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Structural Systems: (Questions and Answers)
Structural Systems: (Questions and Answers)
1. What is a catenary arch? Explain with neat sketches? Principle on which they are
constructed. Discuss it applications?
A catenary is the curve of a hanging chain. The catenary shape minimizes the potential
energy throughout the chain. When shifted, a hanging chain will naturally return to this
position. At each point in a hanging chain or arch, the opposing forces (chain: tension forces,
arch: compression forces) are balanced. This creates stability.
An arch is built out of numbered blocks on a hinged building surface. Once the blocks are
correctly positioned over an outline of the arch, the construction is tilted slowly towards the
vertical until it is standing. The backboard is then lowered, leaving the arch free-standing.
The shape the arch takes is called a catenary. This is the same shape taken (with the apex
pointing downward) by a hanging chain or rope. There are two chains hanging from posts on
the table, a light one and a heavy one. If the arch is disturbed by touching it lightly, it sways
to and fro in the same way the chain moves when disturbed.
A hanging chain forms a catenary. The Gateway Arch (looking East) is a flattened catenary.
Catenary arches are often used in the construction of kilns. In this construction technique,
the shape of a hanging chain of the desired dimensions is transferred to a form which is then
used as a guide for the placement of bricks or other building material.
PORTAL FRAMES:
They are the most commonly used structural forms for single-storey industrial structures.
They are constructed mainly using hot-rolled sections, supporting the roofing and side
cladding via cold-formed purlins and sheeting rails. They may also be composed of tapered
stanchions and rafters fabricated from plate elements. Portal frames of lattice members
made of angles or tubes are also common, especially in the case of longer span.
‘
Portal frame construction is a method of building and designing simple structures, primarily
using steel or steel-reinforced precast concrete although they can also be constructed using
laminated timber such as glulam. The connections between the columns and the rafters are
designed to be moment-resistant, i.e. they can carry bending forces.
Because of these very strong and rigid joints some of the bending moment in the rafters is
transferred to the columns. This means that the size of the rafters can be reduced or the
span can be increased for the same size rafters. This makes portal frames a very efficient
construction technique to use for wide span buildings.
Portal frame construction is therefore typically seen in warehouses, barns and other places
where large, open spaces are required at low cost and a pitched roof is acceptable.
Generally portal frames are used for single story buildings but they can be used for low rise
buildings with several floors where they can be economic if the floors do not span right
across the building.
Portal frames can be clad with all sorts of material but the most popular solution, for reasons
of economy and speed, is some form of lightweight insulated metal cladding with cavity
masonry work to the bottom 2m of the wall to provide security and impact resistance. The
lightweight cladding would be carried on sheeting rails spanning between the columns of the
portal frames.
The most common form of portal frame used in the construction industry is the
pinned-base frame with different rafter and column member size and with haunches at
both the eaves and apex connections.
SPACE FRAMES:
A space frame or space structure is a truss-like, lightweight rigid structure constructed from
interlocking struts in a geometric pattern. Space frames can be used to span large areas
with few interior supports. Like the truss, a space frame is strong because of the inherent
rigidity of the triangle; flexing loads (bending moments) are transmitted as tension and
compression loads along the length of each strut.
The simplest form of space frame is a horizontal slab of interlocking square pyramids built
from aluminium or tubular steel struts. A stronger purer form is composed of
interlocking tetrahedral pyramids in which all the struts have unit length. More technically this
is referred to as an isotropic vector matrix or in a single unit width an octet truss. More
complex variations change the lengths of the struts to curve the overall structure or may
incorporate other geometrical shapes.
Configuration of space frame build systems: • Generally square inverted pyramid modules
connected at the top and bottom layers provide the most commonly used Space Frame
structures • Pipes, spherical node, cone, bolt and sleeve are the common components •
There are various types of connection nodes patented by various companies in the
world. Two popular nodes are solid spherical nodes per Mero system Germany and
hollow spherical node per Unibat
Polycarbonate sheets, fiberglass reinforced plastic sheets or glazing used for
covering, to provide aesthetically beautiful sky light systems . However, colour-
coated steel sheets. aluminium sheets and asbestos sheets are also used
Latticed Space Frame Structures, particularly for roofs are similar to two-way
concrete slab or flat plates. These latticed structures, single layer or double layer,
include 3-dimensional Space Grid Structures, Domes, Barrel Vaults, Hyperbolic
Parabloid Shell Structures, etc.
3. A space frame is usually sufficiently stiff in spite of its lightness. This is due to its
three-dimensional character and to the full participation of its constituent elements.
4. Space frames possess a versatility of shape and form and can utilize a standard
module to generate various flat space grids, latticed shell, or even free-form shapes.
A dome is an architectural element that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere. The
precise definition has been a matter of controversy. There are also a wide variety of forms
and specialized terms to describe them. A dome can rest upon a rotunda or drum, and can
be supported by columns or piers that transition to the dome through squinches or
pendentives. A lantern may cover an oculus and may itself have another dome.
Domes have a long architectural lineage that extends back into prehistory and they have
been constructed from mud, snow, stone, wood, brick, concrete, metal, glass, and plastic
over the centuries. The symbolism associated with domes includes mortuary, celestial, and
governmental traditions that have likewise developed over time.
The domes are classified into the following:
3. PLATE TYPE DOMES: This type of dome is also a type f Schwedler dome, with a small
number of sides. Their side panels filled in by several bars, all of them in the same plane,
forming a triangular network bracing. The plate type dome has the advantage that it can be
also distribute the stress across the entire structure. When completed to form a complete
Geodesic designs can be used to form any curved, enclosed space. Oddly-shaped designs
would require calculating for and custom building of each individual strut, vertex or panel—
resulting in potentially expensive construction. Because of the expense and complexity of
design and fabrication of any geodesic dome, builders have tended to standardize using a
few basic designs.
7. GRID DOMES: It uses the Hamman System. The main features and merits of the
Hamman dome are as follows:
c) Ribs continuous through intersection point, thus having less joints than lamella
domes
d) None of the major loads carried through bolted, riveted or welded joints
g) Inherently light, as all panel loads are equal and are transmitted successively in all
directions.
Types of grid domes
4. Explain the different types of folded plates and where they are used.
Folded plates are assemblies of flat plates rigidly connected together along their edges in
such a way so as to make the structural system capable of carrying loads without the need
for additional supporting beams along mutual edges.
1. Flat paper deforms under its own weight 2.Folded paper has greater strength and
3. Heavy load may buckle the folded paper due 4.Secured ends add stability against
to lack of stability buckling
1- Single.
2- Multiple.
3- Symmetrical.
4- Unsymmetrical.
5- Simple.
6- Continuous.
7- Folded plates with simple joints.
Folded Plate Behaviours: Each plate is assumed to act as a beam in its own plane, this
assumption is justified when the ratio of the span "length" of the plate to its height "width" is
large enough. But when this ratio is small, the plate behaves as a deep beam.
Folded plates combine slab action with beam action. In length direction they act like thin
inclined beams of great depth, stabilized against at top and bottom by adjoining plates. In
width direction they are one-way slabs that span between adjacent plates.
Folded plate forms: Folded plates may have many one-way, two or three-way spans. They
system. In areas with snow, flat folded plates are problematic since snow can accumulate in
the valleys.
1. Folded plate with one straight and one gabled edge 2.Folded plate with offset gabled edges
3. Folded plate with gabled edges offset at mid-span 4.Folded plate with vertical support folding
The curtain wall façade does not carry any dead load
weight from the building other than its own dead load weight.
The wall transfers horizontal wind loads that are incident upon
it to the main building structure through connections at floors or
columns of the building. A curtain wall is designed to resist air
and water infiltration, sway induced by wind and seismic forces acting on the building and its
own dead load weight forces.
Grid construction: The majority of curtain walls consist of a rectangular grid of vertical and
horizontal members, framing openings filled with inserts or glass. The inserts and glazing are
the space-enclosing elements of the grid curtain wall, while the grid itself forms the
framework, within which these are installed. Normally only the grid is attached to the
supporting structure, to which it hen transfers the entire weight of the curtain wall plus
possible wind loads. Only in a few special cases are the inserts fastened to the structure
directly. Such auxiliary connections reduce the load on the grid, which, however continues to
perform its primary function of framing the space-enclosing elements on the wall.
The grid is clearly expressed in elevation and gives the curtain wall facade its characteristic
structure. It has thus become a distinguishing feature in curtain wall design.
Spandrel panels-fixed glazing-windows Spandrel panels-windows (pivoted sash)
Panel construction: This term will be applied to wall assemblies consisting of large, story-
high panels fastened either directly or indirectly- by means of secondary framing- to the
supporting structure.
Flat sheet
The only components of panel curtain walls are the panels themselves which combine the
twin functions of enclosing space and transferring the dead and live loads to the supporting
structure. The most important structural characteristic of such panels is their jointless,
continuous outer surface.
Concrete
Window openings, so far as they are structurally feasible, are cut out of the middle of the
panel, with which the window frame is rigidly connected. The panels are joined directly,
without the use of intermediate elements. The most important design characteristic of panel
systems is again the virtually continuous outer surface, broken only by the joints between
units.
Formed sheet
result of the loads applied to them Above the supports, the beam is exposed to shear
stress. There are some reinforced concrete beams that are entirely in compression.
These beams are known as prestressed concrete beams, and are fabricated to produce
A) SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS: A beam that has hinged connection at one end and roller
connection in other end is called simply supported beam, so when transverse loads are
applied they resists by generating reactive forces on their supports.
The beams may be made from several usable engineering materials such commonly among
Metal
Wood
Concrete
Plastic
The beams are said to be simply supported if their supports creates only the translational
constraints.
B) SLABS:
Design:
For a suspended slab, there are a number of designs to improve the strength-to-weight ratio.
In all cases the top surface remains flat, and the underside is modulated:
Corrugated, usually where the concrete is poured into a corrugated steel tray. This
improves strength and prevents the slab bending under its own weight. The corrugations
run across the short dimension, from side to side.
A ribbed slab, giving considerable extra strength on one direction.
A waffle slab, giving added strength in both directions.
A one way slab has structural strength in shortest direction. A two way slab has
structural strength in two directions
Reinforcement design
A one way slab needs moment resisting reinforcement only in its short-direction.
Because, the moment along long axes is so small that it can be neglected. When the
ratio of the length of long direction to short
direction of a slab is greater than 2 it can
be considered as a one way slab.
A two way slab needs moment resisting reinforcement in both directions. If the ratio of
the lengths of long and short side is less than one then moment in both directions should
be considered in design.
Construction:
In situ concrete slabs are built on the building site using formwork - a type of boxing into
which the wet concrete is poured. If the slab is to be reinforced, the rebars are positioned
within the formwork before the concrete is poured in. Plastic tipped metal, or plastic bar
chairs are used to hold the rebar away from the bottom and sides of the form-work, so that
when the concrete sets it completely envelops the reinforcement. For a ground slab, the
form-work may consist only of sidewalls pushed into the ground. For a suspended slab, the
form-work is shaped like a tray, often supported by a temporary scaffold until the concrete
sets.
The formwork is commonly built from wooden planks and boards, plastic, or steel. On
commercial building sites today, plastic and steel are more common as they save labour. On
low-budget sites, for instance when laying a concrete garden path, wooden planks are very
common. After the concrete has set the wood may be removed, or left there permanently.
D) CABLE STRUCTURES: Form of long-span structure that is subject to tension and uses
suspension cables for support. Highly efficient, cable structures include the suspension
bridge, the cable-stayed roof, and the bicycle-wheel roof. The graceful curve of the huge
main cables of a suspension bridge is almost a catenary, the shape assumed by any string
or cable suspended freely between two points. The cable-stayed roof is supported from
above by steel cables radiating downward from masts that rise above roof level. The bicycle-
wheel roof involves two layers of tension cables radiating from an inner tension ring and an
a) Tensile strength;
b) Adequate strength-member selection;
c) Bending radius;
d) Support requirements;
e) Environmental specifications;
f) Length of continuous run available;
g) Lengths that can be safely pulled in conduits and raceways;
h) Probability of fiber breakage;
i) Compression strength.
Cables designed to contain electrical conductors and optical fibers are also feasible
and generally available. For example, twisted-pair wires for signalling applications,
or to carry electrical power to optical repeaters along the cable route.
Shear force is an internal force in any material which is usually caused by any external force
acting perpendicular to the material, or a force which has a component acting tangent to the
material.
The Shear Force at the cross section of the beam may be defined as the unbalanced vertical
A bending moment exists in a structural element when a moment is applied to the element
so that the element bends. Moments are calculated by multiplying the external vector forces
(loads or reactions) by the vector distance at which they are applied. When analysing an
entire element, it is sensible to calculate moments at both ends of the element, at the
beginning, centre and end of any uniformly distributed loads, and directly underneath any
point loads. Of course any "pin-joints" within a structure allow free rotation, and so zero
moment occurs at these points as there is no way of transmitting turning forces from one
If clockwise bending moments are taken as negative, then a negative bending moment
within an element will cause "sagging", and a positive moment will cause "hogging". It is
therefore clear that a point of zero bending moment within a beam is a point of
contraflexure—that is the point of transition from hogging to sagging or vice versa.
Bending moment varies linearly over unloaded sections, and parabolically over uniformly
loaded sections.
The Bending Moment at the cross section of the beam may be defined as the algebraic sum
of the moments of the forces, to the right or left of the section.
Construction
Form is the shape, visual appearance, or configuration of an object. In a wider sense, the form is the way
something is or happens. Formwork is the term given to either temporary or permanent molds into
which concrete or similar materials are poured. In the context of concrete construction, the falsework
supports the shuttering molds. Formwork comes in several types:
Traditional timber formwork. The formwork is built on site out of timber and plywood or moisture-
resistant particleboard. It is easy to produce but time-consuming for larger structures, and the plywood
facing has a relatively short lifespan. It is still used extensively where the labour costs are lower than the
costs for procuring reusable formwork. It is also the most flexible type of formwork, so even where
other systems are in use, complicated sections may use it.
Engineered Formwork System. This formwork is built out of prefabricated modules with a metal frame
(usually steel or aluminium) and covered on the application (concrete) side with material having the
wanted surface structure (steel, aluminum, timber, etc.). The two major advantages of formwork
systems, compared to traditional timber formwork, are speed of construction (modular systems pin,
clip, or screw together quickly) and lower life-cycle costs (barring major force, the frame is almost
indestructible, while the covering if made of wood; may have to be replaced after a few - or a few dozen
- uses, but if the covering is made with steel or aluminium the form can achieve up to two thousand uses
depending on care and the applications).
Re-usable plastic formwork. These interlocking and modular systems are used to build widely variable,
but relatively simple, concrete structures. The panels are lightweight and very robust. They are
especially suited for low-cost, mass housing schemes.
Permanent Insulated Formwork. This formwork is assembled on site, usually out of insulating concrete
forms (ICF). The formwork stays in place after the concrete has cured, and may provide advantages in
terms of speed, strength, superior thermal and acoustic insulation, space to run utilities within the EPS
layer, and integrated furring strip for cladding finishes.
Stay-In-Place structural formwork systems. This formwork is assembled on site, usually out of
prefabricated fiber-reinforced plastic forms. These are in the shape of hollow tubes, and are usually
used for columns and piers. The formwork stays in place after the concrete has cured and acts as axial
and shear reinforcement, as well as serving to confine the concrete and prevent against environmental
effects, such as corrosion and freeze-thaw cycles.
Flexible formwork - In contrast to the rigid moulds described above, flexible formwork is a system that
uses lightweight, high strength sheets of fabric to take advantage of the fluidity of concrete and create
highly optimised, architecturally interesting, building forms. Using flexible formwork it is possible to cast
optimised structures that use significantly less concrete than an equivalent strength prismatic section,[1]
thereby offering the potential for significant embodied energy savings in new concrete structures.
UNIT 2
ARCH
1. An arch is a curved structure that spans a space and may or may not
support weight above it.Arch may be synonymous with vault, but a
vault may be distinguished as a continuous arch forming a roof.
Arches appeared as early as the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamian
brick architecture,and their systematic use started with the Ancient
Romans who were the first to apply the technique to a wide range of
structures. An arch is a pure compression form.
2. It can span a large area by resolving forces into compressive stresses
and, in turn eliminating tensile stresses. This is sometimes referred to
as arch action.As the forces in the arch are carried to the ground, the
arch will push outward at the base, called thrust.
3. As the rise, or height of the arch decreases, the outward thrust
increases. In order to maintain arch action and prevent the arch from
collapsing, the thrust needs to be restrained, either with internal ties
or external bracing, such as abutments.
4. An arch is held in place by the weight of all of its members, making
construction problematic. One answer is to build a frame
(historically, of wood) which exactly follows the form of the
underside of the arch. This is known as a centre or centring.
Voussoirs are laid on it until the arch is complete and self-supporting.
5. For an arch higher than head height, scaffolding would be required,
so it could be combined with the arch support. Occasionally, arches
would fall down when the frame was removed if construction or
planning had been incorrect.
Types of arches:
Arches are constructed in four basic shapes that frame and support doors,
windows, porches, and other wall openings:
Flat arch
Triangular arch
Round arch
Pointed arch
Flat arch:
An arch having a horizontal intrados with voussoirs radiating from a centre
below, often built with a slight camber to allow settling is called a flat or
jack arch.
French arch: A flat arch with voussoirs inclined to the same angle at each
side of the centre. The mortar joints do not, therefore, radiate to a
common centre. Not, technically, a proper arch, and of weak form.
Triangular arch:
It is a primitive form of arch consisting of two stones laid diagonally to
support each other over an opening. Hence, the span is limited by the size
of the available material.
VAULTS:
Vaults
A Vault (The parts of a vault exert a thrust that require a counter resistance.
When vaults are built underground, the ground gives all the resistance
required. However, when the vault is built above ground, various
replacements are employed to supply the needed resistance. An example
are the thicker walls used in the case of barrel or continuous
vaults. Buttresses are used to supply resistance when intersecting v
The simplest kind of vault is the barrel vault (also called a wagon or tunnel
vault) which is generally semicircular in shape. The barrel vault is a
continuous arch, the length being greater than its diameter. As in building
an arch, a temporary support is needed while rings of voussoirs are
constructed and the rings placed in position. Until the topmost voussoir,
the keystone, is positioned the vault is not self-supporting.
Types of vaults:
Barrel Vault:A barrel vault is the simplest of the vaults and is the base
design for many vaults that have a more intricate design. It consists of an
on-going series of semi-circular arches. One is directly behind another,
causing it to look like a half of a barrel. In some instances, it is described as
resembling a tunnel.
Groin Vault:A groin vault is created by two barrel vaults intersecting at right
angles. The arches of groin vaults are round or pointed. It is also known as a
cross vault.
Rib Vault:A vault reinforced by masonry ribs is known as a rib vault. When
this type of vault has two masonry ribs dividing it into four sections, it is
called a quadripartite rib vault. A vault divided by three masonry ribs that
make six sections is called a sexpartite rib vault.
DOMES:
Domes are curved architectonic structures
with no angles or corners, similar to the
upper half of a sphere. Despite their
apparent fragility, domes are strong
structures and have been used in buildings
since ancient times, according to PBS
Online. In Europe, the earliest domes
were made of stone. The Roman
Pantheon, built almost 2,000 years ago, is
a good example of early dome engineering. Indigenous peoples in Ethiopia
and other places have used curved bows to create their huts, creating a
primitive yet effective dome
Trusses
. Rigid frame structures are built at the site which may or may not be
poured monolithically.
. Rigid frame structures provide more stability.
. Rigid frame structures resist rotations more effectively
Advantages
Rigid frame structures feature positive and negative bending moments
throughout the structure due to interaction of walls, beams and slabs.
Braced frame structures
Advantages of Frames:
Optimum use of floor space.
Easy construction.
Rapid construction.
Economical for high rise buildings.
Erected by steel and/or reinforced concrete
Disadvantages
Generally, frames are flexible structures and lateral deflections control the
design process for buildings with greater than about 4 stories. The concrete
frames are 8 times stiffer than steel frames of the same strength.
Span lengths are limited when using normal reinforced concrete (generally
less than about 13 m, but up to about 15 m).
UNIT 3
Defining structures
Defining structures
Generally speaking: structures form parts of a work of architecture
Structures are closely related to architecture, space and expression
Structures can form the envelope, may control the inflow of daylight,
potentially control the relation between the inside and the outside etc.
Architects must have the skills to design a large scope of projects, from a
stadium to a residential house. Many architectural works are also seen as
cultural and political symbols, or works of art. The role of the architect,
though changing, has been central to the design and implementation of the
environments in which people live.
Equilibrium
Basic Concepts
The space frame can be formed either in a flat or a curved surface. The earliest
form of space frame structures is a single layer grid. By adding intermediate
grids and including rigid connecting to the joist and girder framing system, the
single layer grid is formed. The major characteristic of grid construction is the
Omni-directional spreading of the load as opposed to the linear transfer of the
load in an ordinary framing system. Since such load transfer is mainly by
bending, for larger spans, the bending stiffness is increased most efficiently by
going to a double layer system. The load transfer mechanism of curved surface
space frame is essentially different from the grid system that is primarily
membrane-like action.
Space frames are double layered grids, excellent in appearance with large
column free spaces. All type of elegant shape could be made by these systems
using variety of grids. Two-way actions of space frames provide both economy
and enormous spanning capability.
SHELLS
A shell is a type of structural element which is characterized by its geometry,
being a three-dimensional solid whose thickness is very small when compared
with other dimensions, and in structural terms, by the stress resultants
calculated in the middle plane displaying components which are both coplanar
and normal to the surface. Essentially, a shell can be derived from a plate by
two means: by initially forming the middle surface as a singly or doubly curved
surface and by applying loads which are coplanar to a plate's plane which
generate significant stresses.
The most popular types of thin-shell structures are:
1. Concrete shell structures, often cast as a monolithic dome or stressed
ribbon bridge or saddle roof
2. Lattice shell structures, also called grid shell structures, often in the form
of a geodesic dome or a hyperboloid structure
3. Membrane structures, which include fabric structures and other tensile
structures, cable domes, and pneumatic structures.
Types and Forms of Shell Structure
Folded Plates /Barrel Vaults/ Short Shells /Domes of Revolution/ Folded Plate
Domes /Intersection Shells/ Warped Surfaces /Combinations Shell Arches3
Barrel Shells
1. The elements of a barrel shell are: (1) The cylinder, (2) The frame or ties
at the ends, including the columns, and (3) The side elements, which may
be a cylindrical element, a folded plate element, columns, or all
combined. For the shell shown in the sketch, the end frame is solid and
the side element is a vertical beam.
2. A barrel shell carries load longitudinally as a beam and transversally as an
arch. The arch, however, is supported by internal shears, and so may be
calculated. The elements of a folded plate structure are similar to those
of a barrel shell except that all elements are planar, and the moments in
the slab elements are affected by the differential movement of the joints.
3. The elements of a short shell are the barrel, which is relatively short
compared to radius, the element at the base of the cylinder to pick up
the arch loads, and the arches or rigid frame to pick up the entire
ensemble. In this case it is a rigid frame arch.
4. The size of the arch could have been reduced by horizontal ties at the
springings. There may be multiple spans. The short shell carries loads in
two ways: (1) As an arch carrying load to the lower elements. and (2) As
as a curved beam to the arches. The thickness of the shell can be quite
thin due to these properties.
Translation Shells
1. A translation shell is a dome set on four arches. The shape is different
from a spherical dome and is generated by a vertical circle moving on
another circle. All vertical slices have the same radius. It is easier to form
than a spherical dome.
2. The stresses in a translation shell are much like a dome at the top, but at
the level of the arches, tension forces are offset by compression in the
arch. However there are high tension forces in the corner.
Advantages of Concrete Shells
1. Like the arch, the curved shapes often used for concrete shells are
naturally strong structures, allowing wide areas to be spanned without
the use of internal supports, giving an open, unobstructed interior. The
use of concrete as a building material reduces both materials cost and a
construction cost, as concrete is relatively inexpensive and easily cast into
compound curves.
2. The resulting structure may be immensely strong and safe; modern
monolithic dome houses, for example, have resisted hurricanes and fires,
and are widely considered to be strong enough to withstand even F5
tornadoes.
Disadvantages of Concrete Shells
1. Since concrete is porous material, concrete domes often have issues with
sealing. If not treated, rainwater can seep through the roof and leak into
the interior of the building.
2. On the other hand, the seamless construction of concrete domes
prevents air from escaping, and can lead to buildup of condensation on
the inside of the shell. Shingling or sealants are common solutions to the
problem of exterior moisture, and dehumidifiers or ventilation can
address condensation.
Cable-
stiffen
ed cantilever roof. The structure is several 100%
stronger than the cantilever on its own. The cable provides the tensile
component of the resistant moment, so that the cantilever becomes the
compression member, and the distance between the cantilever & cable of the
support provides the lever arm of the resistance moment.
MATERIALS:
Steel, nylon ropes or plasticated cables may be used for different structures.
1. Steel Cables: The high tensile strength of steel combined
with the efficiency of simple tension, makes a steel cable the
ideal structural element to span large distances.
2. Nylon and plastics are suitable only for temporary
structures, spanning small distances.Other structural
members like masts, compression rings, arches or beams
and compression struts may be of concrete or steel
preferably. Struts may also be of timber.Suspension Cables,
because of their being stressed only by simple tension – with
regard to weight/span are the most economical system of
spanning space.
Suspension cables are the elementary idea for any bearing mechanism and
consequently the very symbol of man s technical Seizure of space.
In piping, struts restrain movement of a component in one direction
while allowing movement or contraction in another direction.Strut
channel made from steel, aluminium, or fibre-reinforced plastic is used
heavily in the building industry and is often used in the support of cable
trays and other forms of cable management, and pipes support systems.
Strut is a common name in timber framing for a support or brace of
scantlings lighter than a post. Frequently struts are found in roof framing
from either a tie beam or a king post to a principal rafter. Struts may be
vertically plumb or leaning (then called canted, raking, or angled) and
may be straight or curved. Strutting or blocking between floor joists adds
strength to the floor system.
CURTAIN WALLS
Curtain walling is a form of vertical building enclosure which supports no load other than
its own weight that of ancillary components and the environmental forces which act upon
it.Although the term is sometimes restricted to metal framed curtain walls, the above
definition embraces many different construction methods and materials including non-load
bearing precast concrete.
The curtain wall façade does not carry any dead load weight from the building other than its own
dead load weight. The wall transfers horizontal wind loads that are incident upon it to the main
building structure through connections at floors or columns of the building. A curtain wall is
designed to resist air and water infiltration, sway induced by wind and seismic forces acting on the
building and its own dead load weight forces.
Curtain walls are typically designed with extruded aluminium members, although the first curtain
walls were made of steel. The aluminium frame is typically infilled with glass, which provides an
architecturally pleasing building, as well as benefits such as daylighting. However, parameters related
to solar gain control such as thermal comfort and visual comfort are more difficult to control when
using highly-glazed curtain walls. Other common infills include: stone veneer, metal panels, louvers,
and operable windows or vents.
Classification:
Curtain walls can be classified by their method of fabrication and installation into the
following general categories: stick systems and unitized or modular systems.
In the stick system, the curtain wall frame (mullions) and glass or opaque panels are installed
and connected together piece by piece.
In the unitized system, the curtain wall is composed of large units that are assembled and
glazed in the factory, shipped to the site and erected on the building. Vertical and horizontal
mullions of the modules mate together with the adjoining modules. Modules are generally
constructed one story tall and one module wide but may incorporate multiple modules.
Typical units are five to six feet wide.
Both the unitized and stick-built systems are designed to be either interior or exterior
glazed systems. Interior and exterior glazed systems offer different advantages and
disadvantages. Interior glazed systems allow for glass or opaque panel installation into the
curtain wall openings from the interior of the building. Details are not provided for interior
glazed systems because air infiltration is a concern with interior glazed systems. Interior
glazed systems are typically specified for applications with limited interior obstructions to
allow adequate access to the interior of the curtain wall. For low rise construction with easy
access to the building, outside glazing is typically specified. For high-rise construction
interior glazing is sometimes used due to access and logistics of replacing glass from a swing
stage.
STICK
Likely most common wall system especially on low-rise construction and in smaller
population centres
• Each component of wall is installed piece by piece in the field. Installed with one- or two
storey mullion lengths and horizontal rails equal in length to width of the infill panels
• Field labour intensive and dependent & Often utilize standard system
• Minimum requirements for assembly facilities and shipping
• Normally short lead time to arrive on-site,but longer erection/close-in time on-site
• Difficult to accommodate in-plane movements due to sway or seismic events
UNITIZED
• Most common to large high-rise buildings although found on buildings as low as four
stories. System has grown in popularity since 1980
• Large factory assembled framed units complete with spandrel panels and often with vision
lights installed. Panels typically one-storey high by width of infill panels
• Panels designed for sequential installation with interlocking split vertical mullions and
nesting horizontal rails at expansion joint • Significant fabrication facility and shipping
requirement. More shop labour dependant and less field dependant than stick system
• Normally longer lead time to arrive on-site, but rapid erection with minimum time to close
in building once on-site
• Design potential to accommodate in-plane movements due to sway and seismic events
Infill refers to the large panels that are inserted into the curtain wall between mullions.
Infill’s are typically glass but may be made up of nearly any exterior building element.
Regardless of the material, infills are typically referred to as glazing. More commonly this
trade is now known as Fenestration.
Glass
By far the most common glazing type, glass can be of an almost infinite combination of
colour, thickness, and opacity. For commercial construction, the two most common
thicknesses are 6 mm monolithic and 25 mm insulating glass. Presently, 1/4 inch glass is
typically used only in spandrel areas, while insulating glass is used for the rest of the
building. The 1 inch insulation glass is typically made up of two 1/4-inch lites of glass with
a 1/2 inch (12 mm) airspace. The air inside is usually atmospheric air, but some inert gases,
such as argon, may be used to offer better thermal transmittance values. In residential
construction, thicknesses commonly used are 3 mm monolithic and 16 mm insulating
glass. Larger thicknesses are typically employed for buildings or areas with higher
thermal, relative humidity, or sound transmission requirements, such as laboratory areas
or recording studios.
Glass may be used which is transparent, translucent, or opaque, or in varying degrees
thereof. Transparent glass usually refers to vision glass in a curtain wall. Spandrel or vision
glass may also contain translucent glass, which could be for security or aesthetic
purposes. Opaque glass is used in areas to hide a column or spandrel beam or shear wall
behind the curtain wall. Another method of hiding spandrel areas is through shadow
box construction (providing a dark enclosed space behind the transparent or translucent
glass). Shadow box construction creates a perception of depth behind the glass that is
sometimes desired.
Stone veneer
Thin blocks of about 75-100 mm of stone can be inset within a curtain wall system to
provide architectural flavour. The type of stone used is limited only by the strength of the
stone and the ability to manufacture it in the proper shape and size. Common stone types used
are granite; marble; travertine; and limestone.
Panels
Metal panels can take various forms including aluminium plate; thin composite panels
consisting of two thin aluminium sheets sandwiching a thin plastic interlayer; and panels
consisting of metal sheets bonded to rigid insulation, with or without an inner metal sheet to
create a sandwich panel. Other opaque panel materials include fibre-reinforced
plastic (FRP), stainless steel, and terracotta.
Louvers
A louver is provided in an area where
mechanical equipment located inside the
building requires ventilation or fresh air to
operate. They can also serve as a means of
allowing outside air to filter into the building
to take advantage of favourable climatic
conditions and minimize the usage of
energy-consuming HVAC systems.
Basic Principles:
Curtain wall systems must be designed to handle all loads imposed on it as well as keep air
and water from penetrating the building envelope.
The loads imposed on the curtain wall are transferred to the building structure through the
anchors which attach the mullions to the building. The building structure design must
account for these loads.
Dead load
Dead load is defined as the weight of structural elements and the permanent features on the
structure. In the case of curtain walls, this load is made up of the weight of the mullions,
anchors and other structural components of the curtain wall, as well as the weight of the
infill material. Additional dead loads imposed on the curtain wall, such as sunshades, must
be accounted for in the design of the curtain wall components and anchors.
Wind load
Wind load acting on the building is the result of wind blowing on the building. This wind
pressure must be resisted by the curtain wall system since it envelops and protects the
building. For each project location, building code specify the required design wind loads.
Often, a wind tunnel study is performed on large or unusually shaped buildings. A scale
model of the building and the surrounding vicinity is built and placed in a wind tunnel to
determine the wind pressures acting on the structure in question. These studies take into
account vortex shedding around corners and the effects of surrounding buildings.
Seismic loads
Seismic loads need to be addressed in the design of curtain wall components and anchors. In
most situations, the curtain wall is able to naturally withstand seismic and wind induced
building sway because of the space provided between the glazing infill and the mullion. In
tests, standard curtain wall systems are able to withstand three inches (75 mm) of relative
floor movement without glass breakage or water leakage. Anchor design needs to be
reviewed, however, since a large floor-to-floor displacement can place high forces on
anchors.
Snow load
Snow loads and live loads are not typically an issue in curtain walls, since curtain walls are
designed to be vertical or slightly inclined. If the slope of a wall exceeds 20 degrees or so,
these loads may need to be considered.
Thermal load
1. Thermal loads are induced in a curtain wall system because aluminium has a
relatively high coefficient of thermal expansion This means that over the span of a
couple of floors, the curtain wall will expand and contract some distance, relative to
its length and the temperature differential.
2. This expansion and contraction is accounted for by cutting horizontal mullions
slightly short and allowing a space between the horizontal and vertical mullions. In
unitized curtain wall, a gap is left between units, which are sealed from air and water
penetration by wiper gaskets.
3. Vertically, anchors carrying wind load only (not dead load) are slotted to account for
movement. Incidentally, this slot also accounts for live load deflection and creep in
the floor slabs of the building structure.
Infiltration
Air infiltration is the air which passes through the curtain wall from the exterior to the
interior of the building. The air is infiltrated through the gaskets, through imperfect joinery
between the horizontal and vertical mullions, through weep holes and through imperfect
sealing. This limit is expressed in cubic feet per minute per square foot of wall area at a given
test pressure. (Currently, most standards cite less than 0.6 CFM/sq ft as acceptable).
Water penetration is defined as any water passing from the exterior of the building through
to the interior of the curtain wall system. Sometimes, depending on the
building specifications, a small amount of controlled water on the interior is deemed
acceptable.
Deflection
Deflection limits are typically expressed as the distance between anchor points divided by
a constant number. A deflection limit of L/175 is common in curtain wall specifications,
based on experience with deflection limits that are unlikely to cause damage to the glass held
by the mullion..
Deflection in mullions is controlled by different shapes and depths of curtain wall
members. The depth of a given curtain wall system is usually controlled by the area moment
of inertia required to keep deflection limits under the specification. Another way to limit
deflections in a given section is to add steel reinforcement to the inside tube of the
mullion. Since steel deflects at 1/3 the rate of aluminium, the steel will resist much of the
load at a lower cost or smaller depth.
Strength
1. Strength available to a particular material is not related to its material stiffness; it is a
separate criterion in curtain wall design and analysis. This often affects the selection
of materials and sizes for design of the system.
2. For instance, a particular shape in aluminium will deflect almost three times as much
as the same steel shape for an equivalent load (see above), though its strength (i.e. the
maximum load it can sustain) may be equivalent or even slightly higher, depending on
the grade of aluminium.
3. Because aluminium is often the material of choice, given its lower unit weight and
better weathering capability as compared with steel, deflection is usually the
governing criteria in curtain wall design.
Thermal criteria
1. Relative to other building components, aluminium has a high heat transfer coefficient,
meaning that aluminium is a very good conductor of heat. This translates into high
heat loss through aluminium curtain wall mullions. There are several ways to
compensate for this heat loss, the most common way being the addition of thermal
breaks.
2. Thermal breaks are barriers between exterior metal and interior metal, usually made
of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). These breaks provide a significant decrease in the
thermal conductivity of the curtain wall.Thermal conductivity of the curtain wall
system is important because of heat loss through the wall, which affects the heating
and cooling costs of the building.
3. On a poorly performing curtain wall, condensation may form on the interior of the
mullions. This could cause damage to adjacent interior trim and walls.
1. Curtain walls and perimeter sealants require maintenance to maximize service life.
Perimeter sealants, properly designed and installed, have a typical service life of 10 to
15 years. Removal and replacement of perimeter sealants require meticulous surface
preparation and proper detailing.
2. Aluminium frames are generally painted or anodized. Factory applied fluoropolymer
thermoset coatings have good resistance to environmental degradation and require
only periodic cleaning. Recoating with an air-dry fluoropolymer coating is possible
but requires special surface preparation and is not as durable as the baked-on original
coating.
3. Anodized aluminium frames cannot be "re-anodized" in place, but can be cleaned and
protected by proprietary clear coatings to improve appearance and durability.Exposed
glazing seals and gaskets require inspection and maintenance to minimize water
penetration, and to limit exposure of frame seals and insulating glass seals to wetting.
Applications
Curtain walls find application in all building types ranging from houses, shopping malls and
other public buildings.