UNIT - I

BIOMECHANICS

The word "biomechanics" (1899) and the related "biomechanical" (1856) come from the Ancient Greek βίος
bios "life" and "mechanics", to refer to the study of the mechanical principles of living organisms, particularly
their movement and structure.

Biomechanics is the science of movement of a living body, including how muscles, bones, tendons, and
ligaments work together to produce movement. Biomechanics is part of the larger field of kinesiology,
specifically focusing on the mechanics of the movement. It is both a basic and applied science, encompassing
research and practical use of its findings. Biomechanics includes not only the structure of bones and muscles
and the movement they can produce, but also the mechanics of blood circulation, renal function, and other
body functions. The American Society of Biomechanics says that biomechanics represents the broad interplay
between mechanics and biological systems.

Biomechanics studies not only the human body but also animals and even extends to plants and the
mechanical workings of cells.3 For example, the biomechanics of the squat includes consideration of the
position and/or movement of the feet, hips, knees, back, and shoulders, and arms.

Applications

The study of biomechanics ranges from the inner workings of a cell to the movement and development
of limbs, to the mechanical properties of soft tissue, and bones.
• Some simple examples of biomechanics research include the investigation of the forces that act on
limbs, the aerodynamics of bird and insect flight, the hydrodynamics of swimming in fish,
and locomotion in general across all forms of life, from individual cells to whole organisms. With
growing understanding of the physiological behavior of living tissues, researchers are able to advance
the field of tissue engineering, as well as develop improved treatments for a wide array
of pathologies including cancer.
• Biomechanics is also applied to studying human musculoskeletal systems. Such research utilizes force
platforms to study human ground reaction forces and infrared videography to capture the trajectories
of markers attached to the human body to study human 3D motion. Research also
applies electromyography to study muscle activation, investigating muscle responses to external forces
and perturbations.
• Biomechanics is widely used in orthopedic industry to design orthopedic implants for human joints,
dental parts, external fixations and other medical purposes.
• Biotribology is a very important part of it. It is a study of the performance and function of biomaterials
used for orthopedic implants. It plays a vital role to improve the design and produce successful
biomaterials for medical and clinical purposes. One such example is in tissue engineered cartilage. The
dynamic loading of joints considered as impact is dicusssed in detail in.

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 • It is also tied to the field of engineering, because it often uses traditional engineering sciences to
analyze biological systems. Some simple applications of Newtonian mechanics and/or materials
sciences can supply correct approximations to the mechanics of many biological systems. Applied
mechanics, most notably mechanical engineering disciplines such as continuum
mechanics, mechanism analysis, structural analysis, kinematics and dynamics play prominent roles in
the study of biomechanics.

Careers in Biomechanics:
Biomechanists are highly trained scientists that can find employment in various different fields of application,
including biology, exercise science, sports science, health sciences, ergonomics, human factors psychology,
and biomedical engineering. Most professionals in the biomechanics field are involved working in
laboratories to conduct essential kinesiology studies on locomotion patterns, osteoporosis, mobility
impairment, microgravity, transitional changes, injury reduction, sport performance, occupational health, and
more. Therefore, biomechanists can be found working in gait analysis research labs, creating designs in sports
companies, completing work related to flexibility testing, designing man-machine interfaces, or testing
athletes.

Specialties within biomechanics include:

• Biological science: Studies of human, animal, cell, and plant biomechanics

• Engineering and applied science: Applying the research of biomechanics to various situations
• Ergonomics and human factors: Using biomechanics in human-machine interfaces, workplace, and
functional designs and processes
• Exercise and sports science: Applying biomechanics to human performance in athletics
• Health sciences: Researching causes, treatment, and prevention of injury and using biomechanics to
design rehabilitation programs and equipment

Musculoskeletal System:

The musculoskeletal system provides support to the body and gives humans (and many animal species) the
ability to move. The body’s bones (the skeletal system), muscles (muscular system), cartilage, tendons,
ligaments, joints, and other connective tissue that supports and binds tissues and organs together comprise the
musculoskeletal system.

Most importantly, the system provides form, support, stability, and movement to the body. For example, the
bones of the skeletal system protect the body’s internal organs and support the weight of the body. The
skeletal portion of the system serves as the main storage depot for calcium and phosphorus. It also contains
critical components of the hematopoietic system (blood cell production). The muscles of the muscular system
keep bones in place; they also play a role in movement of the bones by contracting and pulling on the bones,
allowing for movements as diverse as standing, walking, running, and grasping items. To allow motion,
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 different bones are connected by joints. Within these joints, bones are connected to other bones and muscle
fibers via connective tissue such as tendons and ligaments. Cartilage prevents the bone ends from rubbing
directly on each other. Muscles contract (bunch up) to move the bone attached at the joint.

1. Joints

Joints are where two bones meet. They make the skeleton flexible — without them, movement would
be impossible.

Joints allow our bodies to move in many ways. Some joints open and close like a hinge (such as knees and
elbows), whereas others allow for more complicated movement — a shoulder or hip joint, for example, allows
for backward, forward, sideways, and rotating movement.

2. Bones

Bones are made up of a framework of a protein called collagen , with a mineral called calcium
phosphate that makes the framework hard and strong. Bones provide support for our bodies and help
form our shape. Although they're very light, bones are strong enough to support our entire weight.

3. Muscles

Muscle is a soft tissue found in most animals. Muscle cells contain protein filaments of actin and
myosin that slide past one another, producing a contraction that changes both the length and the shape
of the cell. Muscles function to produce force and motion.

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Human Skeleton

Human skeleton, the internal skeleton that serves as a framework for the body. This framework consists of
many individual bones and cartilages. There also are bands of fibrous connective tissue—the ligaments and
the tendons—in intimate relationship with the parts of the skeleton. This article is concerned primarily with
the gross structure and the function of the skeleton of the normal human adult.

The human skeleton is made up of 206 bones, including bones of the:

• Skull – including the jaw bone
• Spine – cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, sacrum and tailbone (coccyx)
• Chest – ribs and breastbone (sternum)
• Arms – shoulder blade (scapula), collar bone (clavicle), humerus, radius and ulna
• Hands – wrist bones (carpals), metacarpals and phalanges
• Pelvis – hip bones

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• Legs – thigh bone (femur), kneecap (patella), shin bone (tibia) and fibula
• Feet – tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges.

Skeletal Division

Axial skeleton

The axial skeleton (80 bones) is formed by the vertebral column (32–34 bones; the number of the vertebrae
differs from human to human as the lower 2 parts, sacral and coccygeal bone may vary in length), a part of the
rib cage (12 pairs of ribs and the sternum), and the skull (22 bones and 7 associated bones).

The upright posture of humans is maintained by the axial skeleton, which transmits the weight from the head,
the trunk, and the upper extremities down to the lower extremities at the hip joints. The bones of the spine are
supported by many ligaments. The erector spinae muscles are also supporting and are useful for balance.

Appendicular skeleton

The appendicular skeleton (126 bones) is formed by the pectoral girdles, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle or
pelvis, and the lower limbs. Their functions are to make locomotion possible and to protect the major organs
of digestion, excretion and reproduction.
Functions:

The skeleton serves six major functions: support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of
minerals and endocrine regulation.

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Support

The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape. The pelvis, associated
ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. Without the rib cages, costal cartilages, and
intercostal muscles, the lungs would collapse.

Movement

The joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e.g. the
ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is
powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles, bones, and
joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system.

It is believed that the reduction of human bone density in prehistoric times reduced the agility and dexterity of
human movement. Shifting from hunting to agriculture has caused human bone density to reduce
significantly.

Protection

The skeleton helps to protect our many vital internal organs from being damaged. The skull protects the brain.
The vertebrae protect the spinal cord. The rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the lungs, heart and major
blood vessels.

Blood cell production

The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, the development of blood cells that takes place in the bone marrow.
In children, haematopoiesis occurs primarily in the marrow of the long bones such as the femur and tibia. In
adults, it occurs mainly in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae, and sternum.

Storage

The bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium metabolism, and bone marrow can store iron in
ferritin and is involved in iron metabolism. However, bones are not entirely made of calcium, but a mixture of
chondroitin sulfate and hydroxyapatite, the latter making up 70% of a bone. Hydroxyapatite is in turn
composed of 39.8% of calcium, 41.4% of oxygen, 18.5% of phosphorus, and 0.2% of hydrogen by mass.
Chondroitin sulfate is a sugar made up primarily of oxygen and carbon.

Endocrine regulation

Bone cells release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose)
and fat deposition. Osteocalcin increases both the insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the
number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat.
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Elements of Biomechanics:

Kinesiology:

Kinesiology is the scientific study of human or non-human body movement. Kinesiology addresses
physiological, biomechanical, and psychological dynamic principles and mechanisms of movement.
Applications of kinesiology to human health (i.e., human kinesiology) include biomechanics and orthopedics;
strength and conditioning; sport psychology; motor control; skill acquisition and motor learning; methods of
rehabilitation, such as physical and occupational therapy; and sport and exercise physiology. Studies of
human and animal motion include measures from motion tracking systems, electrophysiology of muscle and
brain activity, various methods for monitoring physiological function, and other behavioral and cognitive
research techniques.

The study of Kinesiology combines

- Anatomy –the science of the shape and structure of the human body and its parts
- Biomechanics – a discipline that uses principles of physics to quantitatively study how forces interact
with the living body
- Physiology – the biologic study of living organism

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Kinematics:

Kinematics is the branch of mechanics that describes the motion of a body without regard to the forces or
torques causing the motion. There are 2 types
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 1. Qualitative analysis – deals with naming and evaluating movement component
2. Quantitative analysis – is concerned with counting and measuring movement component

Kinematics is the study of description of motion while kinetics is the study of explanation of motion. In
kinematics, the focus is on the motion of the object. For example, in the study of golf swing, kinematics
focuses on details of the swing 'motion' such as the shape of the clubhead path, positions of the body and club
at various swing events, velocities of the body parts and club, and the timing of slow-down of the body for
speed-up of the club. In order to describe the swing motion objectively, it is important to accurately measure
the motion first. This is why measurement of the motion is one of the central aspects of kinematics. Basic
kinematic quantities include time, position, displacement (distance), velocity (speed), and acceleration. In
addition to these, shapes of trajectories of various points on the body, club and orientation of motion planes of
various body segments and club are also kinematic issues. A complex motion of an object can be resolved into
the linear motion of the center of mass (COM) of the body and the angular motion of the body about its COM,
which is also a kinematic issue. (See the Linear Motion vs. Angular Motion page for the definitions of linear
and angular motion.) The kinematic sequence plot is based on the angular velocity patterns of body segments,
lines, and club.

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Kinetics:

Kinetics is the branch of mechanics that describes the effect of forces on the body. There are 2 tps

1. Statics – study of bodies remaining at rest

2. Dynamics is the study of moving bodies under the effect of unbalanced forces.
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Kinetics focuses on the causes of motion acting on the body: forces for the linear motion and moments of
force (torques) for the angular motion. For example, there are largely two different forces acting on the club if
we ignore the air resistance: the grip force exerted by the hands to the grip and the gravity (weight of the
club). Since the weight of the club remains the same during the swing and always acts downward through
club's COM, the grip force is the primary factor that influences club's linear motion. Hands also provide a
moment of force to the club about the mid-hand point (a virtual joint that links the hands to the club) which
influences club's angular motion. The hand-club interaction, thus, is a key aspect of golf swing kinetics.

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Dynamics:

Dynamics is the branch of physics developed in classical mechanics concerned with the study of forces and
their effects on motion. Isaac Newton was the first to formulate the fundamental physical laws that govern
dynamics in classical non-relativistic physics, especially his second law of motion.

Principle of Dnamics:

Generally speaking, researchers involved in dynamics study how a physical system might develop or alter
over time and study the causes of those changes. In addition, Newton established the fundamental physical
laws which govern dynamics in physics. By studying his system of mechanics, dynamics can be understood.
In particular, dynamics is mostly related to Newton's second law of motion. However, all three laws of motion
are taken into account because these are interrelated in any given observation or experiment.

Linear and Rotational Dynamics:

The study of dynamics falls under two categories: linear and rotational. Linear dynamics pertains to objects
moving in a line and involves such quantities as force, mass/inertia, displacement (in units of
distance), velocity (distance per unit time), acceleration (distance per unit of time squared)
and momentum (mass times unit of velocity). Rotational dynamics pertains to objects that are rotating or
moving in a curved path and involves such quantities as torque, moment of inertia/rotational inertia, angular
displacement (in radians or less often, degrees), angular velocity (radians per unit time), angular
acceleration (radians per unit of time squared) and angular momentum (moment of inertia times unit of
angular velocity). Very often, objects exhibit linear and rotational motion.
Linear motion:
Linear motion simply means motion in a straight line (as opposed to circular motion or rotation). In order to
talk about linear motion scientifically, we need to be familiar with mass, distance, displacement, speed,
velocity, and acceleration. Here we explain Newton’s laws of motion, mass, inertia, momentum, speed,
velocity, distance, displacement and graphs of motion.

# Distance and displacement

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What is the difference between distance and displacement? Displacement is how far away a body has moved
from its starting point. It is the shortest distance between the starting point and the finishing point.

For example, a sailing Yacht might zig-zag (tack) backward and forward in order to sail 100m East. Even
though the total distance travelled by the yacht may be much greater than 100m, the displacement of the
Yacht is still only 100m. The units of both distance and displacement are metres (m).

# Speed and velocity

Speed and velocity are used to describe how fast something is going. Speed is the rate of change of distance
and is a scalar quantity.

Speed (ms-1) = Distance (m) / Time (s)

Velocity is the speed of a body in a specific direction and is the rate of change of displacement. Unlike speed,
velocity is a vector quantity which means it has a direction as well as a magnitude. So if the direction of the
moving body changes then the velocity changes, even though the speed might stay the same.

Velocity (m/s) = Displacement (m) / Time (s)

A body will undergo an acceleration when an external force acts on it. The acceleration will be directly
proportional to the force can be calculated by the formula below:

Acceleration (ms-2) = Force (N) / mass (kg)

#Linear motion can be further divided to rectilinear motion and curvilinear motion. In rectilinear motion all
particles of the body travel the same distance along parallel straight lines. In curvilinear motion the
trajectories of individual particles of the body are curved, although the orientation of the body in space does
not change. As an example of rectilinear motion we can imagine a downhill skier going down along the fall
line of a flat inclined plane. A good example of curvilinear motion is a gymnast on a trampoline who keeps
his/her body in the same position but lands on a spot different from take-off

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Angular motion:

Angular motion includes rotating bodies, levers, stability, moment of force/torque, axis of rotation, moment of
inertia and angular momentum. In rotary motion all particles of human body travel along a circle or its part,
unless they are in the axis of rotation.
Rotary motion (angular motion) of a body can take place about an axis that passes through the body or about
an axis that does not pass through the body. A gymnast swinging on the rings is an example of rotary motion

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about an axis that does not pass through the body. Figure skater rotating on ice rink is an example of rotary
motion about an axis that passes through the body.
Individual parts of human extremities also carry out rotary motion with their joints as axes.
Lever:
Muscles are attached to bones via tendons and the bones of the skeleton act as levers which muscles pull on to
create movement. A lever system is made up of three parts; an effort, a load, and a fulcrum. In the human
body, the effort is provided by the muscle (the muscles point of application/insertion), the load is the weight
of the body and any additional resistance and the fulcrum is the joint itself.
A lever system is a rigid bar that moves on a fixed point called the fulcrum when a force is applied to it.
Movement is made possible in the human body by lever systems that are formed by our muscles and joints
working together. An understanding of the levers in the body helps us to understand how movement is
possible.
Types of lever

There are three types found in the body, each is determined by the relative positions of the fulcrum (F), effort
(E) and load (L). A useful way of determining the different types of lever systems operating during a
particular movement is to remember the following rhyme.

• For a first-class lever, F is the middle component.

• For a second class lever, L is the middle component.
• For a third-class lever, E is the middle component.

Functions of a lever system

Lever systems have two main functions; firstly to increase the resistance that a given force can move and
secondly to increase the speed at which a body moves. In addition, different types allow different ranges of

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movement. This means that some are effective at overcoming resistance, whilst others are able to generate
speed.

In a first-class lever, the fulcrum is the middle component and lies between the effort and load. There is
sometimes more than one lever system operating at the joint. The elbow joint is one example. During
extension of the elbow, the effort is created by the triceps via its point of insertion on the ulna, so is a first-
class lever. However, during flexion at the elbow, as in a bicep curl, the effort comes from the point of
insertion of the biceps on the radius, this is an example of a third-class system.

In a second class lever system, the load is the middle component and lies between the fulcrum and the effort.
In the example of plantarflexion at the ankle joint, the ball of the foot and toes are the fulcrum, the weight of
the body is the load and the effort is applied by the gastrocnemius muscle.

The majority of movements in the human body are classified as third-class lever systems. In a third-class lever
system, the effort is the middle component and lies between the fulcrum and load. There are many examples
of third class lever systems, including both flexion and extension at the knee joint. These movements are
involved in running, jumping and kicking. During flexion at the knee, the point of insertion of the hamstrings
on the tibia is the effort, the knee joint is the fulcrum and the weight of the leg is the load. Third class lever
systems are used to increase the speed of a body and allow a wide range of movement.

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General Motion:

General motion is a combination of linear and rotary motions. General motion is the most common type of
motion in sport and physical exercise. Running and walking are among typical examples. In this case the
trunk moves in linear motion as a result of rotary motions of individual segments of extremities. Riding
a bicycle is another example of general motion. Running and walking are among typical examples. In this
case the trunk moves in linear motion as a result of rotary motions of individual segments of extremities.
Riding a bicycle is another example of general motion.

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Newton’s Laws:

It is important to know the definition for each of the three laws of motion
and more important, know how to apply the laws in practical situations.
Newton's first law of motion states:

Newton's First Law of Motion: Law of Inertia

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 "All bodies continue in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by some
external force." An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted on by an unbalanced force.

This law is used when zero net force is applied to an object. This doesn’t meant hat zero force acts but all that
forces cancel out. With zero net force an object is either stationary or moves at constant speed in the same
direction. A Sprinter in full stride has four forces acting but they cancel out exactly therefore he travels at
constant speed.

Newton’s first law explains why it takes extra force to get moving or to stop moving – seen through Static
Force and Dynamic Force.

- Static Force: When a body is a rest, it wants to stay at rest and this must be overcome in order for fluid
movement to take place. This can be noticed when pushing off the wall or the bottom of a pool. The drag that
is felt when the movement starts is the static force that the swimmer is trying to overcome.

- Dynamic Force: Once a body is in motion, it wants to continue to stay in motion and is the reason that
swimming becomes fluid after the initial movement. Once dynamic force is experience, the swimmer could
just continue forever, however the drag will pull you to a stop eventually.

The swimmer will stay in motion unless acted upon by a force (water produces a resistive force that requires
propulsive forces to overcome).

In essence for motion, Propulsive forces (thrust) > Resistive forces (drag).

Newton's Second Law of Motion - Law of Acceleration

"The acceleration of a body is proportional to the force causing it and takes

place in the direction the force acts."

Newton’s second law is used when Net force on an object. When the net force
is forward it produces acceleration and when it id backwards it is deceleration.
Net force when is sidewards produces change of direction.

More force means more acceleration. A sprinter's acceleration from the

blocks is proportional to the force exerted against the blocks. The greater the
force exerted, the greater will be the acceleration away from the blocks. In the
throwing events, the larger the force exerted on an implement, the greater will be the acceleration and
consequently, distance thrown.

Once an implement has been released there are no forces which can act to accelerate it. The same is true in
the jumping events. The greater the force the athlete exerts at take-off the greater the acceleration and height
or distance achieved. Once the athlete has left the ground nothing he does will accelerate the body. When
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maximal forces are needed the muscles contract to generate this force and this is why injuries are more likely
to occur in the acceleration or deceleration phases of a movement.

Newton’s second law can explain why some people swim faster than others. If we have two swimmers of the
same weight and have them push off a wall and not take any strokes – the one who used the most force
pushing off the wall would be the person who has travelled the furthest. Acceleration in this case was greater
for the person who produced the greater force as both swimmers had the same mass.

Example: F = MA

Swimmers both have a weight of 80kg.

One takes off with an acceleration of 1m/s/s and the other takes off with an acceleration of 1.5m/s/s.

1. F = 80kg x 1m/s/s

F = 80N

2. F = 80kg x 1.5m/s/s

F = 120N

- If force is increased, then acceleration increases when mass is constant

- If mass is increased, then force increases when acceleration is constant

- If mass is increased, then acceleration decreases when force is constant

Newton's Third Law of Motion - Law of Reaction

"To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction."

This law is used when two bodies exert forces on one another. Action
and reaction are equal and opposite in direction. Action of jumper down
on ground is equal to reaction of ground up on jumper. The harder you
push down on the ground the more the ground pushes up on you. This
upward force on the jumper is the force acting to cause the take off. A
runner exerts a force against the ground. This creates an equal and
opposite reaction force which moves the body over the ground.

The law of reaction also applies to movements that occur in the air. In

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these situations the equal and opposite reaction is shown in movements of other parts of the body. A long
jumper, for example, will bring the arms and trunk forward in preparation for landing. The equal and opposite
reaction is movement of the legs into a good position for landing.

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Center of Gravity:

Gravity is a force which is always present and is a pulling force in the direction of the centre of the earth. This
force acts on every body through an imaginary point called the centre of gravity (GG). A solid object like a
shot or discus has its CG in the centre and this is a fixed point.
The human body is a complex and constantly changing shape. The centre of gravity now moves according to
the positioning of the body and limbs. The CG may be inside the body, for example, when standing or it may
be outside the body as in the pole vault and flop high jump bar clearances.

When an athlete launches himself or an object into flight gravity will act as a force pulling the athlete or
object towards the ground. The flight path of the centre of gravity of a body is a curve called a parabola. The
parabolic flight path depends on three factors:

Of these, the speed of an athlete at take off, or of an implement at release, is the most important factor.
Greater speed means greater distance achieved. Air resistance can also affect the distance travelled by an
athlete or implement.

All the principles of movement are based on how forces are made by the athlete or how they act on the
athlete's body. They may appear complex at first but, as you learn the basics for each event, biomechanics and
an analysis of movement will become an understandable and usable part of your coaching knowledge helping
to make you a better coach.

Actually, the force of gravity acts on all of your mass in the

same way, according to Newton's Universal Law of
Gravitation down to every single molecule and atom. If we
break up your body into many many small chunks of equal
mass we could calculate the tiny force of gravity on each one.
If we add up all those tiny forces we get your total weight. If
we average the locations of all those equal tiny forces, the
resulting location would be the center of gravity. If we
averaged the location of all the equal chunks of mass that
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would be the center of mass. Everyday objects, like humans, are small enough that gravity acts uniformly on
all parts of the object and the center of gravity and the center of mass are essentially the same location.

Support Force (Normal Force) & Centre Of Mass

Force causes linear acceleration or deceleration including change of

direction. The point of action of the force affects what happens, friction
happens at the feet of the sports person, not enough of it the person’s feet
slips. If the force acts through the person’s centre of mass (CofM) then
linear motion is caused. If a force acts on one side of the CoM then rotation
is caused, like in take off in the high jump the reaction force acts to one side
of the CoM.

The position of centre of mass depends on shape of body. This is how the
high jumper can have his CoM pass under the bar, but he could still clear the bar.

A force which acts eccentrically to the centre of mass of a body will cause the centr of mass of the body to
begin to rotate- will initiate angular acceleration, this is because the force will have a moment about the CoM
and will cause turning. For example for a high jumper force acts on one side of CoM therefore jumper turns in
air.

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Hooke’s Laws:

The law is named after 17th-century British

physicist Robert Hooke. Hooke's law is a law
of physics that states that the force (F) needed
to extend or compress a spring by some distance (x) scales linearly with respect to
that distance. Hooke's law is an accurate approximation for most solid bodies, as
long as the forces and deformations are small enough. For this reason, Hooke's law
is extensively used in all branches of science and engineering, and is the

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foundation of many disciplines such as seismology, molecular mechanics and acoustics.

Hookes explanation

The deforming force may be applied to a solid by stretching, compressing, squeezing, bending, or twisting.
Thus, a metal wire exhibits elastic behaviour according to Hooke’s law because the small increase in its
length when stretched by an applied force doubles each time the force is doubled. Mathematically, Hooke’s
law states that the applied force F equals a constant k times the displacement or change in length x, or F = kx.
The value of k depends not only on the kind of elastic material under consideration but also on its dimensions
and shape.

The spring equation:

The figure shows the stable condition of the spring when no load is applied, the condition of the spring when
elongated to an amount x under the load of 1 N, the condition of the spring elongated to 2x under the
influence of load 2 N. Different springs, depending on the material, will have different spring constants. This
can be calculated. The constant calculated empirically can be used further. The figure shows us three
instances, the stable condition of the spring, the spring elongated to an amount x under a load of 1 N, and the
spring elongated to 2x under a load of 2 N. If we plug in these values into the equation above we get the
spring constant for the material in consideration.

The length of a spring always changes by the same

amount when it is pushed or pulled. The equation for

this is
where
F is how much (push or pull) is on the spring
k is a constant, the stiffness of the spring.
x is how far the spring was pushed or pulled
When x = 0, the spring is at the equilibrium position.
This equation only works on a linear spring. A linear spring is a spring that is only being pushed or pulled in
one direction, such as left or right or up or down.

At relatively large values of applied force, the deformation of the elastic material is often larger than expected
on the basis of Hooke’s law, even though the material remains elastic and returns to its original shape and size
after removal of the force. Hooke’s law describes the elastic properties of materials only in the range in which
the force and displacement are proportional. (See deformation and flow.) Sometimes Hooke’s law is
formulated as F = −kx. In this expression F no longer means the applied force but rather means the equal and
oppositely directed restoring force that causes elastic materials to return to their original dimensions.

Hooke’s law may also be expressed in terms of stress and strain. Stress is the force on unit areas within a
material that develops as a result of the externally applied force. Strain is the relative deformation produced

16 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
by stress. For relatively small stresses, stress is proportional to strain. For particular expressions of Hooke’s
law in this form, see bulk modulus; shear modulus; Young’s modulus.

How do Hooke’s Law work in the Human Body?

Objects are considered Hookean if they revert back to their original shape once the force is
removed.Examples of Hookean Objects: springs,fibers, balloons, buildings, slinkies, guitar strings, ect. If an
object can not revert back to its original shape after the applied force on the object is removed, it is not
considered Hookean.Examples of Non-Hookean objects: rubber bands,hair, socks, honey,ect

Muscles in the human body follow Hooke’s Law.When people move their body, force is applied to stretch the
muscle, which allows the muscle to function. After the the muscle is done it reverts back to its original state.

Hooke’s Law Graph:

The figure shows the stress-strain curve for low carbon steel.

the material exhibits elastic behaviour up to the yield strength point, after which the material loses elasticity
and exhibits plasticity.

From the origin till the proportional limit nearing yield strength,
the straight line implies that the material follows Hooke’s law.
Beyond the elastic limit between proportional limit and yield
strength, the material loses its elastic nature and starts exhibiting
plasticity. The area under the curve from origin to the proportional
limit falls under the elastic range. The area under the curve from a
proportional limit to the rupture/fracture point falls under the
plastic range.

The ultimate strength of a material is defined based on the

maximum ordinate value given by the stress-strain curve (from
origin to rupture). The rupture strength is given by the value at a
point of rupture.

================================================
============================

Young’s Modulus of Elasticity:

In physics and materials science, elasticity is the ability of a body to resist a distorting influence and to return
to its original size and shape when that influence or force is removed. Solid objects will deform when
adequate loads are applied to them; if the material is elastic, the object will return to its initial shape and size
after removal. This is in contrast to plasticity, in which the object fails to do so and instead remains in its
deformed state. In engineering, the elasticity of a material is quantified by the elastic modulus such as the
Young's modulus, bulk modulus or shear modulus which measure the amount of stress needed to achieve a
unit of strain; a higher modulus indicates that the material is harder to deform. The SI unit of this modulus is

17 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
the pascal (Pa). The material's elastic limit or yield strength is the maximum stress that can arise before the
onset of plastic deformation. Its SI unit is also the pascal (Pa).

Young’s Modulus Explain:

Young’s Modulus/Initial Modulus is the initial part of a stress/strain curve and describes the ability of a wire,
cable, yarn, or thread to resist elastic deformation under load. It describes a material’s propensity to retain its
shape, even when it is being stretched, pulled, twisted, or compressed.

When a material has a high modulus, even under extreme strain the material resists the initial force and
recovers well. For a lower modulus material, strain stresses it and creates the risk of breaking, which is
illustrated in the stress-strain curve below.

The ratio of stress to strain is the elastic modulus—stiffness, only the stress, defines the strength of a material.
Stiffness measures the resistance to elastic deformation, whereas strength measures how much stress the
material can handle before permanent deformation or fracture occurs.

Terms Related to Young’s Modulus

Here’s a quick guide to some terms that are often used when discussing Young’s Modulus.

Stress: A tension created by the application of a lengthwise load.

Strain: Change in length from stress acting parallel to the longitudinal axis of the material.

Creep: This is time-related, non-recoverable damage due to sustained stress.

18 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
Fatigue: Fatigue is when a material weakens due to repeatedly applied loads.

Stiffness: A stiff material has a high Young’s Modulus.

Deformation: Also known as plastic deformation, this is the warping that occurs under stress.

Elastic limit: This is the limit beyond which the material is deformed.

Yielding: Just beyond the elastic limit is permanent deformation known as yielding.

Strain Hardening: Beyond yielding, this is a maximum or ultimate stress.

Fracture: Beyond ultimate stress is the fracture, or breaking, point.

Young’s Modulus Calculations Relate to Elasticity:

The calculations from Young’s modulus depends on the applied force, the type of material and the area of the
material. The stress of the medium relates to the ratio of the applied force with respect to the cross-sectional
area. Also, the strain considers the change in length of a material with respect to its original length.

First, you measure the initial length of the substance. Using a micrometer, you identify the cross-sectional
area of the material. Then, with the same micrometer, measure the different diameters of the substance. Next,
use various slotted masses to determine the applied force.

As the components extend at various lengths, use a Vernier scale to determine the length. Finally, plot the
different length measures with respect to the forces applied. Young’s modulus equation is

E = tensile stress/tensile

strain = (FL) / (A * change in L),

where F is the applied force, L is the initial length, A is the square area, and E is Young’s modulus in Pascals
(Pa). Using a graph, you can determine whether a material shows elasticity.

Young’s Modulus of stress and strain:

19 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
If a metal bar of cross-sectional area A is pulled by a force F at each end, the bar stretches from its original
length L0 to a new length Ln. (Simultaneously the cross section decreases.) The stress is the quotient of the
tensile force divided by the cross-sectional area, or F/A. The strain or relative deformation is the change in
length, Ln − L0, divided by the original length, or (Ln − L0)/L0. (Strain is dimensionless.) Thus Young’s
modulus may be expressed mathematically as

Young’s modulus = stress/strain = (FL0)/A(Ln − L0).

This is a specific form of Hooke’s law of elasticity.

==========================================================================

Shear Stress:

The process of parallel layers sliding past each other is known as shearing. Shearing Stress is defined as:
“A type of stress that acts coplanar with cross section of material.”
Shear stress arises due to shear forces. They are the pair of forces acting on opposite sides of a body with the
same magnitude and opposite direction. When an external force acts on an object, It undergoes deformation. If
the direction of the force is parallel to the plane of the object. The deformation will be along that plane. The
stress experienced by the object here is shear stress or tangential stress.
It arises when the force vector components which are parallel to the cross-sectional area of the material. In the
case of normal/longitudinal stress, The force vectors will be perpendicular to the cross-sectional area on
which it acts.
It is denoted by the Greek alphabet: τ. The SI unit of shear stress is N/m2 or Pa

============================================================================

Tension:

Surface tension arises from cohesive forces between the liquid molecules. In the bulk, molecules are
interacting equally with each other in all directions. However, at the surface, molecules don't have the same
neighbors on all sides. Thus, a net inward force pulls the molecules toward the bulk. This gives rise to a
property called surface tension. How high the surface tension is, is dependent on the type of molecular

20 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
interactions present. There are several different units for surface and interfacial tension; typically mN/m
(which is equivalent to dynes/cm) is used.

Compression Force:

Compression force (or compressive force) occurs when a physical force presses inward on an object, causing
it to become compacted. In this process, the relative positions of atoms and molecules of the object change.
This change can be temporary or permanent depending on the type of material receiving the compressive
force. There can also be different results depending on the direction or position on the object that the
compressive force is applied. Newton's Third Law of Motion states that for every action force, there is an
equal opposite reaction force. This is depicted in Figure When compression force is applied to an object
resting on a surface, both ends of the object receive the same amount of force.

How is Compression Force Measured?

Compression force is usually captured in Newtons (N); defined as a unit of force that give to a mass of one
kilogram an acceleration of 1 meter per second squared (m/s2, commonly represented as "a").

N=m*a

Joints :

A joint is a point where two or more bones meet. There are three main types of joints; Fibrous (immovable),
Cartilaginous (partially moveable) and the Synovial (freely moveable) joint.

Fibrous Joints

• This type of joint is also called synarthrodial. It is held together by just a ligament.
• Examples are where the teeth are held to their bony sockets and at both the radioulnar and tibiofibular
joints.
•
Cartilaginous joints

21 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
 • Cartilaginous (synchondroses and symphyses): These joints occur where the connection between the
articulating bones is made up of cartilage. For example, between vertebrae in the spine.
• Synchondroses are temporary joints which are only present in children, up until the end of puberty.
For example, the epiphyseal plates in long bones.
• Symphysis joints are permanent cartilaginous joints, for example, the pubic symphysis.

Synovial Joints

• Synovial (diarthrosis): Synovial joints are by far the most common classification of a joint within the
human body.
• They are highly moveable and all have a synovial capsule (collagenous structure) surrounding the
entire joint, a synovial membrane (the inner layer of the capsule) which secretes synovial fluid (a
lubricating liquid) and cartilage known as hyaline cartilage which pads the ends of the articulating
bones.
• There are 6 types of synovial joints which are classified by the shape of the joint and the movement
available.
=========================================================================
Cancellous bone:

It is also called trabecular or spongy bone,[7] is the internal tissue of the skeletal bone and is an open cell
porous network. Cancellous bone has a higher surface-area-to-volume ratio than cortical bone and it is less
dense. This makes it weaker and more flexible. The greater surface area also makes it suitable for metabolic
activities such as the exchange of calcium ions. Cancellous bone is typically found at the ends of long bones,
near joints and in the interior of vertebrae. Cancellous bone is highly vascular and often contains red bone
marrow where hematopoiesis, the production of blood cells, occurs. The primary anatomical and functional
unit of cancellous bone is the trabecula. The trabeculae are aligned towards the mechanical load distribution
that a bone experiences within long bones such as the femur.

Structure of Cancellous Bone

Cancellous bone is also known as spongy bone because it resembles a sponge or honeycomb, with many open
spaces connected by flat planes of bone known as trabeculae. Inside the trabeculae are three types of bone
cells: osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts are the cells that make new bone. They produce
layers of hard tissue made primarily of calcium and phosphate until they are completely surrounded, at which
point they become osteocytes. Finally, osteoclasts are larger cells that break down and destroy old or damaged
bone so that it can be repaired and replaced by osteoblasts. This repair and rebuilding cycle is constantly
ongoing to keep bones strong and healthy.
Functions of Spongy Bone

#Storage of Bone Marrow

Bone marrow, also called myeloid tissue, is formed when the trabecular matrix crowds blood vessels together
and they condense. While compact bone is denser and has fewer open spaces, spongy bone is ideal for making

22 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
and storing bone marrow within the lattice-like trabeculae network. Compact bone stores yellow bone
marrow, which is composed primarily of fat, in its medullary cavity. Spongy bone contains red bone marrow
that is used in erythropoiesis.

#Site of Erythropoiesis

Inside spongy bone, red blood cells are produced in the red bone marrow at a rate of about 2 million per
second. This rapid production is made possible by the highly vascularized nature of the spongy bone, which
can deliver adequate amounts of the glucose, lipids, amino acids and trace elements required to make red
blood cells. When old and damaged red blood cells are ready to die, they return to the bone marrow, where
they are phagocytized by macrophages. This process also occurs in the liver and spleen.

#Reduces the Weight of the Skeleton

The light weight and low density of spongy bone balances out the heavier and denser compact bone to reduce
the overall weight of the skeleton. This makes it easier for muscles to move the limbs.

#Adds Strength and Flexibility to Bones

The trabeculae of spongy bone tend to form along lines of stress, giving the bone strength and flexibility in
that area. Spongy bone is also present in the joints of the body and acts as a shock absorber when we walk,
run and jump.

#Mineral Storage

The human skeleton stores 99% of the body’s calcium and 85% of the phosphorous. The mineral content of
blood must be tightly regulated to ensure proper functioning of the muscles and nervous system. Release of
minerals into the bloodstream is accomplished quickly when needed, and this action is often mediated by
hormones.

#Evolutionary Changes in Human Spongy Bone

The modern human skeleton is unique in that it has a low trabecular density compared to its size. About 20%
of the human skeleton is spongy bone. In comparison, it makes sense that the skeleton of a chimpanzee is
almost entirely composed of spongy bone. Tests on early human bones show they contained a higher
percentage of spongy bone than modern humans. To examine this finding further, recent research has
compared the trabecular density of modern human skeletons to those of chimpanzees and early humans who
lived millions of years ago. The study was designed to determine at what point human in evolution the
trabecular bone density in humans decreased. The results of the research show that lower trabecular bone
density in modern humans is a recent event, and is probably caused by increasingly sedentary lifestyles and a
reliance on technology

23 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
============================================================================

Cortical Bones :

The cortical bone also is known as compact bone, is the most rigid outermost region of a bone. Hence, cortical
bones are the strongest and densest bones in the body. They are made up of osteons. It is also referred to as
compact bone. Cortical bones are rigid. However, for the maintenance of and repair of the bone, it consists
with tiny passages for blood vessels and nerves. Moreover, the periosteum and endosteum cover the cortical
bone from outside and inside respectively. The endosteum is a vascular connective tissue. Therefore, it lines
the marrow cavity of long bones.

Osteocytes are present within the osseous tissue of the cortical bone. It surrounds by an extracellular matrix
composed of calcium and phosphorous-rich hydroxyapatite. Collagen fibres present within the extracellular
matrix provides limited flexibility to the cortical bone. They are cylindrical in shape. They provide structural
support to the body and protect internal organs from physical stress.

Compact Bone Definition

Compact bone, also known as cortical bone, is a denser material used to create much of the hard structure of
the skeleton. As seen in the image below, compact bone forms the cortex, or hard outer shell of most bones in
the body. The remainder of the bone is formed by cancellous or spongy bone.

Compact bone is formed from a number of osteons, which are circular units of bone material
and blood vessels. These units allow compact bone to remain hard and compact while still receiving nutrients
from the body and disposing of waste through the same channels. Each osteon is also composed of a number
of different cells responsible for the maintenance of the bones, including osteocytes and osteoblasts.

Function of Compact Bone

24 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
The compact bone is the main structure in the body for support, protection, and movement. Due to the strong
nature of compact bone, compared to spongy bone, it is the preferred tissue for strength. Spongy bone is used
for more active functions of the bones, including blood cell production and ion exchange. However, compact
bones also serve a function in storing and releasing calcium to the body when needed. The compact bone also
provide strong mechanical levers, against which the muscles can create movement. This function is supported
by the joints created by spongy bone and connective tissues, such as tendons and ligaments.

==============================================================================

Mechanism of Forces in Elbow Joint :

The elbow joint flexed to form a 60° angle between the upper
arm and forearm while the hand holds a 2kg(5lb) ball. The forearm is holding still and not moving so it must
be in static equilibrium and all the vertical forces must be canceling out. If the vertical forces didn’t cancel out
the forearm would begin to move up or down. We already know that the weight of the ball is
2Kg(5 lbs) downward and the bicep tension is 19 Kg (43 lbs) upward. The downward weight cancels
22Kg(50 lbs) worth of the upward muscle tension, leaving behind a remaining 17Kg (38 lbs) of upward force.
The forearm is in static equilibrium, so the vertical force on the end of the forearm at the elbow must cancel
out this 17 Kg (38 lbs) upward force, meaning that the vertical force on the elbow end of the forearm is 17
Kg (38 lbs) downward. This force comes from the upper arm bone (humerus) pushing down on the end of the
forearm bones (radius and ulna). Adjusting our significant figures, we should report this force as
17Kg(38 lbs).

=============================================================================
25 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
Compressing The Femur:

Opposite to tension forces, compression forces are provided by a material in response to being compressed
rather than stretched. The resistance of materials to deformation is what causes the normal force (support
force) that we introduced in the unit on balance. For example, the femur is compressed while supporting the
upper body weight of a person.

Stress

The size of object affects how they deform in response to applied compression and tension forces. For
example, the maximum compression or tension forces that a bone can support depends on the size of the bone.
More specifically, the more area available for the force to be spread out over, the more force the bone can
support. That means the maximum forces bones, (and other objects) can handle are proportional to the cross-
sectional area of the bone that is perpendicular (90°) to the direction of the force. For example, the force that
the femur can support vertically along its length depends on the area of its horizontal cross-sectional
area which is roughly circular and somewhat hollow (bone marrow fills the center space). Stress has units of
force per area so the SI units are (N/m2) which are also known as Pascals.

Transverse Ultimate Strength

So far we have discussed ultimate strengths along the long axis of the femur, known as
the longitudinal direction. Some materials, such as bone and wood, have different ultimate strengths along
different axes. The ultimate compressive strength for bone along the short axis (transverse direction) is
131 MPa, or about 36% less than the 205 MPa longitudinal value. Materials that have different properties
along different axes are known as anisotropic. Materials that behave the same in all directions are
called isotropic.

An interesting fact to finish up this chapter: when a person stands the femur actually experiences
compressive and tensile stresses on different sides of the bone. This occurs because the structure of the hip
socket applies the load of the body weight off to the side rather than directly along the long axis of the bone.

26 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
==============================================================================

Elastic Modulus Of Humerus:

Within the linear region we can model materials as springs, just like we did with the biceps distal tendon in
the previous chapter. We can start by writing Hooke’s Law in terms of the material elastic modulus just as we
did for the bicep:

Notice that the right hand side contains our definition of strain, so we can write

If we divide both sides by cross sectional area, we will suddenly have the definition of stress on the left:

27 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
So we can write:

We now see that when a material is behaving like a spring, the stress will be proportional to the strain and
the elastic modulus of the material will be the proportionality constant that relates the stress and strain. When
an object is behaving this way, we say the stress and strain fall within the linear region of the material. To
actually find the elastic modulus of a material experimentally we rearrange the equation:

Then we just need to measure how much additional strain is caused by an applied stress (or vice versa) then
divide the stress by strain to get the elastic modulus. Of course we need to be sure that the material is
operating within it’s linear region, so that it still acts like a spring.

===========================================================================

Bicep Tension

The torques due to the bicep tension and the ball weight are trying to rotate the elbow in opposite directions,
so if the forearm is in static equilibrium the two torques are equal in size they will cancel out and the net
torque will be zero.

Looking at our equation for torque, we see that it only depends on the size of the force and the lever arm. That
means that if the perpendicular distance to the bicep tension were 10x smaller than the distance to the center
of the ball, the bicep tension force will have to be 10x times bigger than the weight of the ball in order to
cause the same size torque and maintain rotational equilibrium. To find the bicep tension all we need to do
now is determine how many times bigger the is the lever arm for the weight compared to the lever arm for the
tension.

You might be thinking, but we can’t use this method, we don’t know the perpendicular lengths, they aren’t
given, we only have the full distances from pivot to ball and pivot to bicep attachment. Don’t worry, if we
draw a stick figure diagram we can see two triangles formed by the force action lines, the forearm and the
perpendicular distances. The dashed (red) and solid (blue) triangles are similar triangles, which means that
their respective sides have the same ratios of lengths.

28 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
 Diagram of the forearm as a lever, showing the similar triangles
formed by parts of the forearm as it moves from 90 degrees to 60 degrees from horizontal. The hypotenuse
(long side) of the smaller blue triangle is the effort arm and the hypotenuse of the larger dashed red triangle is
the load arm. The vertical sides of the triangles are the distances moved by the effort (blue) and the load
(dashed red)

=============================================================================

Biomechanics & Biomechanical Testing :

Design of a medical device requires extensive testing. Biomechanics, the field that establishes the mechanical
properties of biological tissues such as bones, tendons, ligaments, and muscles, requires investigation and
testing of biological tissues under various loading conditions. Although biomechanics applies engineering
principles to biological systems, it also requires careful analysis of the biological tissue. A medical device can
only be accurately validated if the characteristics of the tissue it is replacing as well as the tissue it is to be in
contact with are known.

29 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
Bones, the building blocks of the skeletal system, are composite materials that consist of both fluid and solid
phases. Water, which can be located in the organic matrix or in canals and cavities, accounts for up to 25% of
the total weight of the bone. Solid phases give bones their hard structure as well as resilience and flexibility.

Bones can self-repair and alter their shape, and their mechanical properties depend on changes experienced by
the body. It is also important to note that the composition, and consequently, certain characteristics of bone,
vary by age, sex, types of bone and bone tissue, and other factors.

To appropriately analyze the material properties of bone, its mineral content needs to be discussed. Bones
show a higher ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and Modulus of Elasticity if they have higher mineralization. In
contrast, higher mineralization will often lower toughness. Cortical bone shows higher Modulus of Elasticity
compared to cancellous bone and has the most favorable characteristics for resisting torque. Cancellous bone,
on the other hand, has a greater capacity to store energy, thus it can sustain much higher strains before failing
in addition to resisting high compression and shear forces

Biomechanics Testing
Biomechanical considerations for medical devices include an implant’s ability to withstand tensile,
compressive, and shear forces, variations and degrees of freedom, and the mechanical properties of the device
such as Elastic Modulus, yield strength, and elongation to failure. Materials such as metals and alloys,
ceramics, and polymers are used to develop medical devices.

Metallic implants have an ordered, 3D crystalline structure and are primarily used for loading bearing (e.g. hip
and shoulder implants, fixation devices). Depending on the properties of the metal chosen, highly-reactive
metallic surfaces countering surrounding tissues often require further metallic treatments or, if possible, the
use of other biomaterials on the outer surface. Ceramics, on the other hand, are non-metallic and non-organic,
their compressive strength is amongst the highest, and however they show poor tensile properties. The most
common use of ceramics is in dental implants. Polymers are organic materials composed of repeated units.
Their advantages include the controlled degradation rates and ease of manufacture. Polymers can also be
given a specific shape for the specific application. From a mechanical standpoint, polymeric materials have
different degradation mechanisms and will often show wear
debris and will fatigue under constant loading.

Time-dependent aspects of material behavior can be

analyzed running creep and recovery tests, stress relaxation,
and dynamic tests.

• Creep and recovery tests can be conducted by

applying a certain amount load and maintaining that load,
constant, for a specified amount of time, then suddenly
removing it to observe the material response. This
phenomenon occurs in tissues or, medical devices that
replace such tissues, are subjected to a constant force, and
over time, the tissues elongate.
30 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
 • Stress relaxation testing involves the material to be strained up to a point and stress response to be
observed while strain is held constant. In contrast to creep, stress-relaxation occurs in tissues that are
stretched and held at a fixed length.
• Dynamic oscillatory testing applies a harmonic stress in order to measure the material strain response.

======================================================================

Components of Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

A universal testing machine consists of two main parts
:

1. Loading Unit
2. Control Unit
The arrangement of the test specimen and the exertion
of the load is held in the loading unit. The variations in
the application of the load and the corresponding test
result are obtained from the control unit.

Loading Unit
The loading unit of a UTM consists of the following
components

1. Load Frame
2. Upper crosshead and Lower crosshead
3. Elongation Scale

1. Load Frame
The load frame of a universal testing machine can be made either by single support or by double support. The
load Frame consists of a table (where the specimen is placed for the compression test), upper crosshead, and
lower crosshead.

2. Upper Crosshead and Lower Crosshead

The upper crosshead is used to clamp one end of the test specimen. The lower crosshead in the load frame is
the movable crosshead whose screws can be loosened for height adjustment and tightened. Both the
crossheads have a tapered slot at the center. This slot has a pair of racked jaws that is intended to grip and
hold the tensile test specimen.

3. Elongation Scale
The relative movement of the lower and upper table is measured by an elongation scale which is provided
along with the loading unit.

31 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
. Control Unit
The main components of the control unit in a universal testing machine are :

1. Hydraulic Power Unit

2. Load Measuring Unit
3. Control Devices

1. Hydraulic Power Unit

This unit consists of an oil pump that provides non-pulsating oil flow into the main cylinder of the load unit.
This flow helps in the smooth application of load on the specimen. The oil pump in a hydraulic power unit is
run by an electric motor and sump.

2. Load Measuring Unit

This unit has a pendulum dynamometer unit that has a small cylinder with a piston which moves with the non-
pulsating oil flow. The pendulum is connected to the piston by pivot lever. The pivot lever deflects based on
the load applied to the specimen. This deflection is converted to the load pointer and displays as the load on
the dial.

The range of load application can be adjusted by means of a knob in the load measuring unit (0-100 kN; 0-250
kN; 0-500 kN and 0-1000 kN). The accuracy of measuring unit controls the overall accuracy of the machine.

3. Control Devices
The control devices can be electric or hydraulic. Electric control devices make use of switches to move the
crossheads and switch on/off the unit. A hydraulic control device consists of two valves, Right Control
Valve and Left Control Valve or Release Valve. A right control valve is used to apply load on the
specimen. The left control valve is used to release the load application as shown in figure
Functions of Universal Testing Machine
The main functions of UTM are to test the mechanical properties of materials. The standard tests performed
by UTM are:

1. Tensile Test
2. Compression Test
3. Adhesion Tests
4. Pull-Out Tests
5. Bending Test
6. Hysteresis Test

=============================================================================
Fatigue

32 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
 Fatigue testing is defined as the process of progressive localized permanent structural change occurring in a
material subjected to conditions that produce fluctuating stresses and strains at some point or points and that
may culminate in cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient number of fluctuations.
omenclature to describe the test parameters involved in cyclic loading
Fatigue is the progressive, localized, permanent structural change that occurs in materials subjected to
fluctuating stresses and strains that may result in cracks or fractures after a sufficient number of fluctuations.
The cyclic stresses are normally well below the yield strength of the material.

The process of fatigue consists of three key stages:

1. Initial fatigue damage leading to crack nucleation and crack initiation,

2. Progressive cyclic growth of a crack (crack propagation) until the remaining un-cracked cross section of a
part becomes too weak to withstand the loads applied,

4. Final, sudden fracture of the remaining cross section.

Types of Fatigue Failure:

1. Mechanical Fatigue - fluctuations in externally applied stresses or strains.

2. Creep Fatigue - Cyclic loads at high temperatures.

3. Thermo mechanical Fatigue - fluctuations in temperature as well as

stresses and strains.

33 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
 4. Corrosion Fatigue - Cyclic loads in a chemically aggressive or embrittling
environment.

5. Fretting Fatigue - Cyclic loads combined with frictional sliding.

Fatigue Endurance Limit and Fatigue Strength

High cycle, low stress fatigue.

Material deforms elastically.
Cyclic stress range vs number of cycles to failure (S-N Curve)

Total life = crack initiation + crack propagation

Failure = Total separation of specimen

First fatigue design method. Large amount of data available.

Damage-Tolerant Approach
Assumes defects present in material.

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics approach ( da/dN vs delta K)

Resistance to Fatigue Crack Growth.

Useful Fatigue life = number of cycles to propagate a crack from an initial size to some critical dimension.
34 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
 Failure = critical crack size based on fracture toughness of material, limit load for particular structural part,
allowable strain, change in compliance of a component etc.

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Creep Testing:

A creep test, sometimes referred to as a stress-relaxation test, is used to determine the amount of deformation
a material experiences over time while under a continuous tensile or compressive load at a constant
temperature. Creep tests are fundamental for materials that are needed to withstand certain operation
temperatures under load. For materials such as metals or alloys, their material properties change significantly
at higher or lower temperatures. By examining the results from a creep test, engineers can determine a
material's expected deformation and avoid failure when designing new systems for different environmental
conditions. Creep tests are commonly performed on the following components and materials:

• Metal Working

• Springs

• Soldered Joints

• High-Temperature Materials

How to Perform a Creep Test?

To determine creep properties, a material is subjected to prolonged constant tension or compression loading at
constant elevated temperature. While testing, the material's deformation is recorded at specific time intervals
and overall data is plotted on a creep vs time diagram. The slope at any point on this curve is known as the
creep rate, in which units are expressed in terms of in/in/hr or percent(%) elongation/hr. Maintaining a
constant temperature during a creep test is critical due to the possible thermal expansion or shrinkage of the
material.

Three Stages of Creep Testing

Specimens pass through three different stages during a creep test. The first stage is primary creep, where the
creep rate begins by rising quickly and then slows down and decreases. The secondary stage is where the
creep rate remains fairly uniform. During the tertiary stage, when the specimen is expected to reach its
breaking point, the creep rate is much steeper than it is in the secondary stage, culminating in specimen
failure. If failure occurs, the time for rupture is recorded. If a specimen does not fracture within the creep test
period, creep recovery may be measured.

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