Brief Intro.

about Myself

Ed
Educational
ti l Background:
B k d

Heat Treatment Technology 1997 – 2001: B.E. (Metallurgy), V. Regional College of Engineering (currently NIT), Nagpur
2001 – 2003: M.Tech. (Process Meta.), Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
2003 – 2006: Ph.D. (Physical Meta.), Max-Planck Institute for Metals Research, Stuttgart, Germany

Professional Experience:

Dr. Santosh S. Hosmani • Assistant Professor, Dept. Metallurgy & Materials Science, College of Engineering, Pune, India.
• Assistant Professor, Dept. of Applied Mechanics, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India.
• Lecturer, Dept. of Metallurgical & Materials Engineering, National Institute of Technology –
Karnataka, Surathkal, India.
• Postdoctoral researcher, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve
University, U.S.A..
University USA

DEPT. METALLURGY & MATERIALS SCIENCE, • Postdoctoral researcher, Max-Planck-Institute for Metals Research, Stuttgart, Germany.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE

GRADING / EXAMINATION SCHEME:

MT- 202: HEAT TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
Max. Marks
Max Weightage
Test – 1 20 20%
LECTURES: 3 hrs/week Test – 2 20 20%
End Sem Exam 100 60%
FACULTY: Dr. Santosh S. Hosmani
** Note: Quiz can be surprise quiz OR Quizzes can be held on
p of Metallurgy
Dept. gy & Materials Science,, short notice. Therefore,, continuous study
y and attendance is
COE, Pune desired.

Email: ssh.meta@coep.ac.in • Minimum passing marks for this course is 40%.

Phone (use only in case of emergency plz): 9762316594 • Total attendance requirement is as per the institute rules. Any
kind of proxy is strictly prohibited.
OFFICE HOURS: Open • Quiz/Exam will not be conducted again if anyone is absent.
• Depending upon the requirement of the course,
Assignments/Home-work could be given. However, there will be no
weightage for the assignments in this course.

3 4
 Introduction of the course SYLLABUS: Few copies are circulated. Please photocopy it.

TEXT BOOKS:
9 In many engineering applications, steels are the most preferred material. There • Heat Treatment of Metals, Vijendra Singh, 2007, Standard Publishers and
are various types of steels which are evolved from the requirements of the Distributors, New Delhi
engineering components. ‘Requirements’ is directly linked to desired properties. • R.A. Higgins, Engineering Metallurgy, Part I, App. Physical Met, ELBS, 5th
9 Properties can be manipulated by altering the chemistry of the alloy and/or by ed., 1983
mechanical treatments and/or by giving appropriate heat-treatments.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
9 As a metallurgical engineer,
engineer literacy about the heat-treatment
heat treatment technology –
• Steel and its Heat Treatment -K.E Thelning, Butterworth, London
processing & fundamental concepts – is very essential. This knowledge teaches
• Handbook of Heat Treatment of Steels – Prabhudev-Tata Mc Graw Hill.
the intelligent use of the existing grade of steel for a particular application.
New Delhi, 1988
9 Heat
Heat-treatment
treatment technology touches many important applications in automobile • Heat Treatment of Ferrous Alloys,
Alloys Brooks,
Brooks Washington: Hemisphere Pub.,
Pub
sectors. 1979
9 The course is mainly intended to teach the fundamental concepts of heat-
treatment and metallurgy of the some important iron-based alloys.
alloys
=> You are encouraged
g to read also the other books available in the library.
y

9 Note: There are some topics in the syllabus which does not need class-room => Whenever lectures are in power-point-presentations, pdf-files of the
teaching and therefore, those topics will be given as individual assignments slides will be provided to you by email.
(which could be followed by ppt-presentation by you).
you)
Friendly suggestion: Please learn to make good class-notes.
5 6

What is the main objectives of education…?

To make your education relevant w.r.t. job opportunities, you must
have the following qualities:

9 Creating ability
Some Basics – revision of the concepts
9 Evaluating ability
portance

9 Analyzing ability
Level of Imp

9 Applying ability

9 Understanding ability

9 Remembering ability
7 8
 Family trees: organizing materials and processes The materials tree – Classification of materials

It is conventional to classify the materials of engineering into the six

broad families:

• Each family of materials has its own characteristic profile—the ‘family

family
likeness’—useful to know when deciding which family to use for a given
design.

• Choosing a material is only half the story. The other half is the choice of a
process route to shape, join and finish it.

• Choice of material and process are tightly coupled: a given material can be
processed in some ways but not others, and a given process can be applied to
some materials but not to others.

There
h is sense in this
h classification:
l f the
h members
b off a family
f l have
h certain features
f in
common: similar properties, similar processing routes and, often, similar applications.
9 10

Metals:
• They have relatively high stiffness (modulus, E).
The families can be expanded further into classes,
classes subclasses and members,
members
each of which is characterized by a set of attributes: its properties….. • Most, when pure, are soft and easily deformed, meaning that σy is low.
• They can be made strong by alloying and by mechanical and heat treatment,
increasing σy, but they remain ductile,
ductile allowing them to be formed by
deformation processes.
• And, broadly speaking, they are tough, with a usefully high fracture toughness
K1c. They
h are goodd electrical
l i l andd thermal
h l conductors.
d
• But metals have weaknesses too: they are reactive; most corrode rapidly if not
p
protected.

11 12
 Stiffness and strength are central to mechanical design, often in
combination with the density, ρ. It is the plasticity of iron and steel that made them the structural materials
on which the Industrial Revolution was built…
What is the stiffness?
It is the resistance to change of shape that is elastic,
elastic
meaning that the material returns to its original shape 1806–1859
when the stress is removed. Stiffness is measured by
the elastic modulus E. British
Engineer
E reflects stiffness, S, of the bonds that hold them
together. But, remember that E ≠ S
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
Thomas Telford He was perhaps the greatest engineer of the
What is the strength?
(1757–1834) Industrial Revolution in terms of design
It is material’s resistance to permanent distortion or total S tti h engineer
Scottish i ability personality,
ability, personality power of execution
failure. Strength is measured by the elastic limit σy or
tensile strength σts.
Engineering achievements of these two engineers were possible because of
the plasticity of iron and steel.
Note: Stress and strain are not ‘material properties’. 13 14

1806–1859
The dominance of steels in
British
Engineer engineering, derives from their ability
t be
to b rolled,
ll d forged,
f d drawn
d and d
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
stamped.

Great Eastern
Launched: 31 Jan. 1858

‘great things are not 
done by those who 
simply count the cost’
15 16
 Strength, plastic work and ductility Strength, plastic work and ductility
• Yield strength σy: For metals,
metals the
onset of plasticity is not always
for Metals for Metals
distinct so we identify σy with the
0.2% proof stress that is, the stress
stress—that
at which the stress–strain curve for
axial loading deviates by a strain of
0.2% from the linear elastic line. It is
the same in tension and
compression.
• When strained beyond the yield point,
point
most metals work harden, causing
the rising part of the curve, until a
maximum,, the tensile strength,
g , is
reached.
• This is followed in tension by non-
uniform deformation (necking) and
fracture.
17 How stress‐strain curve looks like for metals in compression? 18

Strength, plastic work and ductility The origins of strength and ductility – Fundamentals

• Stress-strain
Stress strain diagrams for Perfection: the ideal strength
compression have different shapes • The bonds between atoms, like any other spring, have a breaking point. 
from those for tension. for Metals

• Ductile metals have proportional

limits in compression very close to Figure: Stress–strain curve for a
those in tension. However, when single bond.
yielding begins,
begins the behavior is quite
different.
• When a small specimen of ductile
material is compressed,
compressed it begins to • Here an atom is assumed to occupy a cube of side ao so that a force F corresponds
to a stress = F/ao2.
bulge outward on the sides and
become barrel shaped. With • The force stretches the bond from its initial length ao to a new length a, giving a
increasing load,
load the specimen is strain = (a – ao)/ao.
flattened out, thus offering increased
• In case of the modulus we focused on the initial, linear part of this curve, with a
resistance to further shortening
slope equal to the modulus, E. Stretched further, the curve passes through a
((which means the stress-strain maximum and sinks to zero as the atoms lose communication.
communication The peak is the
curve goes upward). bond strength—if you pull harder than this it will break.
Ref.: Department of Civil Engineering at the University of Memphis 19 20
 Perfection: the ideal strength Perfection: the ideal strength

• The distance over which inter‐atomic forces act is small—a bond is broken if it is
stretched to more than about 10% of its original length.
length
• So the force needed to break a bond is roughly: Surprisingly,
F
B d Stiffness
Bond Stiff ,S =
δ
None of the metals, polymers and ceramics achieve the ideal value of
δ = 10% of origional bond length 1/10; most don’t even come close.
10 ao
∴δ = ao ×10% = ao × =
On this basis the ideal strength of a solid 100 10
should therefore be roughly: F
S= QF =
S ao
ao / 10 10

Relation between S and E :

F =Sδ
σ ao2 = S (ε ao )
S
σ= ε
ao
Assume linear relation between σ & ε
Note: This relationship doesn’t allow for the S
curvature of the force–distance curve; more refined QE =
ao
calculations give a ratio of 1/15. 21 22

Perfection: the ideal strength

Critical Resolved Shear Stress
Surprisingly,
Th
Theory E
Experiment
i t R ti
Ratio
None of the metals, polymers and ceramics achieve the ideal value of
(GPa) (MPa) Theory/Exp 1/10; most don’t even come close.

Fe (BCC) 12 15 800
Why not?
Cu (FCC) 7 0.5 14,000
Nothing is perfect in this world….!
Zn (HCP) 5 0.3 17,000
Existence of Imperfections / Defects in materials….!

23 24
 Dislocation Inventors of dislocation concepts
• The dislocation is the key player in explaining important mechanical properties, like
strength and ductility. •The strength of a perfect crystal computed from inter‐atomic forces gives
an ‘ideal strength’ around E/15 (where E is the modulus).
• ‘Dislocated’ means ‘out of joint’ and this is not a bad description of what is
happening here. The upper part of the crystal has extra half‐layer of atoms than •In reality the strengths of engineering materials are nothing like this big;
the lower part. often
f they
h are barely
b l 1% off it.
i
• It is dislocations that make metals soft and ductile.
• Dislocations distort the lattice
lattice—here
here the green atoms are the most distorted
distorted—and
and (1886 1975)
(1886–1975) (1901 1989)
(1901–1989)
because of this they have elastic energy associated with them.
British Hungarian/US
mathematician, physicist
p y and
physicist and metallurgist
expert on fluid
dynamics and
wave theory
Sir Geoffrey Ingram Taylor Egon Orowan

These two
Th t personalities
liti realized
li d that
th t a ‘dislocated’
‘di l t d’ crystal
t l
could deform at stresses far below the ideal.
25 26

Ref.: Book by W.D. Callister Ref.: Book by W.D. Callister

Ref.: Book by W.D. Callister Ref.: Book by W.D. Callister

The lattice resistance

Dislocation Motion Plastic Deformation

Easy Dislocation Motion Easy Plastic Deformation

Weak Crystal
y

Difficult Difficult
Dislocation Motion Plastic Deformation

Strong Crystal

Ref.: Book by W.D. Callister 31 32

 The lattice resistance
There are several contributions to this resistance.

I. Lattice resistance, fi:

• This
Thi is
i the
th intrinsic
i t i i resistance
i t off the
th crystal
t l structure
t t t plastic
to l ti shear.
h
Where does the resistance to • Plastic shear, as we have seen, involves the motion of dislocations.

motion of dislocation (i.e.

(i e slip),
slip) f,
f • Pure metals are soft because the non
non-localized
localized metallic bond does little
to obstruct dislocation motion, whereas ceramics are hard because their
come from? more localized covalent and ionic bonds (which must be broken and
reformed when the structure is sheared) lock the dislocations in place.

The electrons are not The electrons and +ve ions The electrons are in a fixed
fixed and free to move are all in a fixed position. position
33 throughout the lattice. 34

The lattice resistance II. Work hardening / Strain hardening, fwh:

• When the lattice resistance is high,g , as in ceramics,, further hardening

g is
more than sufficient—the problem becomes that of suppressing fracture: i.e. D i plastic
During l i deformation
d f i dislocation
di l i density
d i
yield strength is much larger than fracture strength of ceramics.
of a crystal should go down
• On the other hand,, when the lattice resistance fi is low,, as in metals,, the
material can be strengthened by introducing obstacles to slip.
But,
How to introduce the obstacles? Experimental Result
II. other dislocations g g what is called Work Hardening
giving g ((fwh)), Dislocation Density of a crystal actually goes up
III. grain boundaries introducing Grain-size Hardening (fgb),
IV. precipitates or dispersed particles giving Precipitation Hardening (fppt), Well-annealed crystal: 1010 m-2
V. by adding alloying elements to give Solid Solution Hardening (fss).
Lightly cold-worked: 1012 m-2

These techniques
techniq es for manipulating
manip lating strength are central to alloy
allo design.
design H
Heavily
il cold-worked:
ld k d 1016 m-22

35 36
II. Work hardening / Strain hardening, fwh: II. Work hardening / Strain hardening, fwh:

Work hardening or 
kh
Strain Hardening

σy

σy

Strain, ε
37 38
see Book by V. Raghvan

II. Work hardening / Strain hardening, fwh: II. Work hardening / Strain hardening, fwh:

Strain Hardening:
During plastic deformation dislocation density increases.

Dislocation against Dislocation

Plastic deformation increases the yield strength of the
crystal: strain hardening or work hardening

A dislocation in the path of other

dislocation can act as an obstacle to the
Why deformation increases strength? motion of the latter

What exactly is the Strain Hardening?

39 40
 1
Sessile dislocation in an FCC crystal: E= µ b2 II. Work hardening / Strain hardening, fwh:
2
a
E < E1 + E2 b for FCC in <110> is: b =
1
[10 1 ]
2 Sessile dislocation a barrier to other dislocations
a2 a2 a2
ng, fwh:

2 Energetically favourable creating a dislocation pile-up

1
< + reaction:
[1 1 0] 2 2 2
n hardenin

Strain energy (potential energy associated

2
1
with dislocation) decreases by 50% during
this reaction.
Sessile dislocation (barrier)
[0 1 1]
2
ning / Strain

⊥ (001) nott a favourable

f bl slip
li plane
l
(CRSS is high).
1
[1 1 0] The dislocation
ork harden

1 2
2
[0 1 1] immobile or sessile.
1
[10 1 ] (1 1 1) (1 1 1)
Wo

( 1 11) 2
⊥

( 1 11)
II.

(001) [110]

Piled up dislocations
41 42
see Book by V. Raghvan see Book by V. Raghvan

II. Work hardening / Strain hardening, fwh: II. Work hardening / Strain hardening, fwh:

Empirical relation for strain hardening or

work hardening

τ =τ0 + A ρ This concept is relevant to processing of soft

metals
t l and
d alloys,
ll e.g. Al
Al-based
b d alloys,
ll
τ : is the shear stress to move a dislocation in a &
crystal with dislocation density ρ
P
Process annealing
li

τo and A : empirical constants

τo => is the shear stress required to move a single dislocation in the
absence of any other dislocation
43 44
III. Grain-size / Grain-boundary hardening, fgb: III. Grain-size / Grain-boundary hardening, fgb:

Grain Boundary
Discontinuity of a slip plane across a grain boundary

G i 2
Grain

Slip plane

Dislocation
Grain1

Grain boundary
Grain Boundary
45 46

III. Grain-size / Grain-boundary hardening, fgb: III. Grain-size / Grain-boundary hardening, fgb:

R l off G
Role Grain
i Size
Si in
i Strengthening
St th i

• Slip plane discontinuity at grain boundary Hall-Petch Relation

• A dislocation cannot glide across a grain
boundary k
σ y = σ0 +
D
• Higher stresses required for deformation
σy: yield
i ld strength
h
• Finer the grains, greater the strength D: average grain diameter
σ0, k: constants

σ0 => yield strength of a single Coarse Grains Fine Grains

crystal
Both are at same magnification!

Ref.: Book by V. Raghavan 47 48

 III. Grain-size / Grain-boundary hardening, fgb: III. Grain-size / Grain-boundary hardening, fgb:

R l off G
Role Grain
i Size
Si in
i Strengthening
St th i ASTM Grain Size Measurements

N = 2 n −1
k 9N → Number of grains per square inch
σ y = σ0 + at 100X magnification
D
9 n → ASTM grain size number

This concept is relevant to annealing,

Coarse Grains Fine Grains
645 9 d → Grain diameter in meters
normalizing heat
heat-treatment
treatment and
Both are processing
at same

alloy design, e.g. HSLA steel

magnification! &

49
9 d= n −1
(2 )1010 9 n → ASTM grain size number
50

V. Solid solution hardening, fss: V. Solid solution hardening, fss:

Interstitial Solid Solution

• Mixture of two or more metals
• Solute atoms: a zero dimensional defect or a point defect
• Two types:
1. Interstitial solid solution
2 Substitutional solid solution
2.

Perfect Crystal
y Distortion caused by a
large interstitial atom
51 52
V. Solid solution hardening, fss: V. Solid solution hardening, fss:

Substitutional Solid Solution

Solute Strains in the

atoms surrounding crystal

Strong Obstacle to dislocation

crystal motion
Small solute atom Large solute atom

Solute atom: a zero-dimensional point defect Alloys stronger than pure metals
53 54

V. Solid solution hardening, fss: V. Solid solution hardening, fss:

Hardening effects of alloying elements in solid solution in fully

annealed ferrite

Here, factors affecting hardness are:

This concept
p is relevant to alloy
y design
g
• Size difference between solute
and solvent atoms,
• Concentration of solute atoms
• Elastic modulus of solute

55 56
IV. Precipitation Hardening, fppt: IV. Precipitation Hardening, fppt:

Hardness increases as a function of time.

Al-Cu alloys:

In 1906, Alfred Wilm, a metallurgist working

This concept
p is directly
y relevant to heat- at Düren in Germany, quenched an
experimental AlCu-alloy after annealing it and
treatment of alloys, e.g. ???
left the specimen on the bench over the
weekend. Testing it a few days later he
found that both hardness and strength had
increased simply by having been left at room
t
temperature.
t W l gave the
Wilm th name 'Duralumin'
'D l ' Alfred Wilm
to his alloys after the place where they were Born: June 25, 1869
Died: August 6, 1937
first made.

57

IV. Precipitation Hardening, fppt: IV. Precipitation Hardening, fppt:

Hardness increases as a function of time.

Al-Cu alloys:

As-quenched
hardness

As-quenched
q
hardness

Ref.: Book by D.A. Porter, & K.E. Easterling 59 60

IV. Precipitation Hardening, fppt: IV. Precipitation Hardening, fppt:

What happens during ageing? Why hardness increases?

Supersaturated solid- Precipitation of β phase Dislocation-precipitate interaction

solution – α phase in α matrix

α Dislocation can
α
α Ageing 1. Either cut through the precipitate particles
α (small precipitate)
α 2. Or they can bypass the precipitates
α

As quenched Microstructure
microstructure after ageing
g g
treatment
61 62
Age-hardening = Precipitation hardening

IV. Precipitation Hardening, fppt: IV. Precipitation Hardening, fppt:

Dislocation cutting through the precipitate

• Cutting through a particle with a dislocation displaces one half
relative to the other by b, thereby creating new interfacial energy
⊥ ⊥ of 2πrbγ, where γ is the interfacial energy between the matrix and
th particle.
the ti l

before after

63 64
 IV. Precipitation Hardening, fppt:

Dislocation bypassing the precipitate

µb
τ=
L
65 Ref.: Book by D.A. Porter, & K.E. Easterling 66

Lattice misfit =>

Misfit strain energy:

Volume misfit =>

Ref.: Book by D.A. Porter, & K.E. Easterling 67 Ref.: Book by D.A. Porter, & K.E. Easterling 68
 Ref.: Book by D.A. Porter, & K.E. Easterling 69 Ref.: Book by D.A. Porter, & K.E. Easterling 70

Thermodynamics & Kinetics aspects for aging process

G

∆G*
α0
Greactants

∆Gdriving force =
G1+G2+G3+G4 α4+θ
Gproducts

Reaction state

The activation energy barrier to the

formation of each transition phase (i.e. θ”
& θ’) is very small in comparison to the
barrier against the direct precipitation of
th equilibrium
the ilib i phase
h (i θ – Cu
(i.e. C 2Al)

71 72
Ref.: Book by D.A. Porter, & K.E. Easterling Ref.: Book by D.A. Porter, & K.E. Easterling
 G G

α0
G0

G1
α1+GP
α0
G0 G2
α2+θ’’
α1+GP
G1
G2 α2+θ’’ G3
α3+θ’
G3 α3+θ’
G4 α4+θ
θ
G4 α4+θ

Reaction state Reaction state

73 74

Thermodynamics & Kinetics aspects for aging process Thermodynamics & Kinetics aspects for aging process

Figure: Schematic diagram showing the total free energy of the alloy versus time

75 76
Ref.: Book by D.A. Porter, & K.E. Easterling Ref.: Book by D.A. Porter, & K.E. Easterling
 Thermodynamics & Kinetics aspects for aging process
Why / How precipitates coarsen by consuming other precipitates…?

Figure: Hardness as
a function of aging
time for an Al-4Cu
alloy.

Transmission electron micrographs:

Figure: Schematic illustration of formation of θ precipitates in the α matrix (a

77 78
and b) and their coarsening (c to f)

Thermodynamics & Kinetics aspects for aging process Strain Aging

Why / How precipitates coarsen by consuming other precipitates…?
79
Ref.: Book by D.A. Porter, & K.E. Easterling
Although cold-rolled and annealed sheet steels have
low carbon contents,
contents during annealing at temperatures
close to the A1 temperature, some carbon and nitrogen
are always taken into solution (unless the steels are
ultralow-carbon or interstitialfree steels). Figure shows
are carbon-rich side of the Fe-C diagram. Carbon has
its maximum solubility at the A1 temperature, and its
solubility decreases with temperature to a negligible
amount at room temperature.
temperature Nitrogen shows a similar
relationship. Thus, if a steel is cooled from around A1
at a rate that prevents gradual relief of supersaturation
by cementite formation during cooling, the ferrite at
room temperature may be b highly
hi hl supersaturated d with
ih
respect to carbon and nitrogen. These interstitial
elements then may segregate to dislocations in
strained structures, a process referred to as strain
aging, or they may precipitate out as fine carbide or
nitride particles, a process referred to as quench
aging. The aging processes may occur at room
t
temperature
t or during
d i h ti
heating att temperatures
t t j t
just
above room temperature because of the high diffusivity
of carbon and nitrogen in the bcc ferrite structure. 80
IV. Precipitation Hardening, fppt:

How to introduce the obstacles to the motion of dislocations…?

II. other dislocations giving what is called Work Hardening (fwh),

Movement of one-dimensional defects III. grain boundaries introducing Grain‐size Hardening (fgb),
called dislocations causes plastic IV.precipitates or dispersed particles giving Precipitation
deformation Hardening (fppt),
V. by adding alloying elements to give Solid Solution Hardening
Obstacles to the movement of (fss).
)
dislocations cause strengthening
These techniques
q ffor manipulating
p g strength
g are central
to alloy design.
81 82

Food for thought Questions

Food for thought Questions

83 84
Q. 1 Q. 3

Can the two pieces of steel having same chemistry 1. If the fraction of liquid metal with 57% B, which is in equilibrium with solid of
show the same strength ? Why ? 82% B, is 0.7, the overall composition is: _______

(A) 0.3
03 (B) 74.3%
74 3% B (C) 64
64.5%
5% B (D) 25% B

Q. 2 2. The phase boundary between α and (α + β) region is called: ________

(A) Liquidus (B) Solidus (C) Solvus (D) none of these

Can the Young’s
Young s modulus of mild-steel be changed by
cold working ?
3. The reaction that gives a one solid phase on heating two solid phases is
called: ________

(A) Eutectoid (B) Eutectic (C) Peritectic (D) Peritectoid

85 86

Q. 4 Q. 5
How can you extract pure water from sea-water (3.5% NaCl) Diamond is a metastable form of carbon and stable
without using vaporization–condensation….? form of carbon is graphite (i.e. Gdiamond > Ggraphite).
This means that, diamond is any case going to
transform to graphite.
graphite But,
But still people spend huge
money to purchase metastable form of carbon (i.e.
diamond) – Why?

Eutectic
point

87 88
Q. 6

What are the fundamental mistakes in the phase diagrams drawn below ?
Explain the mistake.

89