x, y).

Chapter 5 : Logic
Lesson 5.1 Logic Statements and Quantifiers

Logic - the study of the correctness or incorrectness of arguments. It is the art of Reasoning the basis of
all mathematical reasoning.

Logicians (people who study Logic) classify arguments as inductive or deductive. In the development of
any mathematical theory, assertions are made in the form of sentences. Such verbal or written
assertions, called statements or propositions.

Tautology, Contradiction and Contingencies

1. Tautology – is a proposition that is true under all circumstances. (All True)

2. Contradiction – is a proposition that is always false. (All False)
3. Contingency – it is proposition form that is neither tautology nor contradiction.(True/False)

Truth Value - It is the attribute assigned to a proposition in respect of its truth or falsehood, which in
classical logic has only two possible values that is true or false.

Chapter 6: Mathematics of Finance

6.1 Simple Interest

DEFINITION OF TERMS:

 PRINCIPAL (P). The capital or sum of money borrowed or invested.

 INTEREST (I). The payment for the use of borrowed money or the amount earned on

any money invested.

 RATE OF INTEREST (r). The fractional part of the principal that is paid on the loan or

investment, which is usually expressed as percent.

 TIME or TERM (t). The number of years for which the money is borrowed or invested.
 FUTURE VALUE /MATURITY VALUE (F). The sum composed of the principal and

the interest accumulated over a certain period of time.

 Formulas: I = Prt F = P + I F = P (1+ rt)

where:

I = interest earned

r = interest rate (decimal form)

t = number of years

P = principal or present value

F = future value or accumulated amount

Compound Interest - is the addition of interest to the principal sum of a loan or deposit,
or in other words, interest on interest.

Definition of terms:

 PRINCIPAL. The capital or sum of money borrowed or invested.

 COMPOUND INTEREST. The interest resulting from the periodic addition of simple interest to
the principal amount.
 COMPOUND AMOUNT. accumulated amount composed of the principal and the compound
interest.
 CONVERSION PERIOD. The number of times in a year the interest will be compounded.

 NOTE: The following are the different conversion periods in a year:

Annually m=1 Monthly m = 12

Semi- m=2 Weekly m = 52
Annually
Quarterly m=4 Daily m = 360
Formula:    I=F-P
where:  
P -   Original Principal
F -    Compound Amount or Final Amount to which P will accumulate
I -    Compound Interest
m -   number of conversion periods
t -    time or term of investment which is expressed in years
j -    nominal rate of interest per year (r in simple interest)

Chapter 7: Mathematics of Graph

The Theory of Graphs

- A branch of mathematics that describes and analyzes any mathematical structures that

include points and interconnections.

Definition of terms

Term Description
A graph is a set of points called vertices or nodes and segments of line or curves
Graphs 
called edges connecting the vertices
Vertex  A point in the graph
Degree of a
The number of edges attached to a vertex.
vertex
Adjacent
Two vertices are adjacent if there is an edge joining them.
Vertices
Edge  A segment of line that connects two vertices
Graphs that have steering edges. The edges imply a one-way relationship, since
Directed Graphs
each edge can be traversed in one direction only.
Undirected Graphs that are directionless base. The edges imply a two-way relationship, in that
Graphs  in both directions each edge can be traversed.
Loop  A self-loop is an edge that joins a single endpoint to itself.
If two vertices are connected by more than one edge, these edges are called
Multiple Edges 
multiple edges.
Walk A finite sequence of edges of the form V -V -V -V -V
0 1 2 3 n

Initial Vertex
(V )
0 Starting point
Terminal Vertex
(V )
n End point
Trail A walk with no repeated edge
Path A walk with no repeated vertex except the possible initial and terminal vertex.
Closed Path A path that begins and ends with the same vertex.
Trivial A walk, trail or path with only one vertex and no edge.
Circuit A non-trivial closed trail from a vertex to itself.

Cycle A circuit that does not contain any repetition except the initial vertex.
It begins and ends with the same vertex.
If every pair of vertices of a graph are adjacent and every edge is drawn between
Complete Graph
vertices. It should not contain multiple edge.
Connected A graph is considered connected if and only if there is a path between each pair of
Graph vertices.

Types of graphs
 Term Description Illustration
Empty A graph that has no vertex nor
 
Graph edge

Simple A graph with no loop or

Graph multiple edge.
 
The loop connects vertex A to
Self- Loop itself. The degree of a loop is
Graph 2.

 
Is a graph which consist of a
Multigraph
vertex with multiple edge.

Pseudograph A graph with at least one loop

 
Trivial A graph with one vertex and
Graph no edge.  
A graph with multiple vertices
Null Graph but no edge, the degree of
each vertex is 0.  

A graph in which each vertex

Regular
has the same degree.
Graph
d(V) = n-1
 

A subgraph of G is a graph,
Subgraph whose vertices belongs to v(G)
and edges e(G).  

Cycle Graph A connected graph that is also

a regular graph with a degree
of 2.  
 Acyclic
A graph with no cycle.
Graph
 
A graph which is formed from
the vertices of the 5-regular
Platonic solid (Tetrahedron,
Graph Octahedron, Cube,
Icosahedron and  
Dodecahedron)
A bipartite Graph is a diagram
whose vertices can be
separated into two different
Bipartite
sets, U and V, so that each
Graph  
edge connects a U to a V
vertex.
Denoted by k r,s

7.2 Eulerian and Hamiltonian Graphs

A. Eulerian Path, Circuits and Graphs

 Eulerian Circuits - A closed path that uses every edge, but never uses the same edge twice.
Eulerian Path
 Eulerian Graph- A graph that contains a Eulerian Circuit.
 Semi-Eulerian Graph - A graph is considered semi-eulerian if it is connected and there exist an
open trail containing every edge of the graph.
 Non-Eulerian Graph - A graph that is neither eulerian nor semi-eulerian because there is no
possible circuit or trail to cover all edges once.

Eulerian Graph Theorem (EGT) - A connected graph is Eulerian if and only each vertex of the graph is of
even degree.

Euler Path Theorem (EPT) - A connected graph contains an Euler Path if and only if the graph has two
vertices of odd degree with all other vertices are even.

B. Hamiltonian Path, Circuits and Graphs

 Hamiltonian Path/ Traceable Path - A path that visits each vertex of the graph exactly once that
starts from one vertex and ends to another vertex.
 Possible not passing through some of the edge.
 Hamiltonian Circuit - A path that uses each vertex of a graph exactly once and returns to the
starting point.
 Hamiltonian Graph - A graph that contains a Hamiltonian circuit. Named after an Irish
Mathematician, Sir Willan Rowen Hamilton (1805-1865)
 Semi-Hamiltonian Graph - A graph that contains a Hamiltonian Path but not a Hamiltonian
Circuit.
  Non-Hamiltonian Graph - A graph that is neither Hamiltonian nor Semi-Hamiltonian.

7.3 Weighted Graph

Weight – A value that is associated in an edge of a graph.

Weighted Graph – is a graph in which each edge is associated with a value.

Algorithm - A step by step procedure for accomplishing task.

Algorithm in a Complete Graph

 A step-by - step method to calculate the smallest total weight possible to find a pretty

good solution.

 Does not guarantee to have the lowest possible overall weight

 Greedy and Edge-Picking Algorithm

Greedy Algorithm – it is called the greedy algorithm because at any opportunity we get, it asks us to
choose the cheapest / smallest weight alternative.

Steps:

 Choose a starting point, then move along the smallest weight of the linked edge. (Pick any one

if there are several edges of the same weight).

 After arriving at the next vertex, travel along the next smallest edge that connects to the next

vertex that was not yet visited. Until you have visited all vertices, continue with the process.

 Return to the starting point.

2. Edge – Picking Algorithm

Steps:

 Mark the edge with the smallest weight in the graph. (Pick any one if there are several edges

of the same weight).

 Mark the edge of the next smallest weight in the graph as long as it does not complete a circuit

and does not add a third marked edge on a single vertex.

 This process continues until it is no longer possible to mark the tip. Then mark the final edge

that completes the Hamiltonian circuit.

7. 4: Planarity, Euler’s Formula and Graph Coloring

A. Planarity of graph

Planar Graph - A planar graph is a graph that can be drawn so that no edges intersect/overlap on each
other.

Planar Drawing - if the graph is redrawn in such a way that no edges overlap.

 Utility graph - These graphs areconsidered non planar graph since there are no possible planar
drawing that can be drawn.
 Subgraph Theorem - If a graph has a subgraph that is not planar, then the graph is also not
planar.
 Contraction of a graph - Shrinking an edge until two vertices it connects comes together and
blend into one

Nonplanar Graph Theorem - A graph is nonplanar if and only it has a utilities graph or k 5 as a subgroup,
or at least a subgraph that can be contracted to the utilities graph or k 5.

B. Euler’s Formula - is the most important formula for studying planar graphs. It was first proved by
Leonhard Euler, an 18th century Swiss mathematician.

Faces - In a planar drawing of a graph, the edge dividing the graph into each region, these regions are
called faces.

Infinite faces – the region surrounding the graph or the exterior.

Euler’s Formula: v+f = e+2

C. Graph Coloring - Graph coloring is the technique of assigning of colors to each vertex of a graph G so
that no adjacent vertices get same color.

Vertex Coloring - A vertex coloring is an assignment of labels or colors to each vertex of a graph in such a

way that two identically colored vertices are not connected by any edge.

Edge Coloring - Edge coloring of a graph is an edge coloring such that no two neighboring edges are
given the same color.

The Chromatic Number of Graph

Chromatic Number – the smallest number of colors needed to color a graph.

2-Colorable Graph Theorem- A graph is 2-colorable if and only of it has a circuit that consist of an odd
number of vertices.

4 Color Theorem – the chromatic number of a planar graph is at most 4.