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Materials Adaptation

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MATERILAS ADAPTATION
Vida Hatami & Turaj
Rahimi under the
supervision of Dr.
Farangis Shahidzadeh
1. What Is Adaptation?

2. Effective teaching materials

3. RATIONAL FOR adaptation?

4. REASONS FOR ADAPTATION

5. What Should We Adapt?

6. How Should We Adapt?

7. Principles Of Adaptation

8. Process Of Materials Adaptation From Different Points Of View

9. Techniques Of Adaptation

10.Key Features In Materials Adaptation

11.Conclusion
2
 What is adaptation?

3
✘ Materials development is a very complex
process consisting of several other noticeable and
important processes. “materials development’ refers to all
the processes made use of by practitioners who produce
and/or use materials for language learning, including
materials evaluation, their adaptation, design, production,
exploitation and research” (Tomlinson, 2012).

4
✘ Riazi and Mosallanejad (2010) also express that
“Materials development and evaluation isyoung
a
relatively phenomenon in the field of
language teaching. In the practical sense,it
includes the production, evaluation
and adaptation of materials.”

5
 McDonough, Shaw, and Masuhara (2013) state,

“Adaptation, then, is a process subsequent to, and

dependent on adoption. Furthermore, whereas adoption
is concerned with whole coursebooks, adaptation
concerns the parts that make up that whole” (p. 64).

6
 Ad hoc and principled adaptation
Mishan and Timmis (2015, p. 67) :

It will be useful to make a distinction in our discussion of materials adaptation between

ad hoc adaptation and principled adaptation. Ad hoc adaptation is clearly a common
activity: in many (well-resourced) ELT staffrooms, you will find, for example, teachers
looking through resource books for a particular kind of activity, photocopying newspaper
articles or asking questions .... While such adaptations may be successful, the danger
is that they are driven by teachers’ preferences .... Ideally, principled adaptation will
be informed by prior evaluation of the existing materials.

7
 The purpose of adaptation according to
McDonough, Shaw, and Masuhara (2013):
“to maximize the appropriacy of teaching materials in
context, by changing some of the internal characteristics
of a coursebook to suit our particular circumstances
better.”

8
It is worth getting to know the purposes of
adaptation fromMcGrath’s point of view:
“to make the material more suitable
for the circumstances in which it is used; to
compensate for any intrinsic deficiencies in the
materials”
(McGrath 2002: 62).
Tomlinson (2012) also mentions another
objective of adaptation:
“to make the materials of more value to the
students using them.”

10
 Effective teaching materials

11
Effective teaching materials foster learner autonomy
Crawford (1995) believes that “given the context-dependent nature of language,
no language course can predict all the language needs of learners.”

Effective teaching materials:

• Assist the teacher in catering for a range of learning styles and levels
• Develop their teaching repertoire

 Considering the points above, the importance of effective and well-adapted

materials for enhancing students’ learning is undeniable.

12
 RATIONAL FOR adaptation?

13
 Despite the fact that it seems a relatively under-researched
discipline, in many ways adapting materials is an inevitable
process as it is always carried out as part of classroom practice.
The simple fact of using a piece of teaching/learning materials
inevitably means adapting it to the particular needs of a
specific teaching and learning scenario. In the practice of
language teaching, this has been accepted for quite a long time
now.
(Madsen and Bowen, 1978)
14
✘ No textbook or set of materials is likely to be perfect.
This is inevitable ‘as the needs, objectives,
backgrounds and preferred styles of the
participants differ from context to context’
(Tomlinson, 2003c: 15).

15
McGrath (2002) points out that non-compatibility is inherent
when the materials are not written for particular teaching and
learning context. He also argues for the benefits of
adaptation: appropriate and relevant adapted materials are
likely to increase learner motivation and therefore contribute to
enhanced learning.

16
Most materials, whether they be written for a global market, for
an institution or even for a class, aim to satisfy the needs and
wants of an idealized group of target learners who share similar
needs and levels of proficiency .... No matter how good the
materials are, they will not by themselves manage to cater to
the different needs, wants, learning styles, attitudes, cultural
norms and experiences of individual learners.
(Tomlinson, 2006: 1)

17
“Adaptation of materials is generally acknowledged as

important for meeting learners’ needs”

(McGrath, 2002).

18
✘ “It is more realistic to assume that, however
careful the design of the materials and the
evaluation process, some changes will have
to be made at some level in most
teaching contexts”
(McDonough, Shaw, and Masuhara, 2013, p. 64).

19
✘ Experts who have given advice about adaptation:
 Willis (1996), on ways of changing classroom
management and sequencing to maximize the value
of task-based materials.
 Nunan (1999), on procedures for making materials
more interactive.
 White (1998), on ways of increasing student
participation when using listening materials.

20
✘ Madsen and Bowen (1978) refer to the principle of ‘congruence’,
Effective adaptation is a matter of achieving “congruence”....
The good teacher is constantly striving for congruence
among several related variables: teaching materials,
methodology, students, course objectives, the target language
and its context, and the teacher’s own personality and teaching
style

(Madsen and Bowen, 1978: ix).

 Matching external and internal criteria
“As a starting point for thinking about the process of adaptation,” McDonough,
Shaw, Masuhara (2013) state “it will be useful to extend a little the external
and internal criteria.”
External factors: the overt claims made about materials and the characteristics of
particular teaching situations
Internal factors: concerned with content, organization, and consistency

For instance:
1. Teaching materials may be coherent but not totally applicable in the context:
internal factors are acceptable, but external problem.
2. Materials may be largely appropriate for the teaching situation but show signs
of inconsistent organization: external factors are met, but internal problem.
22
As O'Neill (in Rossner and Bolitho 1990:155-6) suggests:

Textbooks can at best provide only a base or a core Of

materials. A great deal of the most important work in a
class May start with the textbook but end outside it, an
Improvisation and adaptation, in spontaneous Interaction
in the class, and the development of that interaction (emphasis
added).

23
 Many criticized materials for not being
communicative. Candlin & Breen (1980) are among
those who made such claims. As Tomlinson (2012)
states, “Candlin and Breen (1980) criticize published
communicative materials and suggest ways of
adapting them so as to offer more opportunities
for communication.”
 “Grant (1978) suggests and illustrates ways of
making materials more communicative”
(Tomlinson, 2012).
 REASONS FOR ADAPTATION

25
 There might be various reasons for adaptation.
McDonough, Shaw, and Masuhara (2013) offer this list:

✘ Not enough grammar coverage in general

✘ Not enough practice of grammar points of particular difficulty to these
learners
✘ Reading passages contain too much unknown vocabulary
✘ Not enough guidance on pronunciation
✘ Photographs and other illustrative material not culturally acceptable

✘ Dialogues too formal and not representative of everyday speech

26
✘ Cunningsworth (1995) seems to generally agree
with the list above but adds learner perspectives
to his list such as expectations and motivation.

✘ Cunningsworth (1984) also focuses on how to

change materials so that they get the learners to
do what the teacher wants them to do.

27
 Potential reasons for adapting materials
are listed by Cunningsworth (1995, cited in Islam and Mares 2003: 88):

✘ Dynamics of the classroom

✘ Personalities involved
✘ Constraints imposed by syllabuses
✘ Availability of resources
✘ Expectations and motivations of the learners

28
Tomlinson and Masuhara (2004: 12) summarize what factors may trigger
feelings of incongruence among teachers and offer the following list to
take into account when considering possible adaptations to materials:

✘ Teaching contexts (e.g. national, regional, institutional, cultural situations)

✘ Course requirements (e.g. objectives, syllabus, methodology, assessment)
✘ Learners (e.g. age, language, level)

✘ Teachers (e.g. teaching style, belief about learning and teaching)

✘ Materials (e.g. texts, tasks, activities)

29
✘ Mishan and Timmis (2015, p. 69) assert the point: It
is interesting that Tomlinson and Masuhara include
teachers’ preferences. It is certainly true that it is more
difficult to teach with conviction if you yourself don’t
‘believe’ in the materials, but at the same time we need to
be careful of projecting our own preferences onto learners.

30
The list of potential reasons for adaptation
by Islam and Mares (2003)
focuses heavily on learner factors.
✘ To add real choice
✘ To cater for all sensory learning styles
✘ To provide more learner autonomy
✘ To encourage higher level cognitive skills
✘ To make language input more accessible
✘ To make language input more engaging.

31
✘ About the reasons Islam and Mares (2003) consider for
adaptation, Mishan and Timmis (2015) believe that “it should
be perhaps be noted in relation to these aims that some
are more easily achieved than others. Adding choice and
catering for different sensory learning styles may not,
for example, be easily achieved in large classes.”

32
 WHAT SHOULD WE ADAPT?
McGrath (2013: 62-3) produces a list of potential elements that
could
be adapted:

✘
Language (the language of instructions, explanations, examples)
✘ Process (forms of classroom management or interaction)
✘ Content (topics, contexts, cultural references)
✘ Level (Linguistic and cognitive demands on the learner)

33
 how SHOULD WE ADAPT?

34
The prototypical process of adaptation would involve the
following stages (Tomlinson and Masuhara 2004: 15):

✘ Profile of teaching context

✘ Identifying reasons for adaptation
✘ Evaluating the materials (in relation to a specific group or context)
✘ Listing objectives (for a specific group)
✘ Adapting
✘ Teaching
✘ Revising

35
✘ Tomlinson and Masuhara (2004) note that “materials
adaptation is rarely researched or taught on teacher
education courses, so teachers often have to rely simply
on experience or intuition.”

✘ McGrath (2013) notes that “adaptation can vary in timing,

scale and focus: it can be carried out reactively in
response to classroom events or proactively before a
lesson or course. Adaptation can, McGrath points out, be at
the level of activity, unit or course.”

36
✘ Islam and Mares (2003: 86) also stress the scope of the
term ‘adaptation’: “Materials adaptation can span a
range of procedures from adding carefully
contextualised role plays with the objective of providing
more opportunities to communicate to not finishing a
pronunciation drill because of time constraints.”

37
As McGrath (2002) points out, adaptation is not a risk-free enterprise.

Reasons why adaptation is a risky activity:

✘ Learners may not react well to adaptation, either
because they have invested in the coursebook or because
a coursebook gives a certain sense of security and
progression.

✘ Large-scale adaptation may lead to a loss of focus on the original

aims of the course.

38
✘ As Tomlinson and Masuhara (2004) acknowledge, it
may not be necessary for course instructors to go
through all these stages every time they adapt
materials, but it may be a profitable, salutary
exercise from time to time.

39
 principles of adaptation

40
✘ There are some principles behind adaptation:

 We take ‘Personalizing’ to refer to increasing the relevance of

content in relation to learners’ interests and their academic,
educational or professional needs.
 ‘Individualizing’ will address the learning styles both of individuals
and of the members of a class working closely together.
 ‘Localizing’ takes into account the international geography of
English language teaching and recognizes that what may work well in
Mexico city may not do so in Edinburgh or in Kuala Lumpur.

(McDonough, Shaw, and Masuhara, 2013, p. 69).

41
Although McGrath (2013: 66) refers to his list below as ‘principles’ of adaptation, it is
equally valid to see them as reasons for adaptation. Materials should:

✘ Be perceived as relevant by learners (localization)

✘ Be up-to-date (modernization)
✘ Cater for differences in learning styles (individualization)
✘ Encourage learners to speak/wrote about themselves and their own
experiences (personalization)
✘ Engage the whole person (Humanising)
✘ Be appropriate to the learners’ level/offer an appropriate level of challenge
(simplification/complexification/differentiation)
✘ Be varied. (variety)
42
✘ Potential problems with applying some of these principles are noted by
McGrath (2013) himself. In terms of localization, it can be difficult for
course instructors and materials developers to decide what will be
regarded as relevant and interesting in a given context, localization
may be better done locally.

✘ There might be problems with simplification.

Mishan (2005), argues
that “simplification is quite a difficult art and, in some cases, can even
make a text more difficult to understand.”

43
Lo´pez Barrios and Villanueva de Debat (2006) make the case

that “localizing materials has the benefit of familiarity and

connects them to the learners’ world while also matching
local practices and curriculum.”

44
 process of materials adaptation
from different points of view

45
 1teacher-centred
A approach to adaptation
there is obviously a great need to develop such a process further and put it into
practice in a more systematic manner. However , materials adaptation, in the great
majority of cases, is still left to the teachers’ hands, and it is largely based
simply on their intuition and experience. On the one hand, research has, for
decades, stressed the importance of the learner and their role in the
language classroom; many areas of research, have extensively explored and
described the advantages of learner involvement in programme design,
methodology, materials selection and adaptation, since the 1970s and 1980s
(Nunan, 1988; Clarke, 1989). On the other hand, particularly as far as adapting
courses is concerned, learners are traditionally left with a rather passive role.
 2learner-centred
A approach to adaptation

✘ Clarke (1989) provides a typical example of a learner-centred approach to adaptation:

he acknowledges the importance of learner involvement in the adaptation process

and he distinguishes what he calls a Negotiated Syllabus, from an Externally
Imposed Syllabus. The former is internally generated and it is a result of the
product of negotiation between teacher and students. The latter is a syllabus imposed
by an external body such as the teacher, the institution or any other administrat ive
auth or ity. There is, however, a fine line between the Negotiated Syllabus and the
Externally Imposed Syllabus in the sense that the former turns out, very often, to also
be an imposed syllabus for the reasons given below.
47
 2learner-centred
A approach to adaptation
✘ In Negotiated Syllabus ;However, generally in this case, the teacher’s input
tends to
become the dominant one, accepted by the learners as the ‘right one’ and the
one to follow, whereas the learners’ ideas on adapting materials are very often
perceived to be ‘wrong’ if different from those of the teacher. This still comes from
the traditional, teacher-centred concept of teachers feeding knowledge to the
class; hence the learner’s role in this process is still rather limited and not truly
learner- centered.

✘ Islam and Mares (2003), and Saraceni (2003) advocate learner-centered

adaptation.

48
✘ A different approach to adaptation is taken by Saraceni
(2003), who advocates providing the learners with an
important role in adapting the materials they are using.
In order to involve learners in the process, she proposes
that materials should actually be written with learner
adaptation in mind, aiming to be learner-centered, flexible,
open-ended, relevant, universal, and authentic, and
giving choices to learners.
Adopted from Tomlinson (2012)

49
 ✘ The use of digital audio and video, the internet, blogs, wikis, Virtual
ibilities of the adaptation and creation of a broad range of language-learning materials into the han

(Motteram, 2011, p. 304). Therefore, the use of technology shifts the

nature of materials from artefact to process and, as such, can place

the learner squarely at the centre of materials in a way that
traditional materials have not been able to.

50
 Other potential benefits of digital materials
Mentioned by Motteram (2011, cited in Tomlinson, 2012):

 Localized adaptation of materials

 Free source of a variety of authentic text
 Out-of-class opportunities for spoken interaction between learners
 Development of digital literacy
 Choice of routes and activities

51
 3 Adaptation as critical awareness development

✘ the learner is given the opportunity of sharing the ownership of the

classroom and of the materials used in the classroom, with the
teacher. Therefore, learners participate in the adaptation process
and also provide classroom input. This is so that, gradually they
share control of what happens in the classroom, hence also over their
own learning. In this context, adapting courses can be used as an
awarenes s development activity (Tomlinson, 2003a, 2003b

52
 The benefits of engagement of learners in adaptation process
according to Saraceni (2010):
✘ Facilitates learner involvement
✘ Empowers learners to develop their critical thinking

✘ Saraceni (2010) also states that “This process of awareness

development can only be achieved rather slowly and gradually,
getting the learner used to sharing control of the lesson with
their teacher, who takes the roles of co-ordinator and facilitator.”

53
 techniques of adaptation

54
 Adding

Deleting

Modifying

Simplifying

and Reordering

could be named as the techniques of adaptation.

(McDonough, Shaw, and Masuhara, 2013)

 Adding
 by this notion we mean materials are supplemented
by putting more into them.

✘ Two types of addition:

1. Extending: supply more of the same material, in
the existing framework

2. Expanding: add to the methodology, developing

new directions, out of the framework of current
materials
56
 Deleting or omitting
 The opposite of addition process:

✘ Two types of deletion:

1.Subtracting: reducing the length
2. Abridging: has greater change

57
 Modifying
 Internal change in the approach or focus of an exercise:

✘ Two types of modifying:

1.Rewriting: when some of the content needs modification

2. Restructuring: applies to classroom management

58
✘ Simplifying: applicable to reading passages, a kind
of modification (rewriting)

✘ Features of simplification:
• Coherence is retained.
• Contain remains undistorted.

 What to simplify?
• Instructions
• Sentence and grammatical structures
• Explanations 59
✘ Reordering:
Putting the parts of a coursebook in a
different order.

60
 Match or congruence

’External’ criteria ‘I nternal’ criteria

0
neecl to

localize personalize individualize etc.

by means of

Techniques

lfe;sublinéin, £é1$ adding deleting modifying simplifyinjg reordering

applied to

Content areas

language texts skills classroom etc.

practice management
 key features
in materials adaptation

62
learner-centredness and critical awareness development
The teaching and learning context should be considered as a
whole, whereby we talk about learner empowerment (Maley, 1998)
rather than learner under involvement (Allwright, 1978, adapting courses
611981).
Developing critical awareness of learning and teaching is the main
aim of adapting and evaluating courses ; learners can become,
gradually, the main input providers, whereas the teacher’s role is
simply that of facilitator, co-ordinator and monitor.
 flexibility and choice
Materials should be flexible, in the sense that they
should provide learners with the possibility of
choosing different activities, tasks,
projects and approaches, thus of
adapting the materials to their own learning needs.
(Tomlinson. 2013)

64
 According to Crawford (1995), “Materials need to be
flexible enough to cater for individual and
contextual differences,” he continues, “it is essential
for teachers to recognize the different backgrounds,
experiences and learning styles that students bring
to the language classroom.”

65
 open-endedness and aesthetic experience
✘ If materials allow only one possible right answer, they do not leave space for
interpretation and adaptation, whereas if they are open-ended they can
become
more relevant to learners. In many ways this is related to the concept of
Aesthetic Experience, an idea which originated from the theory of Aesthetic
Response as put forward by Rosenblatt (1995).

✘ Aesthetic Response refers to the process of reacting spontaneously when

reading literary texts, hence it involves interaction between readers, language and
texts (Iser, 1978; Hirvela, 1996)

66
 open-endedness and aesthetic experience
✘AestheticExperience,
therefore, typically represents the immediate
response to language and literature experienced by the receiver
and the producer, as well as their later interpretations and
reactions. Literature and Aesthetic Experience are inevitably part
of a subjective process which is created every time the text is
read or written. Reading and interpretation are always different:
we have different reactions every time we aesthetically
experience a poem, a novel, etc. (Saraceni, 2010).

67
 open-endedness and aesthetic experience

✘ Aesthetic Experience (Rosenblatt, 1994, 1995; Saraceni, 2010) promotes

the subjectivity of texts and their various interpretations. If
materials present open spaces or gaps (Eco, 1993, 1995), they can
allow learners to form their own interpretations and ideas and,
therefore, to take control of the adaptation process.

68
 relevance

 In an attempt to draw a link between the adaptation process

and reading, materials left open-ended have the potential to
become relevant to the learners when they fill those gaps with
their ideas, interpretations and discussions. It is only at this
level that materials acquire significance and become
potentially beneficial for the learners.

(Tomlinson. 2013)

69
 According to Lee, it is the interplay between these factors that

contributes to learner authenticity, which occurs when materials

“engage the learner’s interest and impress him (sic) as being in some way relevant to his concerns

(Widdowson,1978, p. 90).

70
 universality
✘ Materials should be based on universally appealing topics, which are
culturally provoking in the sense that they are culturally specific but, at
the same time, they are present in all cultures. A rich source of this type
of topics comes from Literature, which typically involves themes based
on life experiences, feelin gs, relationsh ips. These are present in all cultures
but they can be looked at from different angles and experienced in
different ways. Universality of topics provides a stimulus for discussion and
it enables learners to focus on and gain a better understanding of
cultural differences as well as cultural commonalities (Jiang, 2000)

71
 authentic and non-authentic input
The term authentic materials have been defined in different ways
throughout the literature.

✘ Nunan (1989, as cited in Adams, 1995) states that “authentic

materials are not always produced for the purpose of language teaching.”

✘ Little et al. (1988, as cited in Guariento & Morley, 2001) declare that
“authentic materials are used for some social purposes in the
language context where they are produced.”

72
 authentic and non-authentic input
✘ Bacon and Finnemann (1990) also state that authentic materials are
those texts which are made by native speakers for non-
pedagogical
purposes. At the same time, there should also be a combination of
authentic and non-authentic tasks, based on realistic scenarios, in
order to expose the learners to realistic input. In my view a significant
role is played by the use of non-authentic tasks with authentic texts.
For example, tasks which aim at drawing the learners’ attention to
certain linguistic features of the input with activities based on texts
selected from authentic sources, can be beneficial for language
awareness development.

73
“Implementing authentic speech in classroom listening allows
studentstohave"immediateanddirectcontactwithinputdata
whichreflectgenuine communication in the target language“

(Breen, 1985, p. 63).

74
 Akbari and Razavi (2015)

carried out a study about the attitudes of teachers

toward using authentic materials and supported the
effectiveness of authentic materials in the process of
teaching and learning.

75
“The results revealed that all of the teachers had
positive attitudes toward providing authentic input
in their classes….the reason for such an attitude was to
improve students’ skills and expose them to the real
English language”

(Akbari and Razavi, 2015).

76
 Authenticity of texts and tasks
✘ Trabelsi (2010) argues for providing university students with
materials which are authentic because they ‘are tailored to
the learners’ profile and are suitable to the stakeholders’...
expectations and demands’ (p. 116).

✘ Trabelsi (2010) has also raised the issue of authenticity in

relation to the learners’ culture. What might be authentic for
one location (or for one learner) might not be authentic for
another.

77
 provocative topics and tasks

 Materials should include topics and activities that can

potentially provoke a reaction, hence an aesthetic
experience (whether it be positive or negative) that is
personal and subjective
(Tomlinson. 2013)

78
 Saraceni (2003)
✘ also stresses that offering provocative topics and aesthetic experience
can facilitate learner adaptation. She criticizes published materials for
being, for example, trivial, stereotypical and un-motivating, and provides
an example of
materials designed so that they can be adapted by the learners using them (as
does Wajnryb 1996).

✘ A similar line is taken by Jolly & Bolitho (2011), who propose a dynamic
approach to materials writing and adaptation which involves teachers as
materials writers
trialing their materials with their classes and then modifying them to take
account
of student feedback and suggestions.
- Cited in Tomlinson (2012)

79
 Conclusion

80
 Conclusion
✘ In the last forty years materials development has progressed
dramatically, both as an academic field and as a practical
undertaking. We are now much more aware of the principles and
procedures of materials development that are most likely to
facilitate language acquisition and development and are much better
at actually developing effective materials. Teachers also seem to
be more constructively critical of their coursebooks and to be
more willing, confident and able to localize and personalize their
coursebooks for their learners.
- Tomlinson (2012)
 Conclusion

✘ Many researchers and experts have prognosticate

the future of the materials development. Among
them is Tomlinson who believes materials will
become increasingly digital or electronic .

82
 Conclusion
Tomlinson (2012) states that:
What I think will happen in the future is that materials will
increasingly be delivered electronically through computers
and smartphones, that commercially produced materials will
continue to provide users with the materials they expect and
that more and more institutions and countries will decide
that the only way to develop locally appropriate
materials is to do it themselves.

83
THANKS!
Any questions?
You can find us at:
&

84
 References:
• Cunningsworth, A. (1995). Choosing Your Coursebook. London: Longman

• Crawford, J. (1995). The Role of Materials in the Language Classroom: Finding the Balance. TESOL in

Context 5.1

• Islam, C. and C. Mares (2003). Adapting classroom materials. In B. Tomlinson (ed): Developing

• Materials for Language Teaching. London: Continuum, 86-100.

• Madsen, K. S. and J. D. Bowen (1978). Adaptation in Language Teaching. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

• McGrath, I. (2002). Materials Evaluation and Design for Language Teaching. Edinburgh:

Edinburgh University Press.

(2013). Teaching Materials and

I. • McGrath, the Roles of EFL/ESL Teachers. London: Bloomsbury.
85
References:
• Mishan, F. (2005). Designing Authenticity into Language Learning Materials. Bristol: Intellect.
• Saraceni, C. (2003): Adapting courses: a critical view. In Tomlinson (ed): Developing
Materials for

• Language Teaching. London: Continuum, 72-85

• Saraceni, C. (2010). Readings. An Investigation of the Role of Aesthetic Response in

the Reading of Narrative Literary Texts. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Leeds: Leads
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86
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• Tomlinson, B. (2003c): Materials evaluation. In B. Tomlinson (ed) Developing

Materials for Language Teaching. London: Continuum, 15-36.

• Tomlinson, B. and H. Masuhara (2004): Developing Language Course Materials.

Singapore: RELC.
• Materials and methods in ELT: a teacher’s guide/ Jo McDonough, Christopher Shaw, and
Hitomi Masuhara. -Third edition

• Materials development for TESOL, Freda Mishan and Ivor Timmis, 2015/ Edinburgh
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