The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance: Chapter Objectives

CHAPTER 8
The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and

Inheritance
Chapter Objectives
Opening Essay
Explain why cancer cells are dangerous, how cancer is treated, and why cells divide in
organisms.
Cell Division and Reproduction

8.1 Explain why cell division is essential for prokaryotic and eukaryotic life.
8.1 Compare the parent-offspring relationship in asexual and sexual reproduction.
8.2 Explain how prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission.
The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and Mitosis

8.3 Compare the structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic chromosomes.
8.3 Describe the formation, structure, and fate of sister chromatids.
8.4 Describe the stages of the cell cycle. Identify when DNA is replicated,
chromosomes are sorted, and two new cells are formed.
8.5 List the phases of mitosis and describe the events characteristic of each phase.
Recognize the phases of mitosis from diagrams and micrographs.
8.6 Compare cytokinesis in animal and plant cells.
8.7–8.8 Explain how anchorage, cell density, and chemical growth factors control cell
division.
8.9 Explain how cancerous cells are different from healthy cells. Distinguish
between benign and malignant tumors, and explain the strategies behind some
common cancer treatments.
8.10 Explain how gene sequencing and a better understanding of DNA mutations
can lead to personalized cancer therapy.
Meiosis and Crossing Over

8.11 Describe the number and organization of human chromosomes in a typical
somatic cell. Distinguish between autosomes and sex chromosomes.
8.12 Distinguish between somatic cells and gametes and between diploid cells and
haploid cells.
8.13 Explain why sexual reproduction requires meiosis.
8.13 List the phases of meiosis I and meiosis II and describe the events characteristic
of each phase. Recognize the phases of meiosis from diagrams and micrographs.
8.14 Describe the similarities and differences between mitosis and meiosis. Explain
how the result of meiosis differs from the result of mitosis.
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 91

8.15–8.17 Explain how independent orientation of chromosomes at metaphase I, random
fertilization, and crossing over contribute to genetic variation in sexually
reproducing organisms.
Alterations of Chromosome Number and Structure

8.18 Define nondisjunction, explain how it can occur, and describe what can result.
8.19 Explain how and why karyotyping is performed.
8.20 Describe the causes and symptoms of Down syndrome.
8.21 Describe the consequences of abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes.
8.22 Explain how new species form from errors in cell division.
8.23 Describe the main types of chromosomal changes. Explain why cancer is not
usually inherited.
Lecture Outline
I. Introduction
A. Cancer cells
1. start out as normal body cells,
2. undergo genetic mutations,
3. lose the ability to control the tempo of their own division, and
4. cause disease.
B. Cancer therapy seeks to disrupt one or more steps in cell division.
C. In a healthy body, cell division allows for
1. growth,
2. the replacement of damaged cells, and
3. the development from an embryo into an adult.
D. In sexually reproducing organisms, eggs and sperm result from
1. mitosis and
2. meiosis.
II. Cell Division and Reproduction
A. 8.1 Cell division plays many important roles in the lives of organisms
1. The ability of organisms to reproduce their own kind is a key characteristic of life.
2. Cell division
a. is reproduction at the cellular level,
b. produces two “daughter” cells that are genetically identical to each other and the
original “parent” cell,
c. requires the duplication of chromosomes, the structures that contain most of the
cell’s DNA, and
d. sorts new sets of chromosomes into the resulting pair of daughter cells.
3. Cell division is used
a. for reproduction of single-celled organisms,
b. growth of multicellular organisms from a fertilized egg into an adult,
c. repair and replacement of cells, and
d. sperm and egg production.
92 INSTRUCTOR GUIDE FOR CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
4. Living organisms reproduce by two methods.
a. Asexual reproduction
i. produces offspring that are identical to the original cell or organism and
ii. involves inheritance of all genes from one parent.
b. Sexual reproduction
i. produces offspring that are similar to the parents but show variations in
traits and
ii. involves inheritance of unique sets of genes from two parents.
5. Cell division is used for
a. reproduction of single-celled organisms,
b. growth of multicellular organisms from a fertilized egg into an adult,
c. repair and replacement of cells, and
d. production of sperm and eggs.
B. 8.2 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission
1. Prokaryotes (single-celled bacteria and archaea) reproduce by binary fission
(“dividing in half”).
2. The chromosome of a prokaryote is typically
a. a singular circular DNA molecule associated with proteins and
b. much smaller than those of eukaryotes.
3. Binary fission of a prokaryote occurs in three stages:
a. duplication of the chromosome and separation of the copies,
b. continued elongation of the cell and movement of the copies, and
c. division into two daughter cells.
III. The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and Mitosis
A. 8.3 The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division
1. Eukaryotic cells
a. are more complex and larger than prokaryotic cells,
b. have more genes, and
c. store most of their genes on multiple chromosomes within the nucleus.
2. Each eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each cell
nucleus.
3. Eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of chromatin consisting of
a. one long DNA molecule and
b. proteins that help maintain the chromosome structure and control the activity of its
genes.
4. To prepare for division, the chromatin becomes
a. highly compact and
b. visible with a microscope.
5. Before a eukaryotic cell begins to divide, it duplicates all of its chromosomes,
resulting in two copies called sister chromatids.
6. The sister chromatids are joined together along their lengths and are cinched
especially tightly at a narrowed “waist” called the centromere.
7. When a cell divides, the sister chromatids
a. separate from each other and are then called chromosomes, and
b. sort into separate daughter cells.
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 8 The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance 93
B. 8.4 The cell cycle includes growing and division phases
1. The cell cycle is an ordered sequence of events that extends from the time a cell is first
formed from a dividing parent cell until its own division.
2. The cell cycle consists of two stages, characterized as follows:
a. Interphase: duplication of cell contents
i. G1—growth, increase in cytoplasm
ii. S—duplication of chromosomes
iii. G2—growth, preparation for division
b. Mitotic phase: division
i. Mitosis—division of the nucleus
ii. Cytokinesis—division of cytoplasm
C. 8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes
1. Mitosis progresses through a series of stages:
a. prophase,
b. prometaphase,
c. metaphase,
d. anaphase, and
e. telophase.
2. Cytokinesis often overlaps telophase.
3. A mitotic spindle
a. is required to divide the chromosomes,
b. guides the separation of the two sets of daughter chromosomes, and
c. is composed of microtubules and associated proteins.
d. Spindle microtubules emerge from two centrosomes, microtubule-organizing
regions in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
4. Interphase
a. The cytoplasmic contents double.
b. Two centrosomes form.
c. Chromosomes duplicate in the nucleus during the S phase.
5. Prophase
a. In the nucleus, chromosomes become more tightly coiled and folded.
b. In the cytoplasm, the mitotic spindle begins to form as microtubules rapidly grow
out from the centrosomes.
6. Prometaphase
a. The nuclear envelope breaks into fragments and disappears.
b. Microtubules extend from the centrosomes into the nuclear region.
c. Some spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores.
7. Metaphase
a. The mitotic spindle is fully formed.
b. Chromosomes align at the cell equator.
c. Kinetochores of sister chromatids are facing the opposite poles of the spindle.
8. Anaphase
a. Sister chromatids separate at the centromeres.
b. Daughter chromosomes are moved to opposite poles of the cell as motor proteins
move the chromosomes along the spindle microtubules and kinetochore
microtubules shorten.
c. Spindle microtubules not attached to chromosomes lengthen, moving the poles
farther apart.
d. At the end of the anaphase, the two ends of the cell have equal collections of
chromosomes.
9. Telophase
a. The cell continues to elongate.
b. The nuclear envelope forms around chromosomes at each pole, establishing
daughter nuclei.
c. Chromatin uncoils.
d. The mitotic spindle disappears.
10. During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm is divided into separate cells.
11. Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously with telophase.
D. 8.6 Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells
1. In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs as
a. a cleavage furrow forms from a contracting ring of microfilaments, interacting
with myosin, and
b. the cleavage furrow deepens to separate the contents into two cells.
2. In plant cells, cytokinesis occurs as
a. a cell plate forms in the middle, from vesicles containing cell wall material,
b. the cell plate grows outward to reach the edges, dividing the contents into two cells,
and
c. each cell now possesses a plasma membrane and cell wall.
E. 8.7 Anchorage, cell density, and chemical growth factors affect cell division
1. The cells within an organism’s body divide and develop at different rates.
2. Cell division is controlled by
a. anchorage dependence, the need for cells to be in contact with a solid surface to
divide,
b. density-dependent inhibition, in which crowded cells stop dividing,
c. the presence of essential nutrients, and
d. growth factors, proteins that stimulate division,
F. 8.8 Growth factors signal the cell cycle control system
1. The cell cycle control system is a cycling set of molecules in the cell that triggers and
coordinates key events in the cell cycle.
2. Checkpoints in the cell cycle can
a. stop an event or
b. signal an event to proceed.
3. There are three major checkpoints in the cell cycle.
a. G1 checkpoint: allows entry into the S phase or causes the cell to leave the cycle,
entering a nondividing G0 phase
b. G2 checkpoint
c. M checkpoint
4. Research on the control of the cell cycle is one of the hottest areas in biology today.
G. 8.9 CONNECTION: Growing out of control, cancer cells produce malignant tumors
1. Cancer currently claims the lives of 20% of the people in the United States and other
industrialized nations.
2. Cancer cells escape controls on the cell cycle.
3. Cancer cells divide excessively and invade other tissues of the body.
4. A tumor is mass of abnormally growing cells within otherwise normal tissue.
a. Benign tumors remain at the original site but may disrupt certain organs if they
grow in size.
b. Malignant tumors can spread to other locations in a process called metastasis.
c. An individual with a malignant tumor is said to have cancer.
5. Cancers are named according to the organ or tissue in which they originate.
a. Carcinomas originate in external or internal body coverings.
b. Leukemia originates from immature white blood cells within the blood or bone
marrow.
c. Localized tumors can be
i. removed surgically and/or
ii. treated with concentrated beams of high-energy radiation.
6. Metastatic tumors are treated with chemotherapy.
H. 8.10 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Tailoring treatment to each patient may improve cancer
therapy
1. It is increasingly possible to personalize cancer treatment by:
a. sequencing the genome of tumor cells and
b. tailoring treatment based on the tumor’s specific genetic profile.
IV. Meiosis and Crossing Over
A. 8.11 Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs
1. In humans, somatic cells have 46 chromosomes, forming 23 pairs of homologous
chromosomes.
2. Homologous chromosomes are matched in
a. length,
b. centromere position, and
c. staining pattern.
3. A locus (plural, loci) is the position of a gene.
4. Different versions of a gene may be found at the same locus on the two chromosomes
of a homologous pair.
5. The human sex chromosomes X and Y differ in size and genetic composition.
6. The other 22 pairs of chromosomes are autosomes with the same size and genetic
composition.
B. 8.12 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes
1. An organism’s life cycle is the sequence of stages leading from the adults of one
generation to the adults of the next.
2. Humans and many animals and plants are diploid, because all somatic cells contain
pairs of homologous chromosomes.
3. Gametes
a. are eggs and sperm and
b. are said to be haploid because each cell has a single set of chromosomes.
4. The human life cycle begins when a haploid sperm fuses with a haploid egg in
fertilization.
5. The zygote, formed by fertilization, is now diploid.
6. Mitosis of the zygote and its descendants generates all the somatic cells into the adult
form.
7. Gametes are made by meiosis in the ovaries and testes.
8. Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half.
C. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid
1. Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces haploid gametes in diploid organisms.
2. Two haploid gametes may then combine in fertilization to restore the diploid state in
the zygote.
3. Meiosis and mitosis are preceded by the duplication of chromosomes. However,
a. meiosis is followed by two consecutive cell divisions and
b. mitosis is followed by only one cell division.
4. Because in meiosis, one duplication of chromosomes is followed by two divisions,
each of the four daughter cells produced has a haploid set of chromosomes.
5. Interphase: Like mitosis, meiosis is preceded by an interphase, during which the
chromosomes duplicate.
6. Meiosis I – Prophase I – events
a. The nuclear membrane dissolves.
b. Chromatin tightly coils up.
c. Homologous chromosomes, each composed of two sister chromatids, come together
as pairs in a process called synapsis.
d. During synapsis, chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange segments in a
process called crossing over.
e. The chromosome tetrads move toward the center of the cell.
7. Meiosis I – Metaphase I – Tetrads align at the cell equator.
8. Meiosis I – Anaphase I
a. Homologous pairs separate and move toward opposite poles of the cell.
b. Unlike mitosis, the sister chromatids making up each doubled chromosome remain
attached.
9. Meiosis I – Telophase I
a. Duplicated chromosomes have reached the poles.
b. Usually, cytokinesis occurs along with telophase.
10. Meiosis II follows meiosis I without chromosome duplication.
11. Each of the two haploid products enters meiosis II.
12. Meiosis II – Prophase II
a. A spindle forms and moves chromosomes toward the middle of the cell.
13. Meiosis II – Metaphase II – Duplicated chromosomes align at the cell equator like
they are in mitosis.
14. Meiosis II – Anaphase II
a. Sister chromatids separate.
b. Individual chromosomes move toward opposite poles.
15. Meiosis II – Telophase II
a. Chromosomes have reached the poles of the cell.
b. A nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes.
c. With cytokinesis, four haploid cells are produced.
D. 8.14 VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: Mitosis and meiosis have important similarities
and differences
1. Mitosis and meiosis both begin with diploid parent cells that have chromosomes
duplicated during the previous interphase.
2. However, the end products differ.
a. Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid somatic daughter cells.
b. Meiosis produces four genetically unique haploid gametes.
E. 8.15 Independent orientation of chromosomes in meiosis and random fertilization lead to
varied offspring
1. Genetic variation in gametes results from
a. independent orientation at metaphase I and
b. random fertilization.
2. Independent orientation at metaphase I
a. Each pair of chromosomes independently aligns at the cell equator.
b. There is an equal probability of the maternal or paternal chromosome facing a
given pole.
c. The number of combinations for chromosomes packaged into gametes is 2n, where
n = haploid number of chromosomes.
3. Random fertilization means that the combination of each unique sperm with each
unique egg increases genetic variability.
F. 8.16 Homologous chromosomes may carry different versions of genes
1. Separation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis can lead to genetic
differences between gametes.
a. Homologous chromosomes may have different versions of a gene at the same locus.
b. One version was inherited from the maternal parent and the other came from the
paternal parent.
c. Because homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles during anaphase I,
gametes will receive either the maternal or paternal version of the gene.
G. 8.17 Crossing over further increases genetic variability
1. Genetic recombination is the production of new combinations of genes due to
crossing over.
2. Crossing over is an exchange of corresponding segments between separate nonsister
chromatids on homologous chromosomes.
a. Nonsister chromatids join at a chiasma (plural, chiasmata), the site of attachment
and crossing over.
b. Corresponding amounts of genetic material are exchanged between maternal and
paternal (nonsister) chromatids.
V. Alterations of Chromosome Number and Structure
A. 8.18 Accidents during meiosis can alter chromosome number
1. Nondisjunction is the failure of chromosomes or chromatids to separate normally
during meiosis. This can happen during
a. meiosis I, if both members of a homologous pair go to one pole, or
b. meiosis II, if both sister chromatids go to one pole.
2. Fertilization after nondisjunction yields zygotes with altered numbers of
chromosomes.
B. 8.19 A karyotype is a photographic inventory of an individual’s chromosomes
1. A karyotype is an ordered display of magnified images of an individual’s
chromosomes arranged in pairs.
2. Karyotypes
a. are often produced from dividing cells arrested at metaphase of mitosis and
b. allow for the observation of
i. homologous chromosome pairs,
ii. chromosome number, and
iii. chromosome structure.
C. 8.20 CONNECTION: An extra copy of chromosome 21 causes Down syndrome
1. Trisomy 21
a. involves the inheritance of three copies of chromosome 21 and
b. is the most common human chromosome abnormality.
2. A person with trisomy 21 has a condition called Down syndrome, which produces a
characteristic set of symptoms, including
a. characteristic facial features,
b. short stature,
c. heart defects,
d. susceptibility to respiratory infections, leukemia, and Alzheimer’s disease, and
e. varying degrees of developmental disabilities.
3. The incidence increases with the age of the mother.
D. 8.21 CONNECTION: Abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes do not usually affect
survival
1. Sex chromosome abnormalities seem to upset the genetic balance less than an unusual
number of autosomes. This may be because of
a. the small size of the Y chromosome or
b. X-chromosome inactivation.
2. The following table lists the most common human sex chromosome abnormalities.
In general,
a. a single Y chromosome is enough to produce “maleness,” even in combination with
several X chromosomes, and
b. the absence of a Y chromosome yields “femaleness.”
E. 8.22 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: New species can arise from errors in cell division
1. Errors in mitosis or meiosis may produce polyploid species, with more than two
chromosome sets.
2. The formation of polyploid species is
a. widely observed in many plant species but
b. less frequently found in animals.
F. 8.23 CONNECTION: Alterations of chromosome structure can cause birth defects and
cancer
1. Chromosome breakage can lead to rearrangements that can produce genetic disorders
or, if changes occur in somatic cells, cancer.
2. These rearrangements can lead to four types of changes in chromosome structure.
a. A deletion is the loss of a chromosome segment.
b. A duplication is the repeat of a chromosome segment.
c. An inversion is the reversal of a chromosome segment.
d. A translocation is the attachment of a segment to a nonhomologous chromosome.
A translocation may be reciprocal.
3. Inversions are less likely than deletions or duplications to produce harmful effects
because in inversions all genes are still present in their normal number.
4. Many deletions cause serious physical or mental problems.
5. Translocation may or may not be harmful.
6. Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML)
a. is one of the most common leukemias,
b. affects cells that give rise to white blood cells (leukocytes), and
c. results from a reciprocal translocation in which part of chromosome 22 switches
places with a small fragment from a tip of chromosome 9.
7. Such an exchange causes cancer by activating a gene that leads to uncontrolled cell
cycle progression.
8. Because the chromosomal changes in cancer are usually confined to somatic cells,
cancer is not usually inherited.
Chapter Guide to Teaching Resources
Cell Division and Reproduction (8.1–8.2)

Student Misconceptions and Concerns
• As the textbook authors note in Module 8.1, biologists use the term daughter to indicate
offspring and not gender. Students with little experience in this terminology can easily
become confused. (8.1)
• Some basic familiarity or faint memory of mitosis and meiosis might result in a lack of
enthusiasm for these topics in some of your students. Consider beginning such lectures
with important topics related to cellular reproduction. For example, cancer cells reproduce
uncontrollably, stem cells have the capacity to regenerate lost or damaged tissues, and the
study of embryonic stem cells is variously restricted and regulated by government.
(8.1–8.2)
Teaching Tips
• Sometimes the most basic questions can challenge students and get them focused on the
subject at hand. Consider asking your students why we expect that dogs will produce dogs,
cats will produce more cats, and chickens will only produce chickens. Why does like
produce like? (8.1)
• The principle that “every cell comes from another cell” is worth thinking through with
your class. Students might expect that, like automobiles, computers, and cell phones, parts
are constructed and cells are assembled. In our society, few nonliving products are
generated only from existing products (try to think of such examples). For example, you
do not need a painting to paint or a house to construct a house. Yet, this is a common
expectation in biology. Further, students who think through this principle might ask how
the first cells formed. They might wonder further whether the same environments that
produced these cells are still in existence. The conditions on Earth when life first formed
were very different from those we know today. Chapter 15 of the textbook addresses the
origin and early evolution of life on Earth. (8.2)
• Consider contrasting the timing of DNA replication and cytokinesis in prokaryotes and
eukaryotes. In prokaryotes, addressed in Module 8.2 of the textbook, these processes are
overlapping. However, as revealed in the next few modules, these events are separate in
eukaryotes. (8.2)
The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and Mitosis (8.3–8.10)

• Students often seem confused by the difference between a DNA molecule and a
chromosome. This is especially problematic when discussing DNA replication. (8.3)
• Students are often confused by photographs of chromosomes. Such photographs, such as
Figure 8.3B, typically show duplicated chromosomes during some aspect of cell division.
It remains unclear to many why (a) chromosome structure is typically different between
interphase G1 and the stages of division and (b) why chromosomes are not photographed
during interphase (the stage in which chromosomes are typically first discussed) before the
chromosomes duplicate. (8.3)
• Students do not typically know that all cancers are genetically based. Consider making this
clear early in your discussions. Challenge your students to explain how certain viruses can
lead to cancer. (8.9)
Teaching Tips
• Figure 8.3B is an important point of reference for some basic terminology. Consider
referring to it as you distinguish between a DNA molecule and a chromosome,
unreplicated and replicated chromosomes, and the nature of sister chromatids. (8.3)
• Consider an analogy between the precise packaging of DNA into chromosomes and
packing a home for a move to another home. Tap into the intuitive advantages of
packaging DNA using this or any other analogy of highly packaged materials (perhaps a
boxed “desk” that requires some assembly). (8.3)
• The concepts of DNA replication and sister chromatids are often obstacles for many
students. If you can find twist ties or other bendable wire, you can demonstrate or have
students model the difference between (a) a chromosome before DNA replication and
(b) sister chromatids after DNA replication. One piece of wire will represent a
chromosome before replication. Two twist ties twisted about each other can represent
sister chromatids. We have doubled the DNA, but the molecules remain attached (although
not attached in the same way as the wire). You might also want to point out that when
sister chromatids are separated, they are considered separate chromosomes. (8.3)
• The textbook authors note in Module 8.4 that each of your students consists of about
10 trillion cells. It is likely that this number is beyond comprehension for most of your
students. Consider sharing several simple examples of the enormity of that number to try
to make it more meaningful. For example, the U.S. population in 2014 is about 317 million
people. To give every one of those people about $31,500, we will need a total of 10 trillion
dollars. Here is another example. If we gave you $32,000 every second, it would take
10 years to give you 10 trillion dollars. The U.S. Debt Clock helps relate these large
numbers to the U.S. national debt at www.usdebtclock.org. (8.4)
• In G1, the chromosomes have not duplicated. But by G2, chromosomes consist of sister
chromatids. If you have created a demonstration of sister chromatids, relate DNA
replication and sister chromatids to the cell cycle. (8.4)
• Students might keep better track of the sequence of events in a cell cycle by simply
memorizing the letters IPPMAT, which are the first letters of interphase, prophase,
prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. (8.5)
• Many students think of mitosis and cytokinesis as one process. In some situations, mitosis
occurs without subsequent cytokinesis. Challenge your students to predict the outcome of
mitosis without cytokinesis (multinuclear cells called a syncytium). This occurs in human
development during the formation of the placenta. (8.6)
• The authors make an analogy between a drawstring on a hooded sweatshirt and the
mechanism of cytokinesis in animal cells. Students seem to appreciate this association.
Have your students think of a person tightening the drawstring of sweatpants so tight that
they pinch themselves in two, or perhaps nearly so! The analogy is especially good
because, like the drawstring just beneath the surface of the sweat pants, the microfilaments
are just beneath the surface of the cell’s plasma membrane. (8.6)
• Students who closely examine a small abrasion on their skin might notice that the wound
tends to heal from the outer edges inward. This space-filling mechanism is a natural
example of density-dependent inhibition, which is also seen when cells in a cell culture
dish stop dividing when they have formed a complete layer. (8.7)
• The cell cycle control system depicted in Figure 8.8A is like the control device of an
automatic washing machine (which uses a turning dial). Each has a control system that
triggers and coordinates key events in the cycle. However, unlike a washing machine, the
components of the control system of a cell cycle are not all located in one place. (8.8)
• Chemotherapy has some disastrous side effects. The drugs used to fight cancer may attack
rapidly dividing cells. Unfortunately for men, the cells that make sperm are also rapidly
dividing. In some circumstances, chemotherapy can leave a man infertile (unable to
produce viable sperm) but still able to produce an erection. Many other approaches are
under consideration to attack cancers. You may wish to explore these as sidelights to your
lecture. Good resources include cell biology and development textbooks. (8.9)
• The following website describing Personalized Cancer Therapy at Vanderbilt-Ingram
Cancer Center is a good introduction to the resources becoming available for genetically
based, personal cancer treatments, http://www.vicc.org/personalized/. (8.10)
Active Lecture Tips

• See the Activity, Student Demonstration of Mitosis and Meiosis Using Chromosome
Cut-Outs as Models, on the Instructor Exchange. Visit the Instructor Exchange in the
Mastering Biology instructor resource area for a description of this activity. (8.5)
• See the Activity, Losing Control of a Car Relates to Unregulated Cell Division, on the
Instructor Exchange. Visit the Instructor Exchange in the Mastering Biology instructor
resource area for a description of this activity. (8.9)
Meiosis and Crossing Over (8.11–8.17)

• Some students might conclude that sex chromosomes function only in determining the sex
of an individual. As the authors note, sex chromosomes contain genes not involved in sex
determination. (8.11)
• Students might not immediately see the need for meiosis in sexual reproduction. Consider
an example of what would happen over many generations if gametes were produced by
mitosis. The resulting genetic doubling is prevented if each gamete has only half the
genetic material of the adult cells. (8.12–8.14)
Teaching Tips
• Students might recall some basic genetics, remembering that for many traits a person
receives a separate “signal” from mom and dad. These separate signals for the same trait
are carried on the same portion of homologous chromosomes, such as the freckle trait
noted in Module 8.11 of the textbook. (8.11)
• Consider helping students through mitosis and meiosis by developing an analogy to pairs
of shoes. In this case, any given species has a certain number of pairs of shoes, or
homologous chromosomes. (8.12)
• In the shoe analogy, females have 23 pairs of matching shoes, while males have 22
matching pairs and 1 odd pair . . . maybe a sandal and a sneaker! (8.12)
• You might want to get your students thinking by asking them why eggs and sperm are
different. (This depends on the species, but within vertebrates, eggs and sperm are special-
ized for different tasks. Sperm are adapted to move to an egg and donate a nucleus. Eggs
contain a nucleus and most of the cytoplasm of the future zygote. Thus eggs are typically
larger, nonmotile, and full of cellular resources to sustain cell division and growth.) (8.12)
• Challenge students to identify which stage of meiosis is most like mitosis. Comparing the
specific events of mitosis, meiosis I, and meiosis II to each other allows students to
identify essential differences. (8.13)
• How meiosis results in four haploid cells, yet mitosis yields two diploid cells, is often
memorized but seldom understood. It can be explained like this. Consider a pair of
chromosomes in a cell before any cell divisions. This pair of chromosomes duplicates such
that two chromosomes become four (although each pair of sister chromatids are joined at
their centromeres). Therefore, mitosis and meiosis each typically begin with four
“chromosomes” after replication but before division. Mitosis divides once, producing two
cells, each with two chromosomes. Meiosis divides twice, sorting the four chromosomes
into four separate cells. (8.14)
• Consider emphasizing a crucial difference between the processes of mitosis and meiosis.
In mitosis, sister chromatids separate at metaphase. In meiosis I metaphase, sister
chromatids stay together, and homologous pairs of chromosomes separate. Consider
sketching a comparison of the alignment of the chromosomes at mitosis metaphase and
meiosis metaphase I. Module 8.14 helps to make this important distinction. You might
create a test question in which you ask students to draw several pairs of homologous
chromosomes lined up at metaphase in mitosis versus meiosis I. (8.14)
• The possible number of combinations produced by independent orientation of human
chromosomes at meiosis metaphase I is 223 or 8,388,608. This number squared is more
than 70 trillion. The authors rounded down to 8 million for 223 and squared this to estimate
64 trillion possible combinations. But more precisely, the number of possible zygotes
produced by a single pair of reproducing humans, based solely on independent assortment
and random fertilization, is over 70 trillion! (8.15)
• Another way to represent the various combinations produced by independent orientation of
chromosomes at meiosis metaphase I continues the shoe analogy. Imagine that you have
two pairs of shoes. One pair is black and the other is white. You want to make a new pair
of shoes by drawing one shoe from each original pair. Four possible pairs can be made.
You can have (1) the left black and left white, (2) the right black and right white, (3) the
left black and right white, or (4) the right black and left white. Actually using two pairs of
shoes from your students can inject humor and create a concrete example that reduces
confusion. For an additional bit of humor, ask the class if 46 students want to contribute
their shoes as you try to demonstrate all 8,388,608 combinations! (8.15)
• You might have some fun with the concept of different versions of genes. Playing with the
pun “jeans,” ask students if all jeans are the same. (Some are stone washed, some have
buttons instead of zippers, some have more pockets than others, etc.) These versions of
clothing jeans are like different versions of genetic genes, representing options and sources
of diversity. (8.16)
• If you wish to continue the shoe analogy, crossing over is somewhat like exchanging the
shoelaces in a pair of shoes (although this analogy is quite limited). A point to make is that
the shoes (chromosomes) before crossing over are what you inherited . . . either from the
sperm or the egg; but, as a result of crossing over, you no longer pass along exactly what
you inherited. Instead, you pass along a combination of homologous chromosomes (think
of shoes with switched shoelaces). Critiquing this limited analogy may also help students
to think through the process of crossing over. (8.17)
• In the shoe analogy, after exchanging shoelaces, we have “recombinant shoes”! (8.17)
• Challenge students to consider the number of unique humans that can be formed by the
processes of the independent orientation of chromosomes, random fertilization, and
crossing over. Without crossing over, we already calculated over 70 trillion possibilities.
But as the text notes in Module 8.17, there are typically one to three crossover events for
each human chromosome, and these can occur at many different places along the length of
the chromosome. The potential number of combinations far exceeds any number that
humans can comprehend, representing the truly unique nature of each human being
(an important point that delights many students!). (8.17)
Active Lecture Tips

• See the Activity, Student Demonstration of Mitosis and Meiosis Using Chromosome
Cut-Outs as Models, on the Instructor Exchange. Visit the Instructor Exchange in the
Mastering Biology instructor resource area for a description of this activity. (8.11–8.17)
Alterations of Chromosome Number and Structure (8.18–8.23)

• Before addressing karyotyping and nondisjunction events, consider reviewing the general
structure and terminology associated with replicated chromosomes and the arrangement of
chromosomes during metaphase of mitosis, meiosis I, and meiosis II. Figures 8.3B and
8.14 will be particularly helpful. A firm foundation in chromosome basics is necessary to
understand the irregularities discussed in Modules 8.19–8.23. (8.18–8.23)
Teaching Tips
• Students might be confused by the term nondisjunction. But simply put, it is an error in the
sorting of chromosomes during mitosis or meiosis. (8.18)
• The Human Genome website is a tremendous asset for nearly every discussion related to
human genetics. It can be accessed at www.genomics.energy.gov. (8.18–8.23)
• If you have several hundred students or more in your class, it is likely that at least one of
your students has a sibling with Down syndrome. The authors note that overall, about one
in every 700 babies are born with Down syndrome. (8.20)
• The National Down Syndrome Society has a website at www.ndss.org. It is a wonderful
resource. (8.20)
• Some syndromes related to human sexuality are not the result of abnormalities in sex
chromosome number. Androgen insensitivity syndrome produces sterile males who
possess mostly female sex characteristics. People with this condition are genetically male
but have bodies that fail to respond to male sex hormones. The National Institute of Health
website “Genetics Home Reference” can provide additional details about this and most
genetic disorders at http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov. (8.21)
• In general, flowering plants are more likely to form new species through polyploidy than
animals because, unlike most animals, many flowering plants can fertilize themselves.
(8.22)
• The gray treefrog, which is found over most of the eastern half of the United States, from
Florida and Texas to Ontario and Maine, consists of two species: Hyla chrysoscelis, which is
diploid, and Hyla versicolor, which is tetraploid. The two species cannot be distinguished,
except by the number of chromosomes in their cells. The tetraploid species is thought to
have been formed by an error in meiosis, similar to that frequently seen in plants. (8.22)
• Challenge students to create a simple sentence and then modify that sentence to represent
(a) a deletion, (b) a duplication, and (c) an inversion as an analogy to these changes to a
chromosome. (8.23)
Active Lecture Tips

• See the Activity, Applying the Concept of Non-Disjunction to Trisomy, on the Instructor
Exchange. Visit the Instructor Exchange in the Mastering Biology instructor resource area
for a description of this activity. (8.20)
Key Terms
anaphase cytokinesis metaphase
anchorage dependence deletion metastasis
asexual reproduction density-dependent inhibition mitosis mitotic phase
autosomes diploid (M phase)
benign tumor Down syndrome mitotic spindle
binary fission duplication nondisjunction
cancer fertilization prometaphase
cell cycle gametes prophase
cell cycle control system genetic recombination sex chromosomes
cell division growth factor sexual reproduction
cell plate haploid sister chromatids
centromere homologous chromosomes somatic cell
centrosome interphase synapsis
chiasma (plural, inversion telophase
chiasmata) karyotype translocation
chromatin life cycle trisomy 21
chromosome locus (plural, loci) tumor
cleavage furrow malignant tumor zygote
crossing over meiosis
Word Roots
a- = not or without (asexual reproduction: the creation of offspring by a single parent, without the
participation of sperm and egg)
ana- = up, throughout, again (anaphase: the fourth stage of mitosis, beginning when sister chroma-
tids separate from each other and ending when a complete set of daughter chromosomes arrives at
each of the two poles of the cell)
auto- = self; -soma = body (autosome: a chromosome not directly involved in determining the sex
of an organism)
bi- = two (binary fission: a means of asexual reproduction in which a parent organism, often a
single cell, divides into two individuals of about equal size)
centro- = the center; -mere = a part (centromere: the region of a duplicated chromosome where
two sister chromatids are joined and where spindle microtubules attach during mitosis and
meiosis); -soma = body (centrosome: a nonmembranous organelle that functions throughout the
cell cycle to organize the cell’s microtubules)
chiasm- = marked crosswise (chiasma: the X-shaped microscopically visible site where crossing
over has occurred between the chromatids of homologous chromosomes during prophase I of
meiosis)
chroma- = colored (chromatin: DNA and the various associated proteins that form eukaryotic
chromosomes); -soma = body (chromosome: a threadlike, gene-carrying structure composed of
chromatin, found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells)
cyto- = cell; -kinet = move (cytokinesis: the division of the cytoplasm to form two separate
daughter cells)
di- = two (diploid cell: in an organism that reproduces sexually, a cell containing two homologous
sets of chromosomes, one from each parent)
fertil- = fruitful (fertilization: the union of the nucleus of a sperm cell with the nucleus of an egg
cell, producing a zygote)
gamet- = a wife or husband (gamete: a haploid egg or sperm cell)
haplo- = single (haploid cell: in the life cycle of an organism that reproduces sexually, a cell
containing a single set of chromosomes)
homo- = like (homologous chromosomes: the two chromosomes that make up a matched pair in a
diploid cell)
inter- = between (interphase: the period in the eukaryotic cell cycle when the cell is not actually
dividing)
karyo- = nucleus (karyotype: a display of micrographs of the metaphase chromosomes of a cell)
mal- = bad or evil (malignant tumor: an abnormal tissue mass that can spread into neighboring
tissue and to other parts of the body)
meio- = less (meiosis: a form of cell division that yields daughter cells with half as many
chromosomes as the parent cell)
meta- = between (metaphase: the third mitotic stage, during which all the cell’s duplicated
chromosomes are aligned in the middle of the cell)
mito- = a thread (mitosis: the division of a single nucleus into two genetically identical daughter
nuclei)
pro- = before (prophase: the first mitotic stage, during which the chromatin condenses to form
sister chromatids)
soma- = body (somatic cell: any cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg cell, or a
cell that develops into a sperm or egg)
telos- = an end (telophase: the final stage of mitosis, during which daughter nuclei form)
trans- = across (translocation: attachment of a chromosomal fragment to a nonhomologous
chromosome)
tri- = three; soma- = body (trisomy: a chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has an
extra copy of one chromosome, instead of the normal two; the cell is said to be trisomic for that
chromosome)

The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance: Chapter Objectives

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The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance: Chapter Objectives

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CHAPTER 8

The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and

Cell Division and Reproduction

The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and Mitosis

Meiosis and Crossing Over

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 91

Alterations of Chromosome Number and Structure

Chapter Guide to Teaching Resources

Cell Division and Reproduction (8.1–8.2)

The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and Mitosis (8.3–8.10)

Active Lecture Tips

Meiosis and Crossing Over (8.11–8.17)

Active Lecture Tips

Alterations of Chromosome Number and Structure (8.18–8.23)

Active Lecture Tips

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