Street lighting design is the design of street lighting such that people can safely

continue their travels on the road. Street lighting schemes never brings the same
appearance of daylight, but provide sufficient light for people to see important
objects required for traversing the road. Street lighting plays an important role in:

 Reducing the risk of night-time accidents

 Assisting in the protection of buildings/property (discouraging vandalism)
 Discouraging crime
 Creating a secure environment for habitation

Basic Features of Street Light Luminaires

The basic features of a street lighting luminaires are:

 Roadway luminaires are mounted horizontally and thus have fixed vertical
aiming.
 Roadway lighting luminaires have particular intensity distributions which
are desired to light long narrow horizontal stripes on one side of the
luminaire, while minimizing the intensities on the other side of the
luminaire.
 The intensity distributions up and down the narrow strip are generally the
same.
 Any fixed aimed luminaire which does not have this type of intensity
distribution is called an area luminaire.

Main Objectives of Street Lighting Design Scheme

The main objectives of street lighting design scheme are given below:

1. Perfect visual sensation for safety

2. Illuminated environment for quick movement of the vehicles
3. Clear view of objects for comfortable movement of the road users.

Which Lamps are Used in Street Lighting?

Various types of lamps are used in street lighting luminaires. They are

1. High pressure sodium lamp

2. Metal Halide Lamps
3. Low pressure sodium lamps
4. Incandescent Lamp (not recommended)
 5. LED
6. CFL (used in Lanes or streets only not widely)

Main Factors in the Street Lighting Design Scheme

1. Luminance Level Should be Proper

Luminance always influences the contrast sensitivity of the obstructions with
respect to the back ground. If the street is brighter, then darker surroundings
makes the car driver adapted, unless the driver will be unable to perceive the
objects in the surroundings. As per CIE, 5m away from the road on both
sides will be lit by Illuminance level at least 50% of that on the road.
2. Luminance Uniformity must be Achieved
To provide visual comfort to the viewer’s eyes, enough luminous uniformity
is needed. Luminous uniformity means the ratio between minimum
luminance level to average luminance level, i.e.

It is termed as longitudinal uniformity ratio as it is measured along the line

passing through the viewers position in the middle of the traffic facing the
traffic flow.
3. Degree of Glare Llimitation is always taken into Design Scheme
Glare means visual discomfort due to high luminance. There are two types
of glare created by the street light luminaires, first type is disability glare and
second type is discomfort glare. Disability glare is not a strong factor, rather
discomfort glare is a common factor due to unplanned street lighting
scheme.
4. Lamp Spectra for Visual Sharpness depends on the Proper Luminaries
It is very much essential to make an object as per its size and dimension.
5. Effectiveness of Visual Guidance is also an important factor
It helps a viewer to guess how far another object is from his position.

Types of Road to Implement Various Street Lighting Design Schemes

As per CIE 12 roads are broadly classified into five types.

Type A of Street Lighting Design

 Heavy and high speed traffic.

 The roads are separated with the separators.
 No crossing is allowed.
 Controlled access
 As the example: express ways.
Type B of Street Lighting Design

 Heavy and high speed traffic.

 Separate road for slow traffic movement or pedestrians.
 As the example: Trunk road.

Type C of Street Lighting Design

 Heavy mixed traffic with moderate speed.

 Rural and urban roads.
 As the examples: Ring Road or Radial Road.

Type D of Street Lighting Design

 Slow traffic and pedestrians’ purpose.

 Road in the city or shopping center.
 As the example: Shopping streets.

Type E of Street Lighting Design

 Mixed Traffic with limited speed.

 Connector road between residential areas.
 As the example: Local street.

LAYOUT OF TYPICAL DOMESTIC

REFRIGERATOR
Domestic Refrigerators, once considered a luxury, are now a necessity of daily life. They have
usage in homes, hotels, office, laboratories, hospitals, shops restaurants, etc. They are
manufactured in several sizes and many brands are available. The different models are rated on
the basis of gross volume such as 100 litres, 165 litres, 200 litres, 250 litres and so on.

What a domestic refrigerator is used for

For food to be fresh, the immediate atmosphere needs a low temperature to decrease
reproductive rate of harmful bacteria. A refrigerator transfers heat from inside to outside, which
is why touching the back side of the fridge where the metal pipes makes it feel hot – you’ll see
how it works in a moment.
Description of Domestic Refrigerator

The construction of household refrigerator, with location of main components.

1. Evaporator: The evaporator is located in a coil form on the freezer box. The liquid refrigerant
is evaporated in the evaporator by absorbing heat from the contents of the domestic refrigerator
in the cabinet. The evaporator consists of copper metal rubbing surrounding the freezing and
cooling compartments.

2. Condenser: The condenser is located as zigzag tubes behind the refrigerator on a mesh. In the
condenser, the heat from the refrigerant at a higher temperature is rejected to the atmospheric air.

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3. Compressor: The compressor is located at the base at the rear end. It compresses the
refrigerant vapour to a high pressure. Reciprocating compressor is used for low capacity
domestic refrigerator.
4. Expansion Valve or Throttling Valve: An expansion valve is used to reduce the temperature
and pressure of the liquid refrigerant, before it passes to the evaporator. The expansion capillary
is located inside the refrigerator body hear the wall. The capillary tube is small diameter tube
used as an expansion device.

5. Refrigerator cabinet: The refrigerator cabinet is thermally insulated to minimize heat flow
from the atmosphere into the refrigerator. The insulation is glass fiber and the external body is of
stainless steel.

1. Storage of Raw Fruits and Vegetables: It is well-known that some bacteria are
responsible for degradation of food, and enzymatic processing cause ripening of
the fruits and vegetables. The growth of bacteria and the rate of enzymatic
processes are reduced at low temperature. This helps in reducing the spoilage and
improving the shelf life of the food. Table below shows useful storage life of some
plant and animal tissues at various temperatures.

It can be seen that the storage temperature affects the useful storage life
significantly. In general the storage life of most of the food products depends upon
water activity, which essentially depends upon the presence of water in liquid form
in the food product and its temperature. Hence, it is possible to preserve various
food products for much longer periods under frozen conditions.

In case of fruits and vegetables, the use of refrigeration starts right after harvesting
to remove the post-harvest heat, transport in refrigerated transport to the cold
storage or the processing plant. A part of it may be stored in cold storage to
maintain its sensory qualities and a part may be distributed to retail shops, where
again refrigeration is used for short time storage. Depending upon the size, the
required capacity of refrigeration plants for cold storages can be very high.
Ammonia is one of the common refrigerants used in cold storages.
2. Fish: Icing of fish according to ASHRAE Handbook on Applications, started
way back in 1938. In India, iced fish is still transported by rail and road, and retail
stores store it for short periods by this method. Freezing of fish aboard the ship
right after catch results in better quality than freezing it after the ship docks. In
some ships, it is frozen along with seawater since it takes months before the ships
return to dock. Long-term preservation of fish requires cleaning, processing and
freezing.

3. Meat and poultry: These items also require refrigeration right after slaughter
during processing, packaging. Short-term storage is done at 0°C. Long-term
storage requires freezing and storage at -25°C.

4. Dairy Products: The important dairy products are milk, butter, buttermilk and
ice cream. To maintain good quality, the milk is cooled in bulk milk coolers
immediately after being taken from cow. Bulk milk cooler is a large refrigerated
tank that cools it between 10 to 15°C. Then it is transported to dairy farms, where
it is pasteurized. Pasteurization involves heating it to 73°C and holding it at this
temperature for 20 seconds. Thereafter, it is cooled to 3 to 4°C. The dairies have to
have a very large cooling capacity, since a large quantity of milk has to be
immediately cooled after arrival. During the lean period, the refrigeration plants of
dairies are used to produce ice that is used during peak periods to provide cooling
by melting. This reduces the required peak capacity of the refrigeration plant.

Ice cream manufacture requires pasteurization, thorough mixing, emulsification

and stabilization and subsequently cooling to 4 to 5°C. Then it is cooled to
temperature of about – 5 °C in a freezer where it stiffens but still remains in liquid
state. It is packaged and hardened at –30 to –25°C until it becomes solid; and then
it is stored at same temperature.

Buttermilk, curd and cottage cheese are stored at 4 to 10°C for increase of shelf
life. Use of refrigeration during manufacture of these items also increases their
shelf life. There are many varieties of cheese available these days. Adding cheese
starter like lactic acid and several substances to the milk makes all of these. The
whey is separated and solid part is cured for a long time at about 10°C to make
good quality cheese.

5. Beverages: Production of beer, wine and concentrated fruit juices require

refrigeration. The taste of many drinks can be improved by serving them cold or by
adding ice to them. This has been one of the favourite past time of aristocracy in all
the countries. Natural or man-made ice for this purpose has been made available
since a very long time. Fruit juice concentrates have been very popular because of
low cost, good taste and nutritional qualities. Juices can be preserved for a longer
period of time than the fruits. Also, fruit juice concentrates when frozen can be
more easily shipped and transported by road. Orange and other citrus juices, apple
juice, grape juice and pineapple juice are very popular. To preserve the taste and
flavour of juice, the water is driven out of it by boiling it at low temperature under
reduced pressure. The concentrate is frozen and transported at –20°C.

Brewing and wine making requires fermentation reaction at controlled

temperature, for example lager-type of beer requires 8 to 12°C while wine requires
27- 30°C. Fermentation is an exothermic process; hence heat has to be rejected at
controlled temperature.

6. Candy: Use of chocolate in candy or its coating with chocolate requires setting
at 5-10°C otherwise it becomes sticky. Further, it is recommended that it be stored
at low temperature for best taste.

7. Processing and distribution of frozen food: Many vegetables, meat, fish and
poultry are frozen to sustain the taste, which nearly duplicates that of the fresh
product. Freezing retains the sensory qualities of colour, texture and taste apart
from nutritional qualities. The refrigeration systems for frozen food applications
are very liberally designed, since the food items are frozen in shortest period of
time. The sharp freezing with temperature often below –30°C, is done so that the
ice crystals formed during freezing do not get sufficient time to grow and remain
small and do not pierce the cell boundaries and damage them. Ready-to-eat frozen
foods, packed dinners and bakery items are also frozen by this method and stored
at temperatures of –25 to -20°C for distribution to retail stores during peak
demands or off-season demands.
Working Principle of Domestic Refrigerator

The refrigerator works on the vapour compression refrigeration cycle. The refrigerant vapour is
first compressed in the compressor. The compressor is a special one known as the hermetic
compressor. In this unit, the compressor is sealed casing along with an electrical motor to run.
This sealing prevents leakage of refrigerant and lubrication oil. The pressure and temperature of
the refrigerant increases after compression and is subsequently condensed in a condenser. In the
condenser, the refrigerant rejects heat to a coolant and cools down and finally gets condensed.

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The condensate is then allowed to pass through capillary to reduce temperature and pressure by
expansion of refrigerant. The refrigerant is filtered before entering the capillary tube. The
pressure of the refrigerant, when it leaves the capillary, is maintained above atmospheric and
temperature corresponds to saturation temperature so that the refrigerant can absorb heat in the
evaporator. The refrigerant enters the evaporator and is heated by the heat absorbed from the
body or space thereby producing the refrigeration effect. The vapour refrigerant enters the
compressor again and the cycle is completed.
When power to the compressor is switched on, a humming sound is heard and the refrigerator is
functional. The refrigerant flows through its circuit and ice is produced in the freezer. Frost, i.e.,
moisture from ambient air, gets deposited on the evaporator coil. Defrosting removes this frost.
The water from defrosting is collected in a tray to be removed manually. Articles to be
refrigerated are placed on shelves. Fruits and vegetables, which contain moisture, are stored at
the base. The temperature here is around 8°C. Thus there are temperature gradients in the
refrigerator, negative temperature in the freezer and positive temperature at the base.

What is the refrigerant, and how does each kind of refrigerant differ?

Coolant is the fluid or gas used in a refrigeration coil in a domestic refrigerator. If your unit
includes R404, R134a or R600a refrigerant in a professional kitchen, it does not really make any
difference.

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In general, the product’s total output and capability is a much more significant purchasing
decision. However, some kinds of coolant are more ecological than others. R290 is generally
regarded as environmentally friendly, while other refrigerant forms also produce greenhouse
gases.

How does domestic and commercial refrigerators differ?

Commercial refrigerator is designed to be used much more frequently. Only a dozen times a day
can a house refrigerator be opened while, over a few hours, a commercial refrigerator can be
constantly opened. Commercial refrigerators are equipped with powerful compressors,
construction which is much robust and are often supported by fans. These commercial
refrigerators