Introduction to natural textile

fibres 1A
Ryszard M. Kozłowski 1 , Maria Mackiewicz-Talarczyk 2
1
Journal of Natural Fibers Editor-in-chief, coordinator of FAO/ESCORENA European
Cooperative Research Network on Flax and other Bast Plants, former director of the
Institute of Natural Fibres, Pozna
n, Poland; 2Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants
(IWNiRZ), Associate Editor Journal of Natural Fibers, Secretary of FAO/ESCORENA European
Cooperative Research Network on Flax and other Bast Plants, Pozna
n, Poland

1A.1 Historical background of natural fibres

Natural fibres have played an important role in human society since approximately
over 7000 BCE (Ryder, 1965; Hillers, 1974). Textile fibres have been used to make
a cloth for the last 4000 or 5000 years. Until 1885, when the first man-made (artificial)
fibre was produced commercially, fibres were obtained from plants and animals only.
The fibres most commonly used were: flax, hemp, silk, wool and cotton.
Rayon, also known as artificial silk, was the first man-made fibre and was produced
in filament length until the early 1930s, and an enterprising textile worker discovered
that the broken and wasted rayon filaments could be used as a staple fibre.
Many man-made fibres were developed in the first half of the twentieth century and
since that time onward tremendous advances have been made in the man-made fibre
industry.
Cotton cloth was used in ancient China, Egypt and Peru. Cloth fabrics found in
Egypt indicate that cotton may have been used there in 12,000 BC, before flax was
discovered (Gordon, 2006).
Cotton spinning and weaving as an industry began in India and fabrics of good
quality cotton cloth were being produced as early as in 1500 BCE. The Pima Indians
were growing cotton when the Spaniards came to the New World.
One of the items that Columbus took back to Queen Isabella was a hank of cotton
yarn, and until eighteenth century Europe was dominated by flax.
It has been argued that flax is the oldest fibre that was used by mankind.
Flax samples, delivered by the British National Museum of Antiques for testing at
the Institute of Natural Fibres in Pozna
n (Poland), were taken from Çatalh€oy€uk
(Turkey) and Kerma (Nubia, Sudan) and proved to be flax from 6500 years BCE
and 2000 years BCE, respectively (Ryder, 1965).
It is widely known that more than 5000 years old linen mummy cloth has been
found in Egyptian tombs. It is fascinating that this fibre is so fine that it has lasted until
the present day (Taylor, 1995).

Handbook of Natural Fibres. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818398-4.00001-3

Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 Handbook of Natural Fibres

Wool sheep were probably the first animals domesticated by people. Crossbreeding
sheep to increase the amount of hairy undercoat began in approximately CE 100. By
CE 1400 the Spanish had developed the merino sheep, whose fleece is the precursor of
contemporary wool raw materials (Johnson et al., 2008; Simpson et al., 2002).
Silk is the natural protein fibre as well. Silk culture, according to oldest Chinese
literature, began when a Chinese Empress observed the life of silkworms and studied
their features. Based on this observation, Chinese experts began to breed them and
from the filaments the empress gained and produced expensive silk cloth. The Chinese
silk industry spread over the years and brought China an extensive income e to the
extent that revealing the secret of silk production became punishable by death. For
300 years, therefore, the secret was known only to Chinese experts. During that
time China was the only producer of silk in the world and sold it through Persian
and Egyptian agents at the price of gold (Franck, 2001).
The elements of the history of natural fibres, their properties and classification have
been incorporated also into the Handbook of Natural Fibres chapters.

1A.2 Introduction
The United Nations and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO) declared 2009 as the International Year of Natural Fibres. Their objectives
were to raise the profile of natural fibres, to stimulate demand for them by promoting
the efficiency and sustainability of the natural fibre industries and to encourage appro-
priate policy responses from governments to the problems faced by these industries. In
so doing they hoped to establish an effective and enduring international partnership
among the various natural fibre industries (IYNF, 2009).
Some fibrous plants can grow in different climates, from Northern to Southern
Arctic Circle and recycle carbon dioxide (CO2). Now this is especially very important
fact, that natural fibrous resources, lignocellulosic and protein ones, are completely
sustainable, renewable, completely biodegradable and they and their production
does not generally damage the ecosystem, in contrary to man-made fibres, which as
the microfibres are the biggest plastic pollution issue you have not heard of yet (Bom-
gardner, 2017; Nussbaumer, 2009). Unfortunately, these small pieces of plastic and
man-made fibres made from polymers (including small particles of polyester fibres)
pose a significant risk to aquatic life because they are often mistaken as food and
are readily consumed. Moreover, microplastics have a tendency to pick up toxic chem-
ical pollutants from the water. By various processes, these harmful chemicals have the
potential to be transferred from ingested microplastics to the tissues of the animals
which consume them (Thai Luong, 2017).
The natural fibres are classified as follows:
Bast (flax, hemp, jute, kenaf, ramie, nettle, etc.), Leaf (sisal, abaca, etc.), Seeds
(cotton, kapok, etc.), Fruit (coir, African palm, luffa, etc.), Grass (bamboo and totora),
Wood (hardwood and softwood), Animal Fibres (wool, silk, hair, etc.), Mineral
Fibres (Asbestos, basalt, wollastonite, etc.) (Figs. 1A.1e1A.3).
 Introduction to natural textile fibres
Natural fibres
Plant Animal Mineral

Bast Leaf Seeds Fruit Grass Wood Wools and Hair Asbestos

Flax Ananas Cotton Coir Bamboo Hardwood Sheep Glass

(Linum usitatissimum) (Ananas bracteatus) (Gossypium) (Cocos nucifera) (Bambusa shreb.) (Ovis aries)

Hemp Sisal Coir Luffa Totora Softwood Alpaca Mineral wool

(Scirpus (Lama pacos)
(Cannabis sativa) (Agave sisalana) (Cocos nucifera) (Luffa aegyptiaca)
californicus)

Camel
Kenaf Abaca Kapok (Camelus
Basalt
(Hibiscus cannabinus) (Musa textilis nee) (Ceiba pentandra) bactrianus)

Jute Curaua Soya Goat Ceramic

(Glycine) (Genus capra)
(Corchorus capsularis) (Ananas erectifolius)

Ramie Cabuya Poplar Horse Aluminium

(Furcraea andina) (Populus tremula) (Equus
(Boechmeria nivea)
caballus)

Isora Rabbit
Palm Calotropis (Oryctolagus
Borate
(Helicteres isora) (Calotropis procera) cuniculus)

African Palm Vicuna Silicate

(Lama
vicugna)

Chambira Silk Carbon

(Astrocaryum chambira)

Opuntia Natural
(Opuntia galapagos) (Bombyx mori L)

Paja Spider silk

(Araneus diadematus)
(Carludovica palmata)

Jukka
(Yucca L)
Source: INF&MP, Poznan, Poland

Figure 1A.1 The classification of natural fibres.

3
4 Handbook of Natural Fibres

Wool 1,1
Other natural
fibers 4,4 Wood-based
cellulose fibers
6,2
The increase of the world fiber
market consumption was 3.2%
up to 104.8 million tons in 2017
Cotton 24,1 according preliminary calculation.
104.8 million tons
Oil-based synthetic fibers had
the biggest share with 64.2%.
Cellulosic and protein-based fibers
Synthetic fibers consist of cotton (around 24.1%),
64,2
wood-based cellulose fibres
(around 6.2%), other natural
fibers (around 4.4%) and wool
(around 1.1%)1.

Global fiber market in 2017

1 Wood-based and cotton linter-based cellulose fibres.

Figure 1A.2 Production of natural fibres in comparison to other fibres, 2017.

Source: ICAC, CIRFS, TFY, FEB, Lenzing Estimates.

Fiber: World demand vs global GDP

130

2019
Fibers, million metric tons

2022
2017
100

2015
2013
70 2011

2000
40
46,000 51,000 56,000 61,000 66,000 71,000 76,000 81,000 86,000 91,000 96,000
GDP (billion 2010$)

Figure 1A.3 Demand for fibres in the world.

Source: HIS Markit.

Generally natural lignocellulosic fibres are miniature composites, formed from a

reinforcement of cellulose embedded in a matrix of lignin and other polysaccharides
e.g., hemicellulose. Cellulose molecules of lignocellulosic fibre have a hydrophilic
nature due to its hydroxyl group. It is worth to underline that pectin is a natural poly-
mer present in plants. Pectin is a polysaccharide composed of a linear chain of 1e4
linked galacturonic acids which are etherified with methanol at 80% and has ability
to biodegradation process (Franck, 2005).
Wool, biosilk and fibres based on polyamino acids and very promising fibres based
on fibroin and chitin are also arousing increasing interest.
Introduction to natural textile fibres 5

The most common natural alfa amino acids found in wool are as follows: aspartic
acid, glutamic acid, asparagine, glutamine, arginine, lysine, histidine, tryptopfan,
serine, threonine, tyrosine, thiocysteine, cysteine, methionine, glycine, alanine,
valine, proline, leucine, isoleucine and phenylalanine. More information about
wool is in vol. 1, Chapter 9, Wool fibres by Umit Halis Erdogan et al.
Silk fibres consist of fibroin (75%e83%) in the inner layer and sericin (17%e25%)
in the outer layer, waxes about 1%e5% and other about 1% by weight. More data
about silk are provided in vol. 1, Chapter 11 Silk fibres and Vol. 2, chapter Silk
production and the future of natural silk manufacture (by Murugesh Babu).
The new natural fibres, explored by researchers and industrial people, are described
in Chapter 20, vol. 1. New emerging natural fibres and relevant sources of informa-
tion. The growing world population will mean increased demand for and consumption
of fibres, including natural. The current population explosion is alarming enough to
have necessitated a search for alternative textile resources, mainly for healthy, sustain-
able, and comfort-providing natural fibres.
Currently there are four main drivers in world wide fibre market: population
increase, replacement, wealth, and new applications. The production of these fibres
is expected at the level of 35e40 million tons/year in the middle of this century. The
demand should be responded by the increase of cotton production up to 26e
30 million tons/year, and growth of production of other natural, including modified
bast fibres in harmonious coexistence with the man-made fibres (Oerlikon).
Total world production of natural and man-made fibres: polyester 52.7%, cotton
23.8%, polyamide 5.3%, viscose 5.2%, polypropylene 3.2%, jute 3.1%, acrylic
1.8%, wool 1.1%, acetate 0.8%, flax 0.4% and other 2.7% (Gherzi, 2017).
Current data show that fibre demand for natural and man-made fibres increases
constantly in line with growing GDP (Gross Domestic Product).
More statistical data and survey of the natural fibres market in Vol. 1, Chapter 1B
World natural fibres production and employment by Terry Townsend.
In 21st century, mankind pays more attention to green, renewable resources, not
only for chemical, mainly polymer industry, but also in technology of producing
and processing different fibrous resources. Nowadays we have the green light for
expanded use of other green fibres in textiles for healthy and comfortable clothing
which after lifetime will be fully recyclable and biodegradable.
Most natural fibres can be obtained from lignocellulosic fibrous plants such as
flax, jute, hemp, kenaf, sisal, ramie, nettle, abaca, curaua, coir, cabuya, pineapple,
bamboo etc. Many others can be extracted, processed, modified and used both in
textiles (woven, knitting, nonwoven, technical, and 3D textiles), and for technical
purposes, for example, as reinforcements to create more environmentally friendly
composites and also in areas such as pulp and paper (from whole plants, shives
and fibres) and agro-fine chemicals, including biocosmetics, as well as sources of
biopolymers and energy (by combustion or by transforming to bioethanol or
biobutanol). For more information see Vol. 2, Chapter 18. The application of flax
and hemp seed in food, nutraceutical and personal care products, by Anna
Bakowska-Barczak, Marie-Anne de Larminat, Paul P. Kolodziejczyk.
6 Handbook of Natural Fibres

Jute, flax, hemp, kenaf and abaca are being used for production of ropes, canvas and
other products are also used to reinforce moulded thermoplastic composites in automo-
bile industry and other areas (Kozlowski and Wladyka-Przybylak, 2004).
More information in chapters of Volume 2, namely Chapter 2. Processing of jute
fibre and its applications, Chapter 4 Bast fibres: The use of flax and hemp for textile
end applications, Chapter 5. Bast fibres: Use of flax fibre for high challenge technical
textile applications. Extraction, preparation and requirements for the manufacturing of
composite reinforcement fabrics and for geotextiles, Chapter 6. Bast fibres: Multi-
scale mechanical characterization of flax fibres for the reinforcement of composite ma-
terials, Chapter 14. Natural fibres composites (NFCs) for automotive applications,
Chapter 15. Natural fibre composites (NFCs) for construction and automotive indus-
tries, Chapter 16. Natural fibres for geotextiles, Chapter 19. Natural fibres for paper
and packaging.
The short core fibres go to insulation products, fibre boards and erosion control mats
(geotextiles), while the fibrous core can be blended with lime to make strong and light-
weight concrete.
Flax, hemp, kenaf, jute shives are appropriate raw materials for the production of
particle boards and excellent bedding materials for animals e.g., for horse stables
and chicken farms and pets as well. Also shives can be used for the production of
the edible fungi Pleurotus ostreatus.
By-products from the bast fibrous plants, especially seeds and chaffs, are also a
source of valuable fatty acids, amino acids, phytoestrogens, cyclolinopeptides,
waxes, lignin, pectin, mucilage and other agrochemicals. They are one of the richest
plant sources of polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega 3 and omega 6 family), which are
effective for prevention of CHD (cardiovascular and heart diseases). More pieces of
knowledge in the above mentioned area are provided in the chapter in Vol. 2, Chapter
18. The application of flax and hemp seed in food, nutraceutical and personal care
products.
The above mentioned positive facts influence now the position of natural fibres and
the stable level of their production thanks to the growing area of their application and
economic value.
Protein fibres such as wool of sheep, alpaca, camel and yak and silk are used in the
production of luxury textiles as well as for the production of sophisticated composites.
More information is in Vol. 1, Chapter 10. Hunter L. Mohair, cashmere and other
animal hair fibres.
In agrotechnology, several species, for example bast fibrous plants, can be used to
clean soil polluted by heavy metals, due to their ability to extract cadmium (Cd), lead
(Pb), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) (Kozłowski et al., 2004; Vandenhove, Van Hees,
2005; Ma
nkowski et al., 2018; Baraniecki et al., 1995; Kozłowski et al., 1993;
Kozłowski and Manys, 1997). More piece of information in terms of remediation of
polluted lands is in Vol. 1, Chapter 11. J. Ma
nkowski, J. Kołodziej, R. Kozłowski
R. The role of hemp (Cannabis sativa L) in remediation of degraded lands.
Natural fibres are characterized by their most important properties such as air
permeability, hygroscopicity, their ability to release moisture, the fact that they do
not release any substances harmful to health or do not cause allergic reactions
Introduction to natural textile fibres 7

(resulting from a higher level of histamine in human blood derived from influence of
natural fibres like linen and hemp and by their lower flammability in comparison to
man-made fibres (Kozłowski et al., 2010).
Special treatment and functionalization methods such as degumming, enzymatic,
ultrasound, plasma, corona, liquid ammonia, flame retardant treatments, and protection
against biodeterioration provide new promising features and properties of all natural
fibres and derived products (Kozlowski et al., 2017).
More information about flame retardancy in the Chapter 10, Vol. 2, Improving the
flame retardancy of natural fibres, and about biodeterioration in Vol. 1, Chapter 18,
Prevention of fungi and bacteria growth in natural fibres and Antimicrobial natural
fibres, Chapter 21 in Vol. 2. The enzymatic treatment is described in details in chapter
., vol. . Enzymatic treatment of natural fibres.
Some of natural fibres are susceptible to dyeing by natural dyestuffs, are UV resis-
tant and could be also easily protected against flammability (Schmidt-Przewozna,
2001, 2016).
Natural fibres and fabrics after special functionalization for example by MOF
(metaleorganic frameworks), POM (Polyoxymetalates) (Kozlowski et al., 2017)
and by dendritic polymers will play an important role in the near future not only in
defence and military apparels, but in very effective filter materials as well (Akbari,
Kozłowski, 2018; Akbari, 2013).
More information is in Vol. 2, Chapter 13. Shirin Khaliliazar, Chemical and
physical characteristic of modified cotton and linen fabrics with amine-terminated
dendritic polymer.
The potential of genetically modified (GM) fibrous plants, called bioengineered in
USA, has increased in recent years, due to obtained better yield efficiency of major
natural products such as cellulosic fibres and carbohydrates. The possibility now
also exists for obtaining polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), for example polyhydroxybuty-
rate e natural polyester in statu nascendi, which is not typically synthesized in a plant
(Kozłowski et al., 2012; Wielgus et al., 2012a,b).
GM fibrous plants can be resistant to herbicides and environmental stress including
salinity and drought (Jacoby, 2009). In case of bast fibrous plants production, the most
important future direction is towards the genetic modification of content of lignin and
pectin. GM plants could be used for improving the biomass of natural fibrous resources
as well as for obtaining a higher oil content in plants e.g., linseed and hemp.
The potential for novel fibrous plants containing the nanofibres and cellulose
modified with phosphate groups to achieve a higher thermal resistance has been the
focus of many researchers’ and scientists’ attention.
Summing up, natural fibres with their long history in the service of mankind have
finally been acknowledged by the modern world of 21st century, as a most welcome
and user friendly material both in clothing and for other end uses.
Following a period of dynamic development of man-made fibres and a drastically
lowered production trend for natural fibres in the last decades, a more stable coexis-
tence between them may now be observed.
8 Handbook of Natural Fibres

The ecological alarm over atmospheric and water pollution dictates the conditions
of future coexistence. In the opinion of textile authorities, the present ecological legis-
lation is a pale shadow of what will be needed in the future to come to grips with the
ecological problems which the world is facing. Treatments of effluents, disposal of
waste and packing material will require enormous capital outlays. The competitive
edge in the future will be determined to a great extent by the ability to solve the ecolog-
ical problems. This is what may be termed as the greatest challenge for textiles indus-
tries in this new Millennium (Bomgardner, 2017).
Currently, in 21st century the coexistence and competition between man-made and
natural fibres is stabilized-especially in the area of quality, sustainability and economy
of their production. Natural and renewable fibres conduct heat, dye well, resist mildew
and have natural and antibacterial properties, blocking UV and are easily treated for
flame retardancy. This makes them ideal for the production of comfortable healthy
clothing that provide UV protection for the body, decrease oxidative stress and muscle
tension, increase the level of alpha globulin, thus improving the wellbeing of users
(Kozłowski et al., 2004; Kozłowski, Many
s, 1997).

1A.3 Handbook of natural fibres and its content

The Handbook of Natural Fibres describes the present state of art in the area of natural
fibres. The authors have been chosen from a group of high-ranking, renowned special-
ists in the area of natural fibres. The Handbook consists of two volumes: Volume 1 is
entitled: Types, properties and factors affecting breeding and cultivation with 20 chap-
ters, written by 49 authors from 13 countries. Volume 2 entitled Processing and
applications includes 21 chapters, prepared by 56 authors from 10 countries. Totally
105 authors contributed to the creation of this Handbook. The second edition of the
Handbook of Natural Fibres (published by Elsevier) is the enlarged, corrected and
improved version of the Handbook of Natural Fibres, first edition published in
2012 by Woodhead Publishing Inc.
Volume 1 starts with the introduction to natural textile fibres, prepared by the
Editors and the survey of the world natural fibre production and employment. Vol-
ume 1 consists of two main parts: Part I: Fundamentals: types of fibres, properties,
identification and testing and Part II: improving natural fibre production through
breeding and cultivation. Part I provides fundamental knowledge about major plant
and animal fibres, their properties, identification and testing. The fibres described are
selected bast fibres (jute, ramie, kenaf, flax and fibrous hemp, abaca, bamboo, coir or
coconut fibre, wool fibres, mohair, cashmere and other animal hair fibres, as well as
silk fibres. Moreover, one chapter describes fibre plants of arid regions of Africa.
Editors included also a chapter about such natural mineral fibre as basalt fibre, which
are very important for production of composites to perform in extreme conditions.
Chapter on identification of natural fibres provides knowledge about contemporary
methods in that regard, allowing for unambiguous identification of diversified natural
fibres. Chapter on testing of natural textile fibres describes traditional as well as
contemporary testing methods.
Introduction to natural textile fibres 9

Part II of Volume 1 is entitled as follows: Improving natural fibre production

through breeding and cultivation. This part deals with the following subjects: evolu-
tion of cotton breeding, developments in fibrous flax breeding and cultivation; preven-
tion of fungi growth in natural fibres, especially mildew; wild silks: entomological
aspects and textile applications; new emerging natural fibres and relevant sources of
information.
Volume 2: Processing and applications consists of two parts: Part I: Processing
techniques for natural fibres and Part II: Applications of natural fibres and case
studies. Part I describes current knowledge regarding methods of improving specific
properties of natural fibres as well as selected treatments and processing. The
following topics and areas are covered: cotton fibre, spinning and weaving; processing
of jute fibre and its applications; silk production and the future of natural silk manu-
facture; the use of flax and hemp for textile end applications; bast fibres: use of flax
fibre for high challenge technical textile applications; extraction, preparation and
requirements for the manufacturing of composite reinforcement fabrics and for geotex-
tiles; bast fibres: multi-scale mechanical characterization of flax fibres for the
reinforcement of composite materials, enzymatic treatment of natural fibres; improving
the properties of natural fibres by chemical treatments; electrokinetic properties of
natural fibres; improving the flame retardancy of natural fibres. Environmental aspect
of bast fibres cultivation is described in the chapter entitled: the role of hemp
(Cannabis Sativa L.) in remediation of degraded lands. Also the chapter about the
new hot topic is included: medical potential of cannabis: an overview. Dendritic
polymers and their possibilities of application are gaining recently more attention,
the handbook presents specific topic: chemical and physical characteristic of modified
cotton and linen fabrics with amine-terminated dendritic polymer. The natural fibres
(NFCs) for automotive applications, for construction, for geotextiles, as well as for
paper and packaging are described in three separate chapters. In this book, for the first
time, are discussed properties and applications of ultrafine powders produced from
natural fibres. The application of flax and hemp seed in food, nutraceutical and
cosmetic products e is described in the chapter, which has been changed, enlarged
and amended. The chapter dealing with the environmental textiles from jute and
coir has been updated. Two last chapters are a reprint of the chapters printed in the first
edition, namely antimicrobial natural fibres and biomimetics and textile materials.

1A.4 Sources of further information and advice

Blackburn, R.S., ed. 2005. Biodegradable and Sustainable Fibres, Woodhead Publishing,
Cambridge.
Buitrago, B., Jaramillo, F., G
omez, M 2015. Some properties of natural fibres. (Sisal, Pine-
apple, and Banana) in comparison to man-made technical fibers (Aramide, Glass, Carbon),
Journal of Natural Fibers, 12 (4), 357e367.
Cook, J.G., ed. 1984. Handbook of Textile Fibres, Vol. 1 - Natural Fibres. Woodhead
Publishing, Cambridge.
10 Handbook of Natural Fibres

Denton, M.J., Daniels, P.N., eds. 2002. Textile Terms and Definitions. The Textile Institute,
Manchester.
Diversity in Harmony: Asian Textile in the 21st Century. 1999., Proceedings of the fifth Asian
Textile Conference, Kyoto, Japan, 30 Sept. to 2 Oct., organized by the Society of Fibre Sci-
ence and Technology.
Debnath Singhal. 2016. Critical parameters affecting mechanical behaviour of natural fibre
reinforced plastics. Journal of Natural Fibers, 13 (6), 640e650
Dowgielewicz, S. 1954. Roslinne Surowce Wlokiennicze. Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Nau-
kowe, Warsaw.
Guebitz, G.M., Cavaco-Paulo, A. and Kozłowski, R., eds. 2006., Biotechnology in Textile
Processing. Haworth Press, New York.
Gupta S.K., Goswam K.K., Majumdar A. 2015. Durability of handmade wool carpets: A
review, Journal of Natural Fibers, 12(5), 399e418
Herzog, R.O. 1930. Der Flachs, Abtl.1: Botanik, Kultur, Aufbereitung Bleicherei und Wirt-
schaft des Flachses, Technologie der Textilfasern, Herausgegeben von Herzog R O, Band 5,
Teil 1. Berlin: Ernst Schilling, Botanik und Kultur des Flachs.
Kind, W., Koenig, P., M€uller, W., Schilling E., Steinbrinck C. 1930.‘Der Flachs. Abteilung
1: Botanik, Kultur, Aufbereitung, Bleicherei und Wirtschaft des Flachses: mit einer Einf€ uh-
rung in den Feinbau der Zellulosefaserns’, Springer, Berlin, Germany, 427.
Kozłowski, R., Mackiewicz-Talarczyk, M., Demes, M. 2009. ‘Report: The international year
of natural fibers and ESCORENA involvement’, Journal of Natural Fibers, 6, 347e349.
Kozlowski R., Baraniecki P., Barriga-Bedoya J. 2005. Bast fibres (flax, hemp, jute, ramie,
kenaf, abaca). Chapter 2, In Blackburn, R. S. (ed.) Biodegradable and Sustainable Fibres.
Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, 36e110.
Kozłowski, R.M., Muzyczek, M., Walentowska, J. 2014. Polymer Green Flame Retardants.
Flame Retardancy and Protection against Biodeterioration of Natural Fibers: State-of-Art and
Future Prospects, Chapter 23, In Polymer Green Flame Retardants, Elsevier B.V., ISBN
978-0-44,453-808-6, Amsterdam, 801e838
Handbook of Natural Fibres. (2012). Ryszard Kozłowski (Ed.), Woodhead Publishing.
Series in Textiles, Cambridge, Vol. 1, 1e620:
- Chapter 1. Kozłowski R., Mackiewicz-Talarczyk M. Introduction to natural fibers, one to
eight
- Chapter 2. Dochia M., Sirghie C., Kozłowski R., Rozkwitalski Z. Cotton fibres, 1e23
- Chapter 5. Kozłowski R., Mackiewicz-Talarczyk M., Allam A.M. Bast fibers - Flax.,
56e113
- Chapter 16. Walentowska J., Kozłowski R. Prevention of fungal growth in natural fibres,
532e549
- Chapter 2. Kozłowski R., Muzyczek M. Improving the flame retardancy of natural fibres,
30e59
- Chapter 5. Konczewicz W., Kozłowski R. Enzymatic treatment, 168e180
- Chapter 9. Leao A., Cherian B.M., Souza S.F., Kozłowski R., Thomas S., Natural fibres
for geotextiles, 280e310
Kozłowski R.M., Muzyczek M., Kręgielczak A. Natural Fibers. 2012. Encyclopaedia of
Composites. John Willey & Sons, New York, 1e22
Kozlowski R., Muzyczek M. 2016. Chapter 11, Smart environmentally friendly composite
coatings for wood protection, in smart composite coatings and membranes, transport, struc-
tural, environmental and energy applications. (Ed.) Montemor,M.F., A Volume in Wood-
head Publishing Series in Composites Science and Engineering, ISBN: 978-1-78,242-283-
9, 293e325
Introduction to natural textile fibres 11

Natural Fibers: Properties, Mechanical Behaviour, Functionalization and Applications, eds.

Ryszard M. Kozlowski, Muzyczek M. 2017. Nova Publishers, USA, ISBN: 978-1-53,612-
071-4 (available online), Pub. Date: 2017 -third Quarter.

Chapters:
1. Kozlowski R.M., Muzyczek M.: Introduction.
2. Kozlowski R.M., Muzyczek M., Chapter 2. A New Challenge For Flax and Hemp Bast
Fibers, 19e44.
3. Kozlowski R.M., Cesarino, I., Leao A.L., Machado I.S. Chapter 4, Curaua Fibers: the
Queen of the Fibers, 83e106.
4. Kozlowski R.M., Mackiewicz-Talarczyk M., Barriga Bedoya J., Chapter 6. New
Emerging Sources of other Lignocellulosic Fibers, 124e134.
5. Kozlowski R.M., Gavrilas S. Chapter 7: Natural Lignocellulosic Raw Materials as a
Source of Nanocellulosic Fibres, 135e148.
6. Kozlowski R.M., Muzyczek M., Chapter 11. Trends in Natural Lignocellulosic Fibre
Functionalization and Finishing Processes, 215e236.
7. Jorge Barriga Bedoya, Maria Mackiewicz-Talarczyk, Source of further information about
natural fibers, 349e354.
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Further reading
Kozlowski, R., Kici
nska-Jakubowska, A., Muzyczek, M., 2009. ‘Natural fibres for interior
textiles’. In: Rowe, T. (Ed.), Interior Textiles Design and Development. Woodhead Pub-
lishing Ltd, UK, pp. 1e35.