Vol.

36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE

JOURNAL
of the
AMERICAN CONCRETE
INSTITUTE
7400 SECOND BOULEVARD, DETROIT, MICHIGAN FEBRUARY 1940

The Design of Concrete Mixes*

BY CHARLES T. KENNIDDYt

SYNOPSIS

This paper presents a rational method for the design of the concrete
mix with respect to workability. A "workability factor" is developed
which has a similar relation to the workability of the concrete as the
water-cement ratio has to the strength. The author finds that for any
given cement and water-cement ratio, this factor depends upon the
relative quantities of cement, water and aggregates and upon certain
easily determined physical characteristics of the aggregates.
Instead of the original data upon which the method is based, its
validity is demonstrated by application to an independent series of
tests.
Examples are given of the application of the method to problems of
design and to the selection of the proper aggregate, and attention is
called to certain implications with respect to economy and quality.

A RATIONAL BASIS FOR THE DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIXES

The history of the rational design of concrete begins with the

publication, in 1918, of "Design of Concrete Mixes," by Duff A.
Abrams. This presented two new concepts: (a) the water-cement
ratio law, and (b) an arbitrary function of the grading of the aggre-
gate known as the "fineness modulus."
Experience has demonstrated the essential soundness of the water-
cement ratio law. Not only the strength, but other principal char-
acteristics of the concrete, have been found to be primarily dependent
upon the ratio of the amount of mixing water to the amount of cement.
The fineness modulus has not fared so well. It has been found to be
demonstrably unsound, and has generally been abandoned.
*Received by the Institute Jan. 5 for presentation 36th Annual Convention, Chicago, Feb. 27-29.
tConsulting Structural Engineer, Cinchmati.

(373)
374 JoURNAl, OF THE AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE February 1940

The water-cement law is not, in itself, a complete method of design.

Abrams expressed the law in the form S = ~.
Ex
where S is the corn-
pressive strength of the concrete and x the water-cement ratio expressed
in terms of cubic feet of water per sack of cement. He was careful to
point out a qualification which has been emphasized by later inves-
tigators, namely: this law holds only as long as the mix is workable.
A and B, in the formula, are constants whose values,-under standard
conditions of mixing, curing and placing,-depend only upon the
quality of the particular cement in use and the age of the specimens;
they are independent of any other characteristics of the mix, such as
the amount or grading of the aggregate. It is assumed, of course, that
the aggregate is physically sound and the concrete free from injurious
amounts of extraneous matter
It is obvious that the choice of the proper water-cement ratio is
only the first step in the design of the mix. For a complete method
of design, some means must be provided to determine the work-
ability of the mix with regard to the amounts and grading of the
aggregates. It was for this purpose that the fineness modulus was
developed. Since the abandonment .of this method, nothing has
been advanced to take its place; even the Portland Cement Associa-
tion has nothing better to offer than the mixing of trial batches,-the
method of "cut and try."
Herein is presented a rational approach to the problem of the
workability of the mix,-a method of design developed for use under
actual working conditions and so used in the writer's practice over a
period of years.
The fundamental law of the workability of the mix is this: for a
mix to be workable, the volume of cement paste,-i. e., the absolute
volume of the cement plus the volume of the mixing water,-must
be at least equal to the volume of the voids in the dry rodded mixed
aggregate.
Concrete in which the volume of cement paste was no ·more than
equal to the volume of voids would be workable only under a strictly
laboratory definition; it would have a slump theoretically equal to
zero. For practical purposes, an excess of cement paste is required.
The second law of the workability of the mix is this: for any re-
quired degree of workability, the necessary excess of cement paste
depends (a) upon the consistency of the cement paste itself,-lower
water-cement ratios requiring larger excess amounts than higher
ratios,-and (b) upon the surface area of the aggregate,-the larger
the surface area, the greater the excess required.
 The Design of Concrete Mixes 375

The logical basis of these laws is illustrated, diagrammatically, in

Fig. 1. Let diagram A represent adjacent particles of the dry rodded
mixed aggregate, the black areas representing the voids. The action
of the rodding is to compact the material, forcing the particles into
such a condition of internal equilibrium that the sum total of the
voids is reduced practically to the minimum consistent with the
grading. When cement and water are added, the action of mixing
the concrete has practically the same effect upon the aggregate. In
a published series of tests (to be referred to in detail later), yield was
reported as the ratio of the volume of freshly mixed concrete to the

A B
FIG. 1

apparent volume of the dry rodded mixed aggregate. In 37 cases

in which the volume of cement paste was less than the volume of the
voids in the aggregate,-the ratio varying from 0.75 to 0.99,-the
average yield was reported as over 98 per cent. Allowing for some
loss in evaporation and handling, this indicates that the apparent
volume of the aggregate is substantially the same in the dry rodded
condition and in the mixed concrete. Consequently, diagram A may
also be taken to represent a section of freshly mixed concrete in
which the amount of cement paste is just sufficient to fill the voids
in the dry rodded aggregate,-the black areas now denoting cement
paste. For this amount of paste, and for any smaller amount, the
particles of the aggregate will evidently be in the same intimate
contact as in the dry rodded condition, the internal friction will be
high, and the concrete will be harsh and unworkable.
If an additional amount of cement paste is added to the concrete
and uniformly distributed throughout the mass, the effect will be as
indicated in diagram B; the individual particles of the aggregate will
be forced apart, each particle being surrounded by a film of cement
paste. For small thicknesses of this film, t, with respect to the par-
ticle diameter, the black areas in diagram B will be seen to be sub-
stantially equal to those in diagram A (i. e., to the volume of voids
in the dry rodded mixed aggregate), while the cross-hatched areas
376 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE February 1940

which represent the cement paste film are closely proportional to the
surface area of the aggregate. It is the action of the cement paste
film in reducing the internal friction that imparts plasticity to the
mix, and this effect is obviously dependent upon the consistency of
the paste itself. Parenthetically, it may be noted here that the
average thickness of the cement film is of the order of magnitude of
one one-thousandth of an inch.
The application of these laws will be demonstrated by means of an
absolutely independent series of tests. All experimental data used
in this article will be taken from one of the finest experimental inves-
tigations ever published-"Further Studies of the Water-Cement
Ratio Strength Relationship in Concrete," by F. R. McMillan and
Wm. R. Johnson, published in the Report of the Director of Research,
Portland Cement Association, 1928. Specifically, the data used
herein are taken from Tables 1, 2, 3 and 6 of the report, summarizing
respectively the results of the tests in Series 186, Series 212 Group 1
and Group 2, and Series 213.
The first two series cover a wide range of mixes. Series 186 con-
tains 228 different combinations of one grading of sand with one
grading of gravel and a similar grading of limestone. The resulting
mixes vary from 1-1-0 to 1-3-7 and 1-4-3, with water-cement ratios
varying from 0.49 to 1.16. Series 212 Group 1 consists of 220 dif-
ferent mixes of two gradings of sand (size 0-14 and size 0-4) with
two gradings of gravel (size 4-1Y2 and size %'-1Y2) and with the same
two gradings of limestone; the water-cement ratios vary from 0.49
to 2.53. Series 212 Group 2 contains 94 different mixes, duplicating
certain of the mixes of Series 186 with a sand of slightly different
grading; both gravel and limestone are used as coarse aggregates,
and the water-cement ratios vary from 0.59 to 1.12.
Data given for each mix include: nominal mix (sacks of cement to
cubic feet of dry rodded fine and coarse aggregates measured sepa-
rately), true mix (sacks of cement to cubic feet of dry rodded mixed
aggregate), unit weight of aggregate (pounds per cubic foot of dry
rodded mixed aggregate), water-cement ratio, slump and flow of
concrete, and 28-day strength. Of fundamental importance in the
investigation.is the observer's opinion of the workability reported for
each mix; the following excerpt from the Report describes the methods
used in this connection:
Consistency and Workability: During the molding of the specimens, careful
observations were made by an experienced observer as to the workability or non-
workability of the mixes. All the mixes are identified either by the letter "W" or
"N" depending upon the classification in which they fall. The observer classified
the mix according to his judgment of its behaviour in the mixing pan, on the flow
 The Design of Concrete Mixes 377

table, and in the mass as the slump cone was removed, as well as during the placing
in the cylinder mold. Attention was also given to the size of the batch, the record
indicating whether, in the observer's opinion, the concrete would be workable in job-
size batches. Coincident with these observations, consistency of the mix was deter-
mined by both the standard cone and the slump table.
To calculate the volumes of the cement paste and voids, two values
not given for these series were assumed. The absolute volume of a
sack of cement was taken as 0.49 c. f. The specific weight of the
aggregate was taken as 165 lb. per cu. ft., corresponding to the ob-
served value of the specific gravity of 2.65 given elsewhere in the
report for similar materials. With these assumptions, the volume of
cement paste per sack of cement becomes x plus 0.49, where x equals
the water-cement ratio in cubic feet per sack. The volume of voids
in the aggregate becomes (165 - w)N, where w equals the unit
165
weight of the dry rodded mixed aggregate in pounds per cubic foot,
and N equals the true mix in terms of cubic feet of dry rodded mixed
aggregate per sack of cement.
On this basis, calculations of the volumes,-cement paste and
voids in aggregates,-were made for each of the 542 mixes included
in the three series of tests. The volume of cement paste failed to
exceed the volume of voids in the aggregate in 111 mixes. In accord-
ance with the first law of workability given above, all of these mixes
should be classified as "non-workable;" reference to the report shows
that they have been so classified in 108 of the 111 cases. The three
cases in which the calculated result varied from the reported opinion
are summarized in the following table:

Vol. Cement
Series Ref. True Mix Unit Wt. Voids x = wfc Paste Slump
212-1 36 1-7 126 1.65 1.08 1.57 0.2'
212-2 169x 1-5.3 121 1.41 0.85 1.34 0. 7'
212-2 197 1-7 125 1.70 1.05 1.54 0.5'
'
An inspection of these data, with particular reference to the low
slumps reported, will make it obvious that these are indeed border-
line cases, and can in no sense be regarded as upsetting the balance
of evidence presented by the agreement in the other 108 cases.
The closeness with which this criterion may be applied is illus-
trated by the tabulated excerpts which follow.
The first three sets of tests above illustrate the effect of increasing
the amount of water while maintaining constant proportions of
cement and of fine and coarse aggregates. In the fourth set, a nominal
378 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE February 1940

Mix
Series Ref. Unit Voids x ~ wjo Vol. Slump WorN
Nom. True Wt. C.P.
-186
-- 105 1-2~-5 129
------------
1}9 0.77 1.26 0.1 N
1--l! .4
109
114 .... .... .. "
0.84
0.91
1.33
1.40
0.3
0.2
N
N
158 " " 0.97 1.46 1.6 w
186 130 1-~-4 1-g.o 129 1.,~9 0.79 1.28 0.1 N
133
137 .... .... " .."
0.85
0.92
1.34
1.41
0.2
0.5
N
w
169 " 0.99 1.48 1.2 w
212-2 181 1-2~--4 1-f!.7 125 1}9 0.80 1.29 0.3 N
183
185 .. " .. .. 0.93
1.05
1.42
1.54
3.5
5.5
w
w
186 135 1-3-Q 1-3.0 113 0.95 1.00 1.49 8.4 w
136 1-3-3 1-5.2 128 1.16 0.95 1.44 1.3 w
137 1-3--4 1-6.0 129 1.30 0.92 1.41 0.5 w
138 1-3-5 1-6.9 131 1.38 0.89 1.38 0.2 N
139 1-3-6 1-7.7 129 1.67 0.88 1.37 0.1 N
212-2 18x .... 1-;;1 115 2.12 2.18 2.67 1.3 w
19x .... 128 1.57 1.58 2.07 1.1 w
20x .... " 126 1.65 1.16 1.65 0.2 N

water-cement ratio has been maintained, only the proportion of coarse

aggregate being varied. In the last set, the same true mix has been
maintained with varying proportions of fine to coarse aggregate, and
with amomitS of water adjusted to maintain the same nominal flow.
In all five sets, a close relation is evident between workability and the
relative amount of cement paste.
The data given in the various tables of series 186 and 212 cannot
be used directly for the quantitative determination of the effect of
the excess cement paste upon the workability of the mix. Due to the
effect of the consistency of the cement paste, data based upon a
constant water-cement ratio are necessary. Because of the wide
range of water-content, the use of gap gradings, and the high inci-
dence of harsh and unworkable mixes, Series 212 Group 1 is entirely
too diffuse for the purpose. While the data for Series 186 and Series
212 Group 2 are arranged in sets of a uniform nominal water content,
the actual water-cement ratios for each set vary considerably. All
aggregates were used in a room-dry condition; since the same amount
of mixing water was used for each mix in a given set, the correction
for the absorption of the varying amounts of aggregates results in a
varying water-cement ratio. A group of tests having a nominal
water content of, say, 7 gallons per sack will present values of wjc
from 0.77 to 0.89.
It is possible, however, to obtain the desired information by a
process of interpolation. In general, each mix appears in each series
with several different values of the water-cement ratio. By plotting
slump against this ratio, a series of curves is obtained, one for each
mix, from which the slump may be estimated for any required water
 The Design of Concrete Mixes 379

content. A few typical curves, obtained in this manner, are given

in Fig. 2; attention is called to the typical S shape of the reversed
curve, which always appears when sufficient points are available for
plotting.
Slump· mch,.a
0 - M at ... C. e .. • • l5 - N

a.... ......_
-o_ •·•l!.·a:
If 'e..
1--t ~ ......... '"~
\
~...:!.
I·
'( """"- ""- 1·3· ~ '""\
~~ ~
~hS
..... .

"'
FIG. 2

A similar process of interpolation has been carried out- by the

authors of the report, and the results given therein in their Fig. 8, 9,
15 and 16. Separate diagrams are given for each of four water-
cement ratios,-namely 5, 6, 7 and 8 gals. per sack,-for each of the
two series of tests and for each of the two types of coarse aggregates.
The values of the slump given in the accompanying Table 1 have
been taken directly from these diagrams of the report.
The following notes, referring to the column headings of Table 1,
explain its construction in detail.
Nominal Mix-8acks of cement, cubic feet of dry rodded fine aggregate, cubic
feet of dry rodded coarse aggregate; taken directly from the report.
True Mix-(N)-Cubic feet of dry rodded mixed aggregate per sack of cement.
This value is given directly in the report, but only to two significant figures; thus,
the nominal 1-1-2 mix is given as a 1-2.6 true mix. To obtain a greater degree of
refinement in the calculations, the true mix has been computed. The unit weight
of the coarse aggregates is not given in the report; given the unit weight of the fine
aggregate, the true mix, and the unit weight of the mixed aggregate, it is possible
to compute the unit weight of the coarse aggregate. By taking the average of this
result for each of the mixes given in the Report, the unit weights were determined
as 108 lb. per cu. ft. for the gravel in both Series 186 and 212, 105.9 lb. per cu. ft.
for the limestone in Series 186, and 104.4lb. per cu. ft. for the limestone in Series 212.
The true mix was then computed on the basis of these unit weights. The values of
the true mix given in Table 1 are these computed results, which in general agree to
two significant figures with those given in the report.
Unit Weight-(w)-Weight of dry rodded mixed aggregate in lbs. per cu. ft.;
taken directly from the report.
 TABLE 1

True
MHx
Unit
Weight Voids
I\ Surface
Area
5 gal. per sack
V = 1.16
6 gal. per sack
V = 1.29
7 gal. per sack
V = 1.42
I 8 gal. per sack
V = 1.56 ~
--I Mix N w v S V-v K Slump V-v K -~Slump V-v_j_ K ISlump 1 V-v I K ISlum;
1-1-0 1.00 113 0.32 1790 0.84 4.7 10.4 0.97 5.4 10.9
1-1-1 1.73 128 0.39 1880 0.77 4.1 10.0 0.90 4.8 111.0
1-1-2 2.55 129 0.56 1980 0.60 3.05 9.3 0.73 3.7 9.7
1-1-3 3.47 126 0.82 2080 0.34 1.65 7.1 0.47 2.25 8.0 ~
I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ___ ,___ ,___ ,___ ,___ ,___ ,_ __ d
1-1~-0 1.50 113 0.47 2690 0.69 2.55 I 3.05 10.8 I 0.95
!:"

~
9.3 0.82 3.55 111.2
1-1~-2 2.99 129 0.65 2880 0.51 1.75 7.6 0.64 2.2 9.4 0.77 2.65 9.9
1-1~-3 3.82 129 0.83 2980 0.33 1.10 5.1 0.46 1.55 1 8.3 0.59 2.00 9.0
Ql 1-1~-4 4.77 126 1.13 3070 0.03 0.10 1.2X 0.16 0.50 6.0X 0.29 0.95 7.4 0
I ---------------~--------~-- "l
~ 1-2-0 2.00 113 0.63 3590 0.53 1.50 5.8 0.66 1.85 9.9 0.79 2.20 11.1 0.93 2.60 11.2
"'
;ii

l
1-2-1 2.67 125 0.65 3690 0.51 1.4 3.0 0.64 1.75 9.2 0.77 2.1 10.6 0.91 2.45 10.9 1;1
1-2-2 3.45 128 0.77 3780 0.39 1.05 1.3 0.52 1.4 8.0 0.65 1.7 9.6 0.79 2.1 9.9

~
1-2-3 4.30 128 0.97 3880 0.19 0.5 0.5 0.32 0.8 6.3 0.45 1.15 8.2 0.59 1.4 8.4
......
I
1-2-4
1-2-5
5.10
5.98 I 129
128
1.11
1.34
3970
4060
0.05 0.15 0.1
------------------------
0.18 0.45 4.0 0.31
0.08
0.8
0.2
6.8
4.2X
0.45
0.22
1.1
0.55
7.5
5.8
!:"
n
j 1-2~-0
1-2~-2
1-2~-3
1-2~-4
2.50
3.86
4.60
5.45
113
129
132
131
0.79
0.84
0.92
1.12
4490
4680
4780
4880
0.37
0.32
0.8
0.7
1.0
0.3
0.50
0.45
0.37
0.17
1.1
0.95
0.75
0.35
5.8
4.0
1.8
0.5
0.63
0.58
0.50
0.30
1.4
1.25
1.05
0.6
9.4
7.7
6.4
4.0
0.77
0.72
0.64
0.44
1.7
1..55
1.35
0.9
10.6
9.0
7.6
6.3
>
z
0
I
1-2~-5 6.37
--
129 1.39 4960
----------------------·--
0.03 0.05 0.5 0.17 0.35 3.6
~
1-3-0
1-3-2
3.00
4.37
113
127
0.95
1.01
5370
5570
0.21 0.4 0.47
0.41
0.1
0.9
0.7
6.8
4.2
0.34
0.61
0.28
0.55
0.65
1.15
0.5
1.0
9.0
7.5
0.8
0.5 ~
1-3-3
1-3-4
5.18
5.97
128
129
1.16
1.30
5670
57r.O
0.26
0.12
0.45
0.2
1.0
0.5
0.13
0.40
0.26
0.25
0.7
0.45
6.0
I
3.0
0.1 ~
......
-1 1-3-5 6.70 - 131
-- 1.38 5840 0.04
________________ 0.05
_ ,_ _ ,_0.3_ ,_
0.18 0.3_ ,_
_ ,_ 1.7_ z
1-1~-2 2.98 128 0.67 2880 0.49 1.7 0.62 2.15
5.9 8.6 0.75 2.6 9.2 I ~

~
1-1~-3 3.80 128 0.85 2980 0.31 1.05 0.44 1.5
1.8 6.6 0.57 1.9 7.3
I 1-1~-4 4.78 124 1.19 3070 0.10 0.3 3.0X 0.23 0.75
,_ _ ,_ _ ,_ _ ,_ _ ,_ _ ,_ _ ,_ _ ,_ _ ,_
I 5.0_ ,_ _ ,_ _ ,_ _
"' 110.&
i
1-2-1 2.65 125 0.64 3690 0.52 1.4 2.0 0.65 1.75 0.92 8.5
2.5 0.78 2.1 110.1
1-2-2 3.42 128 0. 77 3780 0.39 1.05 0.8 0.52 1.4 0.79 2.1
6.8 . 9.3 0.65 1.7 8.8
1-2-3 4.18 130 0.89 3880 0.27 0.7 0.4 0.40 1.05 0.67 4.0
1.75 7.3 0.53 1.35 6.7
1-2-4 5.07 128 1.13 3970 0.16 0.4 0.43 0.3
1.1 6.4 0.29 0.75 3.7
I 1-2-5 6.04 125 1.46 4060 1--_,___ ,___ ,___ ,___ ,___ ,___ ,___ ,___ ,___ ,___ ,_1.9
0.10 0.25 __
l 1-2~-2
1-2~-3
3.89
4.65
I 127
129
0.90
1.01
4680
4780
0.39
0.28
0.85
0.6
1.4
0.3
0.52
0.41
1.1
0.85
6.0
3.5
0.66
0.55
1.4
1.15
7.6
6.3
~
0'"
00
......
gj
1-2~-4
1-2~-5
5.47
6.35
129
. 128
1.19
1.42
4880
4960
0.23
0.0
0.45
0.0 1.4
0.3
0.37
0.14
0.75
0.3
4.8
0.9 j
~ I 1-3-2
1-3-3
1-3-4
4.31
5.13
5.96
I 128
128
128
0.97
1.15
1.34
5570
5670
5760
--------- D.32
0.14
o:551---o:a-ID.451---o:s-11:61o:5911.0516:7
0.25
1
0.1 0.27
0.08
0.5
0.15
0.7
0.0
0.41
0.22
0.7
0.4
4.5
1.3
.....
~
1-3-5 6.78 128 1.52 5840 . 0.04 0.05 0.5
 TABLE !-Continued

True Unit Surface 5 gal. per sack 6 gal. per sack 7 gal. per sack 8 gal. per sack
Nominal l\Iix Weight Voids Area v = 1.16 v = 1.29 V= 1.42 v = 1.56
Mix - r - - - - ---------- ---~---

N w v s V-v K Slump V-v K Slump V-v K Slump V-v K Slump

- ----- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
1-1)1-0 1.50 114 0.47 2710 0.69 2.55 9.7 0.82 3.0 11.0 0.95 3.5 11.0 1.09 4.05 11.0
1-1)1-2 3.02 128 0.68 2900 0.48 1.65 8.0 0.61 2.1 9.5 0.74 2.55 10.2 0.88 3.05 10.3
1-1)1-3 3.96 125 0.96 3000 0.20 0.65 4.6X 0.33 1.1 7.9 0.46 1.55 8.7 0.60 2.0 9.0
Cj 1-1)1-4 4.86 124 1.21 3100 0.08 0.25 5.8X 0.21 0.7 7.2 0.35 1.1 7.0
:> ---- - - - - - - - - - --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
0
"'
.... 1-2-0
1-2-2
2.00
3.58
114
126
0.62
0.85
3620
3810
0.54
0.31
1.5
0.8
7.2
1.4
0.67
0.44
1.85
1.15
10.0
8.1
0.80
0.57
2.2
1.5
11.0
9.3
0.94
0.71
2.6
1.85
11.1
9.5
1-2-3 4.41 125 1.07 3900 0.09 0.25 0.4 0.22 0.55 5.9 0.35 0.9 7.7 0.49 1.25 7.9
I 1-2-4 5.27 125 1.28 4000 0.01 0.0 2.9X 0.14 0.35 6.1X 0.28 0.7 6.5 ....,

-
N
c<i
N

"'
1-2-5
1-2)1-0
1-2)1-3
6.14
2.50
4.79
125
114
127
1.49

1.10
4100
- - - - - - --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
0.77 4520
4820
0.39
0.06
0.85
0.1
0.5
0.3
0.52
0.19
1.15
0.4
8.1
1.2
0.65
0.32
1.45
0.65
10.5
5.5
0.07
0.79
0.46
0.15
1.75
0.95
4.0
11.0
7.7 ~
;:,-

"'0

5"'
1-2)1-4 5.73 125 1.39 4910 0.03 0.05 3.0 0.17 0.35 5.5
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ~-
UJ 1-3-0 3.00 114 0.93 5420 0.23 0.4 0.1 0.36 0.65 1.7 0.49 0.9 8.0 0.63 1.15 9.2
1-3-2 4.47 125 1.08 5620 0.21 0.35 0.6 0.34 0.6 4.0 0.48 0.85 7.4 ~
1-3-3 5.28 126 1.25 5710 0.04 0.05 0.2 0.17 0.3 1.1 0.31 0.5 4.9
-
1-3-4 6.04 128 1.35 5810 0.07 0.1 0.3
--- --- --- --- --- ------ ------ --- --- ---
0.21 0.35 3.1 ~
q
1-1)1-2 3.01 126 0.71 2900 0.45 1.55 6.7 0.58 2.0 8.9 0.71 2.45 9.5 0.85 2.95 10.0
1-1)1-3 4.00 121 1.07 3000 0.09 0.3 1.9X 0.22 0.75 6.4 0.35 1.15 7.6 0.49 1.65 8.1 "'1i>
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
1-2-2 3.00 125 0.85 3810 0.31 0.8 1.2 0.44 1.15 7.6 0.57 1.5 8.4 0.71 1.85 9.1 ~
~-
...,"'
0 J-2-3 4.37 124 1.09 3900 0.07 0.2 0.1 0.20 0.5 4.1 0.33 0.85 6.9 0.47 1.2 7.1
0 1-2-4 5.34 121 1.42 4000 0.0 0.0 3.7X 0.14 0.35 4.9
---- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - - "'
s"'"' 1-2)1-3
1-2)1-4
-----
4.76
5.67
126
124
1.12
1.41
4820
4910
0.04 0.1 0.3 0.17 0.35 0.5 0.30
0.01
0.6
0.0
4.0
1.0
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
0.44
0.15
0.9
0.3
6.9
3.8
;:1
1-3-2 4.44 124 1.10 5620 0.06 0.1 0.1 0.19 0.35 0.3 0.32 0.55 3.3 0.46 0.8 7.0
1-3-3 5.25 125 1.27 5710 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.25 0.7 0.29 0.35 4.0
1-3-4 6.02 126 1.42 5810 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.14 0.25 1.9

c.:>
,...
00
382 .JOURNAL ore THE AMEIHCAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE February 1940

Voids-(v)-Voids in dry rodded mixed aggregate in cu. ft. per sack of cement;
computed from the values in the two preceding columns by means of the formula,
(165 - w) N
v =
165
Surface Area-(S)-Surface area of aggregate in sq. ft. per sack of cement. The
sieve analyses of the sand, gravel and limestone used in Series 212 are given in the
report as follows, in terms of the percentage by weight larger than the given sieve
size:

Sieve ................. No. 100 No. 48 No. 28 No. 14 No.8 No.4 %In. %:In. 1Y2 In.
Sand................. 99 92 61 37 19 2 0
Gravel and Stone. . . . . . 100 100 100 100 100 100 75 25 0

The grading of the coarse aggregates used in Series 186 is the same as that given
above. No sieve analysis is given for the sand used in Series 186; it is here assumed
that the grading is the same as that used in Series 212, as they are both from the same
source of supply and have almost the same unit weights-113lb. for Series 186 against
114 lb. for Series 212. Surface areas have been computed upon the assumption
that the ratio of surface to volume for each individual particle is the same as that
6
a:
of a sphere, or where d is the average diameter in feet of the particles on each size
sieve. The results thus obtained should be a fairly close approximation in the case
of water-borne particles of typical sand deposits; it should be noted that exact values
of the surface areas are not necessary provided that the values used are in some
fairly constant ratio to the actual areas. This method of computation gives values
of 1790 sf/cf for the sand in Series 186, 1810 sf/cf for the sand in Series 212, and 85
sf/cf for the gravel used in both Series. As variations in the surface area of the coarse
aggregates are of little influence, the surface area of the limestone has been taken
equal to that of the gravel.
Volume of Cement Paste-(V)-The sum of the volume of the mixing water"plus
the absolute volume of the cement, per sack of cement. Where x = the water-cement
ratio, in terms of cu. ft. of water per sack of cement, V = x 0.49. +
Excess Cement Paste-(V-v)-The ditTerence between the volume of the cement
paste and the volume of the voids in the dry rodded mixed aggregate, expressed in
cu. ft. per sack of cement.
Workability Factor-(K)-The quotient obtained by dividing the volume of excess
cement paste by the surface area of the aggregate, and multiplying by 10,000 to
provide a more convenient location for tlw decimal point. K therefore represents
the average thickness of the cement paste film in ten-thousandths of a foot.
Slump-Taken directly from Fig. 8, 9, 15 and 16 of the report, and expressed in
inches.
It is important to note at this point that slump is not an entirely
satisfactory measure of the workability of the mix. It has been
used for this purpose in Table 1 because, while both slump and flow
are given in the report, there are more determinations of the former,
and it is the more generally known function of the two. The slump
test, however, has one serious defect; it gives misleading results where
 The Design of Concrete Mixes 383

segregation occurs, as in the case of undersanded sizes. In this con-

nection, the language of the report is important:
Harshness occurred in mixes that were undersanded. In such cases the slump
test was of little value in determining workability because of the crumbling that
sometimes took place when the cone was removed. The slump of a mix of this type
might vary from almost nothing up to 6 or 7 inches, depending upon how the cone
was removed.
Segregation took place when the slump cone was removed and on the flow table
in extremely wet consistencies of both lean and rich mixes. It was more pronounced
in the harsh than in the oversanded mixes. Mixes in which the ratio of coarse to
fine was 2 or more were found to be particularly liable to segregate. While a wet
harsh mixture naturally gave a large slump, this did not necessarily indicate true
workability, the general appearance of the mix being the best indication.
Certain values of the slump in Table 1 will be found marked with
the letter X. These are values which, upon plotting, are found to be
out of line with the rest of the data, in each case the slump being
considerably higher than the bulk of the results. On investigation,
it will be seen that all of these results are from mixes in which the
ratio of coarse to fine was 2 or more; of the 10 mixes in question,
4 were 1-1Yz-4, 2 were 1-1Yz-3, 3 were 1-2-4, and 1 was 1-2-5. All
are therefore within the range of undersanded mixes according to the
wording of the report; they have therefore been ignored in plotting
the values of Table 1.
Table 1 contains all the workable mixes which can be obtained from
Fig. 8, 9, 15 and 16 of the report, only a few in which the volume of
cement paste is less than the volume of the voids being neglected.
With the exception of the undersanded mixes discussed in the pre-
ceding paragraph, and with the further exception of the straight
mortar mixes (1-1-0, 1-1Yz-O, etc.) which are included elsewhere, all
the values of Table 1 have been plotted in Fig. 3, the slump in inches
being plotted against the workability factor (K) for each of the four
water-cement ratios. The four separate curves of Fig. 3 have been
combined into one diagram in Fig. 4.
In considering the variations of individual plotted points from the
curves, several factors must be considered. An extreme range of
mixes is here represented. The two series of tests were made more
than two years apart; no information about the cement is available
except that in each case it was a mixture of four brands on the Chi-
cago market. Two different coarse aggregates were used,-gravel
and broken stone. The grading of the sand cannot have been exactly
the same in the two Series, as is shown by small differences in unit
weight for identical mixes. The slump test is not in its0lf a precise
measurement, slight variations in handling affeeting the results con-
384 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE February 1940

siderably. The determination of the quantity V-v is subject to the

inaccuracy which applies to all residual quantities. Finally, the
shape of the basic curves from which the necessary interpolations were
made must be taken into consideration; due to the characteristic re-
versed curve, more than three points may be necessary to permit of
satisfactory interpolation, and many of the curves (especially those
of Series 212) have no more than three points determined by experi-
mental values. The actual variations from the mean curves in Fig. 3
are within the limits expected from an analysis of the experimental
data on which they are based.
4
• 0 3 ~ 2
I
I I
10
v
I - f.-
0
,/ v I0
/v 0~
0 0
0~
vo
/.0

v
9
t>"
e
f l'f 0 ~l::l 0
1- r--
0 ~ "· 0
7

6
Iu
., 0
i 0 0 l{oco
5
5
G lofO
I 6
1•/ ck
1. 7
lo/f• !<"
0

g
()
1l:sp:
a. f'ck f'
,
E 'I
00
;;; 3

2
l 0
2

I
set 0
0 0
lo
IA2
0
r< 2 0
.J.
2
"if b'o o
0
0
"' 0
Workobd1ty Factor s K
FrG. 3

- t-- t- t--
~ J...-'1 ~ b5l
II

10 t--- t--t--
A ~v v ~
9
A~ v
8
wI
//,
II Fl f.:l. 4
CPN CR T

I
v
0
~ v W ka do~ oct er· K
0 3 5 6

FIG. 4
The data given in Table 6 of the report are subject to fewer uncer-
tainties. This table summarizes the results of the tests in Series 213,
in which only straight mortar mixes were used. Instead of varying
 The Design of Concrete Mixes 385

proportions of fine and coarse aggregates, seven different gradings of

sand were used, with unit weights and Rieve analyRes as follows:

Sieve Analysis
l\Iark Si~e - - - ---- ----- ---- - - -
Unit
Weight
No. 100 No. 48 No. 28 :-.lo. 14 No.8 No.4
---- ---- ---- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
A 0-14 104 U5 85 ao 0 0 0
B 0-8 108 05 88 44 20 0 0
c 0-1 llS 07 ()0 54 24 15 0
D 0-4 1Hl OS 93 ti7 53 32 10
E 0-% llR uo f){) 83 75 55 25
F 20-:JO 10-t 100 100 61i () 0 0
G 20-:Jo !J8 100 100 6(i 0 0 0
----

It will be noted that these sands cover a wide range of sizes. A to

E in order range from very fine to unusually coarse, while F and G
represent standard Ottawa sand and a local sand of the same arti-
ficial grading.
The tests in Series 213 are arranged in sets, each of a constant
water-cement ratio. This uniformity is not merely nominal, as in
Series 186 and 212; the proper correction for absorption was made
for each mix, enough additional water being added to maintain the
same true water-cement ratio. It is therefore possible to plot the
data directly, without the necessity of interpolation.
Table 2 herewith represents the data derived from Table 6, Series
213, of the report, including water-cement ratios from 4>-2 to 7 gal.
per sack. The same notes apply, in general, as given for Table 1
above. The data from Table 2, together with the mortar mixes of
Table 1, arc plotted in Fig. 5. The six curves of Fig. 5 are repro-
duced in Fig. 6.
It will be noted that, for all mixes of Series 213, the volume of
cement paste is in excess of the volume of voids in the aggregate.
The first criterion of workability is therefore satisfied for all mixes.
No observations as to workability are included for this Series in the
report; instead, mixes have been arbitrarily classified as workable
or non-workable according to the slump, the non-workable mixes being
those with slumps of less than 1 in.
As was to be expected from the nature of the data, the plotted
points of Fig. 5 and the family of curves of Fig. 6 show a high degree
of regularity, and offer striking proof of the workability factor method
of design.
A comparison of the curves for mortars in Fig. 6 with those for
concretes in Fig. 4 brings out several interesting points. As the
water-cement ratio increases, the curves approach each other; that
is, the effect of the consistency of the cement paste becomes of less
 <:<>
00

TABLE 2 "'
Sur-
M ix Sand Voids face 4Y. gal. per sack 5 gal. per sack 5 Y. gal. per sack 6 gal. per sack 6 Y. gal. per sack 7 gal. per sack
Size v Area v ~ 1.09 v ~ 1.16 v ~ 1.22 v ~ 1.29 v ~ 1.36 v ~ 1.42 "--<
- - ---- --- - -- - - - - -- - - - - -- -- - - -- -- -- - - -- -- - - -- - 0
q
s V-v K Slump V-v K Slump V-v K Slump V-v K Slump V-v K Slump V-v K Slump ~
- -- --- --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - --- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - z
-1 A 0.37 2300 0.72 3.15 9.2 0.79 3.35 10.8 >
t'
B 0.34 2070 0.75 3.6 9.6
c 0.30 1970 0.79 4.0 10.4 0
D
E
0.29
0.28
1490
980
0.80
0.81
5.35
8.25
10.0
10.2 "'>-3
- ----- --- - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -
-1Y. A 0.56 3470 0.53 1.5 4.5 0.60 1.75 8.7 0.66 1.9 10.1
~
B
c
0.52
0.46
3100
2950
0.57
0.63
1.85
2.15
6.0
8.5
0.64
0.70
2.05
2.35
9.5
10.0 ~
D
E
F
0.45
0.43
0.56
2230
1470
2310
0.64
0.66
0.53
2.85
4.5
2.3
8.4
9.4
9.2
0.71
0.73
0.60
3.2
4.95
2.6
10.2
10.4
10.2
"'
~
3
>
-
G 0.61 2180 0.48 2.2 6.8 0.55 2.5 9.6
-- --- --- - -- -- - - -- -- -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - z
-2 A 0.74 4600 0.35 0.75 0.4 0.42 0.9 1.3 0.48 1.05 5.7 0.55 1.2 9.0 0.62 1.35 10.0 0
0
B 0.69 4140 0.40
c 0.61 3940 0.48 1.2
0.95 1.1
2.0
0.47
0.55
1.15
1.4
3.3
7.2
0.53
0.61
1.3
1.55
7.8
9.6
0.60
0.68
1.45
1.75
9.5
10.1
z0
D
E
0.59
0.57
2980
1960
0.50
0.52
1.7
2.65
5.0
8.1
0.57
0.59
1.9
3.0
8.5
9.9
0.63 2.15 10.4
~
>-3
F 0.74 3080 0.35 1.15 5.0 0.42 1.35 8.0 0.48 1.55 9.1
z"'
G 0.81 2900 0.~8 0.95 1.0 0.35 1.2 3.7 0.41 1.4 7.6 H
--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.85
-2Y. A
B
0.93
0.87
5800
5170
0.29
0.35
0.5
0.7
0.7
1.4
0.36
0.42
0.6
0.8
1.5
4.7
0.43
0.49
0.75
0.95
4.9
7.4
0.49
0.55 1.05
8.0
9.2 "'>-3~
c 0.76 4920 0.40 0.8 1.0 0.46 0.95 5.4 0.53 1.1 8.3 0.60 1.2 9.9 q
D 0.74 3720 0.42 1.25 1.5 0.48 1.3 8.0 0.55 1.5 9.2 0.62 1.7 9.6 >-3
E 0.71 2450 0.38 1.55 3.0 0.45 1.85 7.6 0.51 2.1 9.2 0.58 2.35 10.0
F
G
0.93
1.03
3850
3620
0.23
0.13
0.6
0.35
1.2
0.6
0.29
0.19
0.75
0.55
2.4
1.2
0.36
0.26
0.95
0.7
6.4
2.6
"'
-- - ---- --- - - - - - -- -- - - -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - - - - - - - - -
-3 A 1.11 6960 0.25 0.35 0.9 0.31 0.45 1.8
B 1.04 6200 0.32 0.55 1.2 0.38 0.60 2.0
c 0.91 5900 0.38 0.65 1.6 0.45 0.75 4.8 0.51 0.85 8.4 >rj
D 0.86 4460 0.40 0.9 6.0 0.47 1.05 8.2 0.53 1.2 9.6 &
E
F
0.86
1.11
2940
4620
0.36 1.25 7.0 I
0.43
0.18
1.45
0.4
5.6
0.8
0.50 1.7 9.2
0.31 0.7 2.6 2
ll'
G 0.20 0.45 1.4
1.22 4350 0.07 0.15 0.1 ~
......
<0
~
 The Design of Concrete Mixes 387

0 2. 3 4 5 7 8
iz I2.

II

10

9
I~ ., y ~
eo ~
-r--
@j ....
I

I0

8
lj 0
~ 6
f [• 1/ 7

1/ 1'0

r•" f 5

4
1/ I
2.
j z
r !
0 LV w~ rka dl\1 l'<cto ' K 0

II ~
~~
..-r
0
~
. II

10

9
I~ v· ?~ --- o..- "'1S" t@ 0
I

8 i.l. J'o
r--r-
I! 0
7
fl;•j•I
-·

F G .:
M<J RT !A-R s 5
I I
I
I
X 2
'jo
II...
0
~ 0 I w, rka drt Fc c+o ~
K
0
0 2. 4- 5 7 8
FIG. 5

importance. This tendency, shown very clearly in Fig. 6, explains

why the plotted points for 7 and 8 gal. per sack arc so close in
Fig. 3. When the curves for identical water-cement ratios in the two
sets of diagrams are compared, it will be seen that the curves are
of the same distinctive shape, but that those for mortars are uni-
formly higher, except for small values of K, than those for concrete.
The authors of tho report have noted a similar phenomenon in the
strength relationship of mortars and concretes. In plotting the
water-cement strength curves for the mixes of Series 213, it was
found that the results ranged considerably higher (500 to 800 p.s.i.)
than the curve previously obtained from the concrete series. By
388 JouRNAL OF THE AMERICAN CoNCRETE INsTITUTE February 1940

FIG. 6

dividing the mixes of Series 213 into three classifications according

to slump, and by plotting the strengths of each classification against
the curve previously obtained for concretes, the authors brought
out the following relationship: mixes with slumps of less than 1 in.
gave strengths below the curve; mixes with slumps of from 1 in. to
4 in. gave strengths somewhat higher than, but fairly close to, the
curve; mixes with slumps of 5 in. and more gave strengths consid-
erably above the curve. The following excerpts from the report give
the authors' explanation of this apparent discrepancy.
During the making of these specimens, it was observed that in the wetter mixes
there was some loss of water in molding due to leakage of tho mold and also an
accumulation of water at the top due to the greater case with which those wetter
mixes segregate ....... Even where water is not lost directly from the specimen,
the segregation which brings excess water to the surface changes the water ratio
in the body of tho cylinder ....... That somewhat higher strengths were obtained
in these mortars than with tho concretes of previous Series for the same water ratios
appears to be largely explained by the reduced water-cement ratio resulting from
segregation and Joss of water in the specimen.
The effect of segregation, as was noted in the case of undersanded
mixes, is to increase the slump. Therefore, the greater tendency
towards segregation noted by the authors in the case of the wetter
mortar mixes may be taken as an explanation of the larger slumps
obtained for the same values of the workability factor, K.
An interesting and important relation is demonstrated in Fig. 7.
The fundamental purpose of the tests in Series 186 of the report
(as in the earlier Series 122) was to determine the effect of workability
 The Design of Concrete Mixes 389

I.'ZD 1.20
0
0 0
0
1.10 v ov 1.10
0 0
00 0
rO
1.0 0
1.0 v

O.GO
0
'!,,1'" 0.90
0:: ~
c
0:: iP 00 b ..B ~0
0.80 o.eo
0.0 5•
0,70
0 <9 7
0.10 ·G.,
0
G l~p ock ~ rK
IS !>d.
0.60 0.60
0
·0.2 0,1 0 z 3 ...
K
0.50
2. 3 4 .5 6

l.io 1.1!0
0

1.10 1.10
d/1> rO 0
1.0 1.0
..uo
0.90
0:: cxea 0
0.90
IS'
n
0 0
cP 0 n:: @
o.eo 0
0.80
0" pOO 6 000 5
0.'10 ""
<Po
0.70
f.(.S ICk
Ga s~ ~ek Go
o.eo 3 ~ !S 6
·0.'1. ·0.1 0

FIG. 7

upon the water-cement ratio strength law. The result was to em-
phasize the limitation set forth by Abrams in his original statement
of the law,-namely, the law holds only as long as the mix is work-
able. By plotting the strengths of workable mixes separately from
those of unworkable mixes, the authors show that the former follow
a curve of the same type as the original Abrams curve, but slightly
higher in value. The strengths of the unworkable mixes, however, fall
considerably below this curve. It will be remembered that the
authors' classification of workable and non-workable mixes was
based upon very careful and thorough observation.
The curve given by the authors for the workable gravel mixes of
16,000
Series 186 corresponds to the equation S = - - The predicted
-x
6.3
strengths according to this formula have been computed for each of
the 150 gravel mixes of Series 186, and a value R has been obtained
for each mix by dividing the actual reported strength by the pre-
dicted strength. The tests have been divided into four groups,-5,
6, 7 and 8 gal. per sack,-each test being classified with the nearer
of the four water-cement ratios previously used in Figs. 3 and 4. A
separate diagram is shown for each group in Fig. 7, in which the
390 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CONCRICTE lNST!'l'UTE February 1940

strength ratio R has been plotted against the workability factor K

for each of the 150 mixes. To permit the plotting of non-workable
mixes, abscissae to the left of the vertical axis have been taken to
v-V
represent deficiencies of cement paste,-namely, - , where the
v
volume of voids in the aggregate was greater than the volume of
cement paste.
The four diagrams present certain characteristics with striking
regularity. All the mixes to the left of the vertical axis are sub-
stantially below the predicted strength,-the average value of R
for these 25 mixes being 79 per cent. From K = 0 to K = 0.9, prac-
tically all the mixes are below the predicted strength and cover a
wide range, the average value of R for the 60 mixes being 84 per cent.
For K = 1.0 and up, the plotted points appear on both sides of the
line R = 1, the average value of R for these 65 mixes being actually
100 per cent.
A similar result will be recalled in the case of Series 213, where the
mixes with a slump of less than 1 in. were considerably below the
others in strength. From Fig. 6, a 1 in. slump corresponds to values
of K from 0.3 to 1.0, depending upon the w / c ratio.
The diagrams in Fig. 7 demonstrate the validity of the writer's
corollary to tho water-cement ratio law, namely: the water-cement
strength relationship applies only to mixes in which the volume of
cement paste is sufficient to (1) fill the voids in the dry rodded mixed
aggregate and (2) provide an excess of paste proportional to the
surface area of the aggregate. But the observations of the authors
of the report definitely limit the application of the law to workable
mixes. Therefore the criteria (1) and (2) above are the true measure
of the workability of the mix.
THE DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIXES

In a preceding article the following laws of workability were dem-

onstrated:
For a mix to be workable, the volume of cement paste must be at
least equal to the volume of the voids in the dry rodded mixed aggre-
gate. For any required degree of workability, the necessary excess
amount of cement paste depends (a) upon the consistency of the
cement paste itself,-lower water-cement ratios requiring larger
excess amounts than hi!l:her ones,-and (b) upon the surface area of
the aggregate,-the larger the surface area, the greater the excess
required.
 The Design of Concrete Mixes 391

For a fixed water-cement ratio, the workability of the mix is seen

to depend upon the workability factor, K, which is defined as the
excess cement paste divided by the surface area of the aggregate,-
and multiplied, for convenience, by 10,000.
The following equations then apply:

x + a = N [w.-w
w.
+ ___!5_§_]
10,000 or
N = _ _x_:__'_+:__a_ _
w.-w KS
-'Ws- +10,000
- -
where x water-cement ratio in terms of cubic feet of water per
sack of cement
a = absolute volume of cement in cubic feet per sack
w. = specific weight of aggregate in pounds per cubic foot of
absolute volume
w = unit weight of aggregate in pounds per cubic foot of dry
rodded mixed aggregate
K workability factor
S surface area in sqnarn font per cubic foot of dry rodded
mixed aggregate
N true mix in terms of cubic feet of dry rodded mixed aggre-
gate per sack of cement
The surface area may be obtained from the sieve analysis, with
sufficient accuracy for the purpose, by the formula
S = 6w ~E
w. d
where ~ !!_ represents the summation of the quotients obtained by
d
dividing the proportion of the total weight of the sample retained on
each sieve (p) by the average diameter of the particles retained on
the same sieve (d). In this computation, the amount of aggregate
passing the 100 sieve is neglected.
In addition to the physical constants of the materials, the complete
design of the mix requires only the proper choice of the two variables,
x and K, the water-cement ratio and the workability factor, respec-
tively. For the first, reference must be made to the familiar Abrams
curve, in which strength is plotted against water-cement ratio. For
the second, a series of curves, of the type illustrated by Fig. 8, are
required, in which the slump is plotted against the workability factor,
K, for various values of the water-cement ratio. For both, in large
and important work, job curves should be prepared for the particular
materials to be used.
392 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE February 1940

12. -
II
10

9 ./-. '?/ v
::% ::::::
...- -
...-:::: 1-
I--
r--

rl) 8 ~~ /
loJ
:X:
0 7
VI I
z
- 6
li1
I ,I I
a.. ..5
~ I
34
<f)
~
Ill
tfli ~ 6l/5 G( Is/ ~<lC
2.
I r;
~ v
2. ~ 4- 5
K
Workabollfy rod·or
FIG. 8

The application of this method to the usual case, in which separate

fine and coarse aggregates are available, is illustrated in Fig. 9. Let
it be required to design a mix for six gallons per sack (x = 0.80) and
a slump of 6 in., using fine and coarse aggregates of the following
characteristics:

Aggregate Unit Wt.

w 100 48 28 14 8 4 % In. %: In. 1)/o In.
---------------------------
Fine........ llU 99 U2 !.\3 42 20 0 0 0 0
--------------------------
Coarse...... 110 100 100 100 100 100 100 75 34 0

The specific weight of the aggregate is taken as 165 lb. per cu. ft.,
corresponding to a specific gravity of 2.65; the absolute volume of a
sack of cement is taken as 0.49 cu. ft., corresponding to a specific
gravity of 3.10.
It is first necessary to determine experimentally the unit weight
of the mixed aggregate for varying proportions of fine to coarse.
Four mixtures are prepared, in which the proportion by weight of
fine aggregate to total aggregate is respectively 0.30, 0.40, 0.50 and
0.60. The weight of the dry rodded mixed aggregate per cubic foot
is determined for each mixture. These four results, together with
the unit weight of the separate aggregates, are plotted on Diagram
A, in which the abscissae throughout represent proportions by weight
of fine aggregate to total aggregate in the mix. A smooth curve
 ~ ~
o ~ ~ u - u ~ ro M ~ w 0 ~ ~ ~ M ~ " ~ 00 ~ W FIG. 9-(SEE PAGES 393,
I Dlfl GR! M A Dlfl GR M B 394 AND FOLLOWING)

- 1"00
!000 -I
140)
lf._W ' I

____.. v
"'"g"'
1-- I 1)3
3 I"'
:::"'tz '
'
~ ,l/
v
_...v
~ ~ r<-- ...........
500 d+

"-.,I1000
-~~
~:¥ .,
~E
"'

vv . /fS'
wl
...-'" ~
/
- .............
I

I 000 ~
<

<l2

,vv
+ 500!:::

-~"
II
c IOV:::
if.
:::>
tOOi I•0 "v v ~
0.500 o. "tl
v I / ""'
oAO
' v~ _....
____.. 0
"'--- v;,, v- --- _.... ~-
0.3(),~

0.2!0

o. 10
1
..........
r-_
·~ n
_....:-
v~

,__-
-- -- f--
1--
0.

10
f-...
-...

~')
V.i.

--- ---
1-- ~
- ~

~~
"~
---
:4 -
5 0

~ z
5
'
_I-- ----.>-
~
~·

£.
" 3
~ 2. 9
...........
-- ~
I:
~3
F
2.
~
-- -J.t!....
- r--- ~
7
"'"'

8 ~

>- 7
/ >- 7"--... Yl. /
"
~G
-........
I'--... I yl. vv ~
"-;; ~

5 I
0 ru ~
II ~ M U U ~ M
I
~ W
~
o ~ a u M ~ ~ a ~ ~- w
c.>
<D
c.>
394 .JOUrtNAI, OF 'l'TIID AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE February 1940

drawn through these six points gives the curve marked "w," which
represents the variation in unit weight of the dry rodded mixed
aggregate.
To determine a similar curve for surface areas, it is first necessary
to compute the values ~ ]!_ for both the fine and coarse aggregates,
d
as follows:

Pine Agg. Coarse Agg.

----- --------- - - - - - - - - - - -----------
Screen d p pjd p p/cl
1:V. in. 0.1875 0 0 0 0
%:in. 0.0938 0 0 0.34 3.5
%in. 0.04fi9 0 0 0.41 8.8
4 0.0234 0 0 0.25 10.7
8 0.0117 0.20 17 0 0
14 0.00585 0.22 38 0 0
28 0.002!-!3 0.21 72 0 0
48 0.00146.5 0.29 198 0 0
100 0.000733 0.07 95 0 0
---
420
---- -23.0-
-
For any proportion of fine aggregate to total aggregate by weight,
p,, the surface area of the mixed aggregate will be given by the formula

S = 6w [420 p.
w.
+
23 (1-p.)J. For the values of p. already plotted

on the "w" curve, the corresponding values of S are computed as in

the following table:

() 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 1.0

P•
w
I
I 110 128
I 131 132 131 116
s ()0 650 870 1070 124.0 1770
I I
These points plotted on Diagram A give the second curve, marked
"S".
The fourth curve, marked "v," represents the volume of voids in
the dry rodded mixed aggregate, and is determined directly from the
"w" curve by use of the equation, v = ~.-w. the value of w for each
w.
value of p. being taken from the diagram.
By reference to Fig. 8, it is determined that the required 6 in. slump
for 6 gal. per sack, corresponds to a value K = 1.0. The fifth curve
on Diagram A is obtained directly from the "S" curve by multiplying

by the constant factor, ___!i____, where K in this case equals 1.0.

10,000
 The Design of Concrete Mixes 395

"KS"
The ordinates for both the "v" and - - - curves represent vol-
10,000
umes in cubic feet per cubic foot apparent volume of dry rodded
mixed aggregate; the "v" curve gives the volume of cement paste
required to fill the voids in the dry rodded mixed aggregate, while
"KS"
the - - - curve gives the volume of cement paste required to coat
10,000
the individual particles of aggregate and give the required degree of
workability. The total volume of cement paste per cubic foot of dry
rodded mixed aggregate is therefore obtained by adding correspond-
ing values of the two curves; the third curve on Diagram A is ob-
tained in this manner, and is marked "V.".
The volume of cement paste per sack of cement is determined from
the equation V = x +
q,. For 6 gal. per sack, x = 0.80, and V = 1.29.
The true mix is obtained from the equation N = V /V. as given by
the previous curve.
The volume of freshly mixed concrete is equal to the sum of the
absolute volumes of the materials. The yield is usually expressed in
terms of sacks of cement per cubic yard of concrete; it is therefore
27
given by the formula Y = The last curve on
x +a+ Nwjw.
Diagram A, marked "Y", is obtained by inserting the proper values

of N and w in the formula, Y =27

1.29 Nw/165 +
An inspection of Diagram A shows that the minimum cement
content will be obtained with a true mix of 4.4 cf. of dry rodded
mixed aggregate per sack of cement, the aggregate being combined
in the proportion of 44 per cent of fine to 56 per cent of coarse, by
weight.
Diagram B, Fig. 9, represents the same problem of design, with
aggregates of the following characteristics:

Aggregate

F ine ........
coarse ......
Unit Wt.
---
w
108
104
--r-
100
98
100
48
88
100
28
- - - - ------------
44
100
Sieve Analyi"iiS
----~--·---
14
20
100 I
8
10
100

An inspection of Diagram B shows that, with these materials, the,

4

100
0
-

------
%
0
75
%:
0
20
lY:;
0
0

minimum cement content will be obtained with a true mix of 3.8 cf.,
33 per cent fine to 67 per cent coarse by weight.
396 JOUHNAI, OF THE AMEHICAN CONCHETE INSTITUTE February 1940

The workability-factor method of design is of fundamental impor-

tance in its relation to many of the principal problems of the concrete
mix.
Strength-The basic Abrams water-cement ratio law must be
amended to read: The strength of concrete is determined by the
amount of mixing water, as long as the volume of cement paste is
sufficient to fill the voids in the dry rodded mixed aggregate and to
provide an excess proportional to the surface area of the aggregate.
In the following, references are again to Table 3 of the paper by
McMillan and Johnson, reporting the results of the tests of Series 212,
group 2.
By plotting strength against wj c ratio for all mixes noted as "work-
able" by the operator, a curve of the familiar type was obtained,
from which the predicted strength could be interpolated for any
given value of the wjc ratio. In the following table, the first three
columns are taken directly from the report; the fourth gives the
predicted strength obtained by interpolation from the wjc curve;
the fifth column gives the value of R, the ratio of the actual strength
to the predicted strength; the last column gives the value of the
workability factor, K, obtained from the data presented in the report
by the methods described above. This table represents only one
family of mixes of the many given in the report, but it is typical of
the results obtained.

Strengths
Ref. x = wfc R K
Actual Predicted
166 0.89 3530 3330 1.06 2.5
167 0.85 3620 3600 1.01 1.6
168 0.83 3690 3740 0.99 0.75
169 0.80 3630 3980 0.91 0.05
170 0.77 3280 4220 0. 78 (deficient in
cement paste)

The results for a similar computation for all the sand-and-gravel

mixes of Series 212-2 arc shown in Fig. 10, in which R is plotted
against K.. Points to the left of the vertical axis represent mixes de-
ficient in cement paste, the ratio of the volumes of paste and voids
being used as abscissae; all of these are below the predicted strength,
the average value for the eight tests being 87.5 per cent. From K=O
to K = 1, the bulk of the results are below unity, the average value for
the twenty-three tests being 92.7 per cent. Where K = 1 or more, the
points are about uniformly divided above and below the line R = 1,
the average value for the twenty-one tests being 98.4 per cent. A
comparison of this figure with Fig. 7, in which the same process was
 The Design of Concrete Mixes 397

"
0 0
8 A~.
0:: 0 0
0
;o~
0
0
"" g 0
0
0 u
0 oe c 0
0 <.Y
0
0

~
0.7 0.8 0.9 0 2 3 4 .5 6

FIG. 10

applied to a different series of tests, emphasizes the importance of the

workability factor in the strength relationship.
Economy-Each diagram of Fig. 9, taken by itself, indicates one
aspect of the relationship of the workability factor method of design
upon the important consideration of economy. The "Y" curve in
each diagram permits the proper choice of proportions of fine and
coarse aggregates to obtain the greatest possible economy with
given materials.
From an inspection of the diagrams, it will be noted that the low
point of the V. curve occurs at a lower proportion of fine aggregate
than the low point of the v curve; that is, the amount of cement paste
required for a given degree of workability is a minimum at a mix
coarser than that giving maximum density. This is a general rela-
tionship. The slope of the v curve varies from a negative at p. = 0
to zero at the point of maximum density, and is positive from there
on; the slope of the S curve is positive throughout. Since the V.
KS
curve is a summation of the v and curves, the slope of the
10,000
V. curve will be zero (and V. therefore a minimum) at a point where
the slope of the v curve is equal and opposite in sign to the slope of
the KS curve. Obviously this must occur at a point to the left
10,000
of the low point of the v curve. Furthermore, since the slope of the
KS
curve increases with K, the point where the slopes are equal
10,000
398 JouRNAL OF THE AM~JRICAN CoNCRETE INsTITUTE February 1940

and opposite will move still further to the left with richer mixes, and
the discrepancy between the points of minimum cement content and
maximum density will be even greater.
With a given degree of workability and fixed amounts of cement
and aggregates, it will be evident from the above considerations that
the minimum amount of water will be required at a mix coarser than
that giving maximum density, and that the difference will be in-
creased in tho case of the richer mixes.
Compare these considerations with the following quotations from
the famous Bulletin 1 of the Structural Materials Research Labora-
tory-"Design of Concrete Mixes," by Duff A. Abrams.
With given concreto materials and conditions of test the quantity of mixing water
used determines the strength of the concrete, so long as the mix is of a workable
consistency.
* * *
There is an intimate relation between the grading of the aggregate and the quantity
of water required to produce a workable concrete.
* * *
The aggregate grading which produces the strongest concrete is not that giving
the maximum density (lowest voids). A grading coarser than that giving maximum
density is necessary for highest concrete strength.
* * *
The richer tho mix, the coarser the grading should be for an aggregate of given
maximum size; hence, the greater the discrepancy between maximum density and
best grading.
The first two quotations are given to illustrate the context in the
light of which the last two quotations must be read. When Mr. Abrams
writes of the effect of the grading of the aggregate upon the strength
of the concrete, the whole tenor of his paper makes it clear that he
refers to the effect upon the amount of mixing water required for
workability; that is to say, "the aggregate grading which produces
the strongest concrete" should be read, "the aggregate grading which
requires the least mixing water." An exact re-statement of the third
and fourth quotations would be: For a given degree of workability
and fixed amounts of cement and aggregates, the minimum amount of
mixing water is required at a grading somewhat coarser than that
giving maximum density; the richer the mix, the greater this differ-
ence. But this is exactly the same conclusion derived from the curves
of Fig. 9. It is a striking proof of the validity of the workability
factor theory, that it explains on rational grounds experimental data
obtained in the development of an entirely different hypothesis.
Of more practical importance, from the point of view of economy,
is a comparison of Diagrams A and B with each other. Combined in
 The Design of Concrete Mixes 399

the most economical proportions, the aggregates of Diagram A re-

quire 5.6 sacks of cement per cubic yard of concrete; the correspond-
ing figure for the aggregates of Diagram B is 6.6 sacks. The differ-
ence between the "A" aggregates and the "B" aggregates therefore
amounts to a full sack of cement per cubic yard of concrete.
The workability factor conception makes it possible to define for
the first time what is meant by that much-abused term,-"a well-
graded aggregate." A well-graded aggregate is one that combines the
primary requirement of a low percentage of voids with the secondary
requirement of a low surface area; these characteristics, together with
a certain degree of continuity of grading (to eliminate freak "gap"
gradings) insure an economical mix. This method also demonstrates
the advantage of using as large a maximum size of aggregate as is
practicable; lower percentages of voids are obtainable with larger
aggregate, and the surface area is reduced.
Durability of Concrete. The use of a low cement content is not
merely a matter of low first cost. Emphasis in recent years upon a
high quality of cement paste has obscured the importance of a low
quantity of paste. Of two mixes, of the same w / c ratio and degree of
workability, tho one containing the loss cement paste per cubic yard
will produce the better concrete.
It is the hardened cement paste,-the matrix,- that i::; vulnerable
to the agents of deterioration. With even the driest concretes in
field use today, probably fifty per cent of the mixing water is in excess
of that required for the hydration of the cement. It is the evapora-
tion of this excess water that is responsible for the initial shrinkage
which accompanies the drying out of freshly-poured \)Oncrete and
which is probably the greatest single factor leading to its eventual
deterioration. Where retained in the concrete, this uncombined water
destroys the homogeneity of the matrix and is a definite source of
danger in case of freezing. Expansion and contraction due to changes
in moisture are obviously characteristics of the matrix. Resistance
to abrasion is not a quality associated with cement paste. In short,
the porous nature of the matrix is closely associated with those char-
acteristics of concrete which make for impermanence.
The function of cement paste in the freshly-mixed concrete is that
of an internal lubricant, and a definite minimum amount is necessary;
in the hardened concrete, its function is simply that of a binder hold-
ing the particles of aggregate together. As in a glued joint, no pro-
portionate increase in strength is obtained by an increase in the
amount of binder. The amount of cement paste should therefore be
400 JOURNAL OF 'l'll!U AMEHICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE February 1940

held to the minimum consistent with workability, and the proper

grading of the aggregates not only promotes economy but also con-
tributes to the durability of the concrete. While definite data are
lacking, there is some evidence that present day cements are respon-
sible for a larger coefficient of shrinkage in the concrete; this tendency,
if real, increases the importance of the proper deBign of concrete for
minimum cement paste content.
Control-A striking characteristic of the workability curves is that,
in tho usable range, they are almost vertical. For slumps of from
2 in. to 6 in., small changes in the workability factor produce large
changes in the slump. This explains the phenomenon familiar to
every field worker in concrete,-the sudden variation in slump occur-
ring without obvious change in the mix. The workability factor
translates this rapid change of slope into an accurate method of con-
trol; provided that the grading of the aggregates remains constant,
slight variation in the water-cement ratio are readily detected by
the corresponding change in the slump.
The design of the mix according to the workability factor method
requires only simple well-known laboratory determinations. The
physical constants of tho materials,-the specific weights (or specific
gravities)-are easily determined, and vary very little for any given
source of supply; if the nature of the aggregate is known, the specific
weight may be obtained from any standard work of rofrrence. In
the case of the typical concrete aggregatcs,-siliea and limestone,-
the specific weights are practically identical, both being usually given
as 165 lb. cu. ft. The determinations for unit weight and sieve analysis
are both simple and reliable; the results are surprisingly uniform for
aggregates of. a common source. With reference to these two character-
ist~cs of the aggregate, it should be noted that, while the relationship
between them is obscure, they are certainly not independent. For a
given aggregate, as long as the sieve analysis remains tho same, the
unit weight will be eonstant. The eon verse, however, does not hold;
a number of different gradings will produce the same unit weight.
Finally, the slump test, if not demonstrably the most accurate meas-
ure of workability, is certainly the best known, and is best adapted to
job conditions. Standard specifications for all of these tests have
been available for years, and therefore no new technique is required
in the application of the workability factor method of design.

Discussion to close in June 1940 JOURNAL should reach

A. C. I. Secretary in triplicate by Apr. 1, 1940.