Chapter 1

Groups and Fields

MATH2601 Slides, 2021 – p. 1

1.1 Groups
Definition 1.1 A group G is a non-empty set with a binary
operation defined on it. That is
1) for all a, b in G a composition a ∗ b is defined and in G
(closure);
2) (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) for all a, b, c ∈ G (associativity),
3) there is an element e ∈ G (the identity) such that
a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a for all a ∈ G,
4) for each a ∈ G there is an a′ (the inverse of a) in G such
that a ∗ a′ = a′ ∗ a = e,
If G is a finite set then the order of G is |G|, the number of
elements in G.
Technically, a group is actually the pair (G, ∗): we could say
this as “the group G under the operation ∗” as well.
MATH2601 Slides, 2021 – p. 2
Definition 1.2 A group G is abelian if the operation satisfies
the commutative law

a∗b=b∗a for all a, b ∈ G

Notes
a) composition is actually a function ∗ : G × G → G: it is just
more convenient to write its action as a ∗ b rather than
∗(a, b).
b) The operation ∗ is not restricted at all but is commonly
one of
• addition + (but only for abelian groups) ;
• multiplication × (often written as juxtaposition);
• composition of functions.
With a suitably flexible definition of addition and
multiplication.
MATH2601 Slides, 2021 – p. 3
c) We usually use power notation for repeated applications:
a ∗ a ∗ · · · ∗ a = an (n elements multiplied) and a−n = (a−1 )n .
d) If we are using × for the group operation, we usually use
1 for the identity and a−1 for the inverse of a.
e) If we are using + for the group operation, we usually use
0 for the identity and −a for the inverse of a (and call it the
negative).
We would then write na for a + a + · · · + a (n elements
added).
Note: this is just shorthand for repeated addition, it is not
multiplying by n (which is typically meaningless here).
f) The trivial group is the group consisting of exactly one
element, {e}.
It is the smallest possible group, since there has to be at
least one element in a group.

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Example 1.1 a) (Z, +) is an abelian group (under the usual
addition of integers).
b) (Z, ×) is not an abelian group under multiplication: why
not?
c) Are there any subsets of R that form a non-trivial group
under the usual multiplication in R?
d) For any integer m, the set Zm = {0, 1, 2, . . . , m − 1} of
remainders modulo m is a group under addition modulo
m.
e) If p is prime Z∗p = Zp \ {0} is a group under multiplication
modulo p. (This does not work for non-primes: why not?)
All these examples are abelian.
Examples of non-abelian groups typically arise from
composition of functions.

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Example 1.2 For any set S the set F of bijective functions
f : S → S is a group under composition, but is not in general
abelian.
Proof: Composing two bijections clearly gives another
bijection, so the operation is closed.
Associativity of composition is straightforward:

(f ◦ (g ◦ h))(x) = f (g(h(x))) = ((f ◦ g) ◦ h)(x) .

The identity function with rule id(x) = x is clearly a bijection

and for all f ∈ F

(id ◦f )(x) = f (x) = (f ◦ id)(x) .

By definition, a bijection has an inverse f −1 .

I shall leave you with the EXERCISE of proving that (F, ◦) is
not always abelian. 
MATH2601 Slides, 2021 – p. 6
Groups are intimately linked with symmetries
Example 1.3 Consider an equilateral triangle T .
Let G be the set of distance preserving mappings from T to T
taking the set of 3 vertices to itself.
a) The composition of 2 elements in G is in G (closure).
b) The composition is associative (see example 1.2).
c) There is an identity element (leave the vertices alone).
d) Every element a has an inverse b given by reversing the
mapping.
e) G is a group under composition.
f) Every element of G is the identity, a rotation or a reflection
in R2 .
g) |G| = 6.
The set G in this example is usually called D6 : the dihedral
group of order 6.
MATH2601 Slides, 2021 – p. 7
Lemma 1.1 Let (G, ∗) be a group
a) There is only one identity element in G.
b) Each element of G has only one inverse.
c) For each a ∈ G, (a−1 )−1 = a
d) For every a, b ∈ G, (a ∗ b)−1 = b−1 ∗ a−1 .
e) Let a, b, c, ∈ G. Then if a ∗ b = a ∗ c, b = c. Similarly, if
b ∗ a = c ∗ a then b = c.
Proof: For a) suppose e and e′ are both identities in G.
Then e = e ∗ e′ as e′ is an identity.
But e ∗ e′ = e′ as e is an identity. Hence e = e′ .
I will leave the rest as an EXERCISE. 

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Example 1.4 Let m be a postive integer and consider the set

Cm = {e, a, a2 , a3 , . . . , am−1 } ,

where a is some (undefined) symbol.

Define an operation on Cm by specifying that a0 = e and
(
ak+l if k + l < m
k l
a ∗a = k+l−m
.
a otherwise

In effect, we are multiplying powers in the usual way, but with

the assumption that am = e.
It is an easy EXERCISE to show that (Cm , ∗) is an abelian
group: the cyclic group of order m.
We often write Cm as ha : am = ei and say it is generated by a.

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1.1.1 Permutation Groups
Let Ωn = {1, 2, . . . , n}. As an ordered set Ωn = (1, 2, . . . , n) has
n! rearrangements or permutations, as is easy to see.
For example,
1 2 3 f1
1 3 2 f2
2 1 3 f3
2 3 1 f4
3 1 2 f5
3 2 1 f6
are the 6 permutations of Ω3 .
We can think of these 6 things as being functions from Ω3 to
Ω3 .
f6 : 1 → 3, : 2 → 2, : 3 → 1.
MATH2601 Slides, 2021 – p. 10
Clearly each permutation is a bijection on Ωn .
Proposition 1.2 The set Sn of all permutations of n objects
forms a group under composition of order n!.
Proof: That Sn is a group follows from example 1.2.
The order is the simple counting argument on the number of
permutations we used earlier. 
Notation
There are several ways to write permutations.
!
1 2 3 4
A typical one is as a matrix, for example where
2 1 4 3
the map sends the element in the top row to the element
below it.
Here we are swapping 1 ↔ 2 and 3 ↔ 4.

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1.1.2 Small Finite Groups
Small groups can be pictured using a multiplication table,
where the row element is multiplied on the left of the column
element.

∗ e a b
+ 0 1
e e a b
0 0 1 (1)
a a b e
1 1 0
b b e a

On the left in (1) we have Z2 under addition modulo 2.

On the right we have a group of order 3, where e the identity
element, as usual.

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Now, in a multiplication table of a finite group each row must
be a permutation of the elements of the group, because:
a) If we had a repetition in a row (or column), so that
xa = xb, then the cancellation rule will give a = b.
So each element occurs no more than once in a row (or
column), and it must occur exactly once, since the group
is finite.
b) If a2 = a then multiplying by a−1 give a = e, so the identity
is the only element that can be fixed.
Hence the row (and column) corresponding to the identity
is the only one that contains any fixed elements.
It is not hard to see that with these rules, the tables of (1) are
the only possibilities for a groups of order 2 and 3.
In the order 3 example, b = a2 , so the unique group of 3
elements is C3 , the cyclic group of order 3.

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Example 1.5 Let G be the set of matrices
( ! ! ! !)
1 0 1 0 −1 0 −1 0
I= ,A = ,B = ,C = .
0 1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1

Show that G is an abelian group under matrix multiplication

and write out its multiplication table.
SOLUTION: Multiplying we get:

I A B C
I I A B C
A A I C B
B B C I A
C C B A I

I leave the rest as an EXERCISE. 

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1.2 Fields
In first year you met the concept of a field, F, which
generalises Q, R and C: sets where we can add, subtract,
multiply and divide in a nice way.
We can conveniently define a field using the group concept:
Definition 1.3 A field (F, +, ×) is a set F with two binary
operations on it, addition (+) and multiplication (×), where
a) (F, +) is an abelian group,
b) F∗ = F\{0} (0 is the additive identity) is an abelian group
under multiplication,
c) The distributive laws a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c and
(a + b) × c = a × c + b × c hold.
We usually just refer to “the field F” if the operations are the
obvious ones.
MATH2601 Slides, 2021 – p. 15
Notes
a) It is clear that our definition is equivalent to saying F
satisfies the 12 = 5 + 5 + 2 number laws.
b) We usually use juxtaposition for the multiplication in fields
and 1 for the identity under multiplication.
c) The smallest possible field has two elements, and is
usually written {0, 1} with 1 + 1 = 0.
d) The standard examples of fields are the sets Q, R and C
with the familar operations.
e) We use the convenient notation a − b for a + (−b) and a/b
for ab−1 (when b 6= 0.)
f) The results of lemma 1.1 tell us things like −(−a) = a and
cancellation laws like ab = ac implies b = c if a 6= 0.

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Example 1.6 Let p be any prime.
From the results of example 1.1, to prove that the set Zp is a
field we only need to check the distributive laws.
But proving that a(b + c) = ab + ac in Zp is the same as proving

a(b + c) − ab − ac ≡ 0 (mod p)

which follows trivially from the distributive laws in Z.

The other law follows similarly.
In turns out that the only finite fields are those of size pk for
some prime p (referred to as the characteristic of the field)
and positive integer k .
We call these fields the Galois fields of size pk , GF(pk ).
Note: GF(pk ) 6= Zpk unless k = 1.

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Lemma 1.3 Let F be a field and a, b, c ∈ F. Then
a) a0 = 0
b) a(−b) = −(ab)
c) a(b − c) = ab − ac
d) if ab = 0 then either a = 0 or b = 0.
Proof: (of d) – the others are an EXERCISE.
Suppose ab = 0 and a 6= 0.
Then a−1 exists and multiplying 0 = ab by a−1 gives

0 = a−1 0 = a−1 (ab) = (a−1 a)b = 1b = b .

(Using part a, the hypothesis, associativity, definition of

inverse and definition of identity respectively.) 

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1.3 Subgroups and subfields
Given a category, it is natural to look at subcategories.
These are subsets of the sets for which the restriction of the
operation(s) results in another member of the category.
For example
Definition 1.3 Let (G, ∗) be a group and H a non-empty
subset of G.
If H is a group under the restriction of ∗ to H , we call it a
subgroup of G.
We write this as H ≤ G and say H inherits the group
structure from G.
Any subgroup of an abelian group must be abelian.
EXERCISE
The subgroup idea and the following lemma are prototypes of
others we will meet for other categories.
MATH2601 Slides, 2021 – p. 19
Lemma 1.4 (The Subgroup Lemma) Let (G, ∗) be a group
and H a non-empty subset of G.
Then H is a subgroup of G if and only if
a) for all a, b ∈ H , a ∗ b ∈ H
b) for all a ∈ H , a−1 ∈ H .
i.e. H is closed under ∗ and −1 .

Proof: We already have closure and inverse: all that remains

are associativity and the identity.
But associativity for a subset follows automatically from
associativity for the full set.
As for the identity, let h ∈ H be any element. Then h−1 ∈ H
and h ∗ h−1 = e ∈ H .
This completes the proof. 

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Example 1.7 a) Every non-trivial group G has at least two
subgroups: {e} and G.
b) For any integer m let mZ be the set of all multiples of m.
Then (mZ, +) is a subgroup of (Z, +).
Conversely, every subgroup of (Z, +) is mZ for some m.
c) For integer m, consider Cm = ha : am = ei the cyclic group
of order m.
Picking any integer k with 1 < k < m we could generate a
subgroup Hk = hak i of Cm by looking at all powers of ak .
Clearly the order of Hk cannot be larger than m.
In fact, the order of Hk is strictly less than m if and only if
k and m have a common divisor d.
EXERCISE: try this with the elements of C6 .

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Example 1.8 Let n ≥ 1 be any integer.
The set of invertible n × n matrices over field F is a group
under matrix multiplication: it is a special case of example 1.2
with S = Fn and is non-abelian if n > 1.
It called the general linear group, GL(n, F).
The groups GL(n, R) and GL(n, C) are especially important in
this course.
They have many important subgroups, such as
• the special linear groups SL(n, R) and SL(n, C) of
matrices with determinant 1.
• O(n) ≤ GL(n, R) the group of orthogonal matrices.
• SO(n) = O(n) ∩ SL(n, R) of special orthogonal matrices.

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Definition 1.4 If (F, +, ×) is a field and E ⊆ F is also a field
under the same operations (restricted to E), then (E, +, ×) is a
subfield of (F, +, ×), usually written E ≤ F.
Lemma 1.5 (The Subfield Lemma) Let E 6= {0} be a
non-empty subset of field F.
Then E is a subfield of F if and only if for all a, b ∈ E:

a + b ∈ E, −b ∈ E, a × b ∈ E, b−1 ∈ E if b 6= 0 .

Proof: The distributive laws are obviously inherited from F to

E.
The rest of the proof follows from applying the subgroup
lemma, lemma 1.4, to both (E, +) and (E∗ , ×). 

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Example 1.9 Let α be any (non-rational) real or complex
number.
We define Q(α) to be the smallest field containing both Q and
α.
Such fields are important in number theory and can clearly be
generalised to e.g. Q(α, β).
√ √
It can be shown that Q( 2) = {a + b 2 : a, b ∈ Q}, for example.
√
Proving Q( 2) is a subfield of R is straightforward with the
subfield lemma (closure under division is the only part that
needs any real work).
√
Proving {a + b 2 : a, b ∈ Q} is the smallest field with both Q
√
and 2 is the hard part.
√ √ √
Proving something like {a + b 2 + c 3 + d 6 : a, b, c, d ∈ Q},
√ √
which is Q( 2, 3) in fact, is a field is not conceptually any
harder, but is clearly more work.
MATH2601 Slides, 2021 – p. 24
1.4 Morphisms
The other key part of a category are the “nice” maps between
the members: these are called morphisms.
For example:
Definition 1.5 Let (G, ∗) and (H, ◦) be two groups.
A (group) homomorphism from G to H is a map φ : G → H
that respects the two operations, that is where

φ(a ∗ b) = φ(a) ◦ φ(b) for all a, b ∈ G .

A bijective homomorphism φ : G → H is called an

isomorphism: the groups are then said to be isomorphic.
QUESTION: how would you define a field homomorphism?

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If two groups are isomorphic, then they are really the same
group, at least as far as group theory is concerned.
In fact, isomorphism is an equivalence relation on groups. (I
leave that as an EXERCISE for those who have taken
MATH1081.)
Example 1.10 Let m ≥ 2 be any integer. Define
φ : (Z, +) → (mZ, +) (see example 1.7) by φ(a) = ma.
Show that φ is an isomorphism of groups.
SOLUTION: Firstly

φ(a + b) = m(a + b) = ma + mb = φ(a) + φ(b) .

The easiest way to show φ is a bijection is to find the inverse.

But if g ∈ mZ then g = ma for some a ∈ Z and clearly φ(a) = g ,
so φ−1 (g) = a.
Thus φ is an isomorphism. 
MATH2601 Slides, 2021 – p. 26
Example 1.11 For any positive integer m, let Zm be the set of
all mth roots of unity.
It is easy to see that Zm under multiplication is a subgroup of
C∗ = C \ {0}.
If zm = e2πi/m then (see first year)
2 m−1
Zm = {1, zm , zm , . . . , zm }.

Now consider the bijection φ : Cm → Zm given by φ(ak ) = zm k.

It is very clear that φ will be a homomorphism: if p + q < m then

φ(ap aq ) = φ(ap+q ) = zm
p+q p
= zm q
· zm = φ(ap )φ(aq )

I will leave you check the case p + q > m.

Hence Cm and Zm are isomorphic.

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Lemma 1.6 Let (G, ∗) and (H, ◦) be two groups and φ a
homomorphism between them. Then
a) φ maps the identity of G to the identity of H .
b) φ maps inverses to inverses, i.e. φ(a−1 ) = (φ(a))−1 for all
a ∈ G.
c) if φ is an isomorphism from G to H then φ−1 is an
isomorphism from H to G.
Proof: for a), let e be the identity of G and e′ the identity of H .
Then (EXERCISE: explain each step)

e′ ◦ φ(e) = φ(e) = φ(e ∗ e) = φ(e) ◦ φ(e)

and the result follows by cancellation.

I leave the others as an EXERCISE. 

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Definition 1.6 Let φ : G → H be a group homomorphism, with
e′ the identity of H .
The kernel of φ is the set

ker(φ) = {g ∈ G : φ(g) = e′ }

The image of φ is the set

im(φ) = {h ∈ H : h = φ(g), some g ∈ G} .

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Lemma 1.7 For φ : G → H a group homomorphism, ker φ ≤ G
and im φ ≤ H .
Proof: Let e be the identity of G.
From part a) of the previous lemma, e ∈ ker φ, so the kernel is
non-empty.
If a, b ∈ ker φ then

φ(a ∗ b) = φ(a) ◦ φ(b) = e′ ◦ e′ = e′

so a ∗ b ∈ ker φ.
If a ∈ ker φ then from part b) of the previous lemma

φ(a−1 ) = (φ(a))−1 = (e′ )−1 = e′ ,

and so a−1 ∈ ker φ.

Thus by the subgroup lemma, ker φ ≤ G.
I leave the other as an EXERCISE. 
MATH2601 Slides, 2021 – p. 30
Lemma 1.8 A homomorphism φ is one-one if and only if
ker φ = {e}, with e the identity of G.
If φ is one-one then im(φ) is isomorphic to G.
Proof: From part a) of the previous lemma, e ∈ ker φ, and if φ
is one-one, e is the only element that maps to e′ , the identity of
H.
Conversely, suppose ker φ = {e} and φ(a) = φ(b).
Then
φ(a ∗ b−1 ) = φ(a) ◦ (φ(b))−1 = e′
and so a ∗ b−1 = e and a = b.
If homomorphism φ is one-one it is a bijection from G to im φ,
and so an isomorphism. 

MATH2601 Slides, 2021 – p. 31

A common use of group homomorphisms is to look for a
homomorphism φ : G → GL(n, F) for some n and some field F.
The group im(φ) is called a (linear) representation of G on
Fn .
If φ is one-one (so every element maps to a distinct matrix),
we call the representation faithful.
Example1.11 gave us faithful representations of Cm on C.
Consider C4 = {e, a, a2 , a3 } (so that a4 = e).
Example 1.12 !
0 1
Let J = and define φ : C4 → GL(2, R) by φ(ak ) = J k .
−1 0
Then it is easy to see that φ is a faithful representation of C4
on R2
Linear representations are so useful, that we commonly refer
to the image subgroup of matrices as the group itself.

MATH2601 Slides, 2021 – p. 32

We can also apply this last lemma (im(φ) is a subgroup) to the
case where G is finite and H is Sn for some n.
In this case we get a permutation representation of the
group G as a subgroup of Sn .
A theorem due to the British mathematician Arthur Cayley
(1821-1895) is that every finite group G has a permutation
representation as a subgroup of Sn for n ≤ |G|.
So, in a sense, the Sn and their subgroups are all there are in
the finite group case.

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