Optical Fiber: Submitted in The Partial Fulfillment of Requirement For The Award of Degree of

OPTICAL FIBER
SUBMITTED IN THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENT FOR THE

AWARD OF DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
SUBMITTED BY
RAJAT CHOPRA
C. Roll No. – 176/17
U. Roll No. – 736/17
Submitted to
Ms. Amrinder Kour
Assistant Professor
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

MAHANT BACHITTAR SINGH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY, JAMMU
YEAR 2020
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the Seminar Report entitled “OPTICAL FIBER” is an authentic record
of my own work carried out as the partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of degree
of B.E. (Electrical Engineering) of Mahant Bachittar Singh College of Engineering &
Technology, Jammu during Session 2018-19
Date : RAJAT CHOPRA

C. Roll No. – 176/17
Certified that the above statement made by the student is correct to the best of my knowledge
and belief.
Ms. Amrinder Kour

Assistant Professor
Mr. Randeep Singh

Seminar Coordinator
Countersigned by
Dr. Sanjeev Singh
(Head, Deptt of EE)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
“There are times when silence speaks so much more loudly than words of praise to only as
good as belittle a person, whose words do not express, but only put a veneer over the feelings,
which are gratitude at this point of time.”
My report will remain incomplete if I do not mention the efforts of the people who helped me
in completing this project. I take this opportunity to thank Ms. Amrinder Kour(Assistant
Professor) for guiding me throughout the completion of this seminar report as well as
boosting my morale.
RAJAT CHOPRA
C. Roll No. – 176/17
U. Roll No. – 736/17
CONTENTS
Page No
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION OF OPTICAL FIBBER 1
CHAPTER 2 HISTORY OF FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY 2
CHAPTER 3 CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL FIBER CABLE 5
CHAPTER 4 GUIDING MECHANISM IN OPTICAL FIBER 6
CHAPTER 5 BASIC COMPONENT OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION 7
5.1 TRANSMITTERS 7
5.2 FIBER 7
5.3 RECEIVERS 7
5.4 PROCESS OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION 7
CHAPTER 6. PRINCIPLE OF OPTICAL TRANSMISSION 9
6.1 INDEX OF REFRACTION 9
6.2 SNELL'S LAW 9
6.3 CRITICAL ANGLE 10
6.4TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (TIR):- 10
6.5 ACCEPTANCE CONE:- 11
6.6 NUMERICAL APERTURE (NA):- 11
6.6.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF NA WITH FIBER CHARACTERISTICS 13
CHAPTER 7 ADVANTAGE OF OPTICAL FIBER 14
7.1 ADVANTAGE OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION:- 15
CHAPTER 8 DISPERSION 17
8.1MATERIAL DISPERSION (CHROMATIC DISPERSION) 17
8.2 INTERMODAL DISPERSION (MODE DISPERSION) 18

8.3 WAVEGUIDE DISPERSION 18
CHAPTER 9 ATTENUATION 19
9.1 ABSORPTION LOSS 20
9.1.1 INTRINSIC ABSORPTION 20
9.1.2 EXTRINSIC ABSORPTION 20
9.2 LIGHT SCATTERING 20
9.3 BENDING LOSS 21
CHAPTER 10 FIBER 22
10.1 MULTIMODE FIBER 22
10.2 SINGLE-MODE FIBER 23
CHAPTER 11 OPTICAL SOURCES 24
11.1 LED 24
11.1.1 OPERATION OF LEDS 24
11.1.2 HETEROJUNCTIONS (PRACTICAL LEDS):- 25
11.2 LASERS 26
11.2.1 PRINCIPLE OF THE LASER:- 26
CHAPTER 12 OPTICAL DETECTORS 28
12.1 PHOTOCONDUCTORS 28
12.2 PHOTODIODES 29
12.2.1 P-N DIODES 29
12.2.2 P-I-N DIODES 29
12.3 AVALANCHE PHOTODIODES (APDS) 30

CHAPTER 13 LIMITATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBER 32
CHAPTER 14 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBER 33
CHAPTER 15 ITS USE IN POWER TRANSMISSION 35
15.1 INTRODUCTION 35
15.2. INTELLIGENT ELECTRONIC DEVICE 37
15.3. SCADA & ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (EMS) FOR

POWER SECTOR 37
15.4. OPGW COMMUNICATION 38
CHAPTER 16 TYPES OF OPTICAL CABLES 39
16.1 OPWG(OPTICAL GROUND WIRE) 39
16.2 ALL-DIRECT SELF-SUPPORTING CABLES 41
16.3WRAP-TYPE FIBER OPTIC CABLES (WRAP) 45
CHAPTER 17 ADANTAGES OF OPTICAL CABLES ON TRANSMISSION

TOWER 47
CHAPTER 18 TYPES OF FAILURES ASSOCIATED WITH FIBER NETWORK 49
18.1 PHYSICAL PHENOMENA THAT CAUSE CABLE FAILURES 50
CONCLUSION 51
REFERENCES 53
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig No. Figures Name Page No
Fig.1 Our Current 1
Fig.2 Construction off Iber 5
Fig.3 The basic component of OFC 7
Fig.4 Acceptance cone 11
Fig 5 (Numerical aperture) 11
Fig .6 Effect of Dispersion 17
Fig.7 (Scattering process) 21
Fig .8 Bending losses 21
Fig.9 Multimode Step-index Fiber 22
Fig .10 Multimode Graded-Index Fiber 23
Fig.11 Single-Mode Fiber 23
Fig.12 Hetrojunction LED 25
Fig.13 Principle of operation of laser 27
Fig.14 Spontaneous Emission 27
Fig.15 Photoconductor detector 29
Fig.16 Silicon P-I-N Diode Schematic 29
Fig.17 Avalanche Photodiode (APD) 30
Fig 18. OPGW system across Power Grid in India 41
Fig.19 Wrap aerial fiber optic cables 45

Optical Fiber
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION OF OPTICAL FIBBER
Our current ―age of technology‖ is the result of many brilliant inventions and discoveries, but
it is our ability to transmit information, and the media we use to do it, that is perhaps most
responsible for its evolution. Progressing from the copper wire of a century ago to today’s
fiber optic cable, our increasing ability to transmit more information, more quickly and over
longer distances has expanded the boundaries of our technological development in all areas.
Fig.1 Our Current
An optical fiber (or fiber) is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length. fiber
optics is the overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with design and
applications of optical fibers. optical fibers are widely used in fiber optic communications,
which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates)
because light has high frequency than any other form of radio signal than other forms of
communications. Light is kept in the core of the optical fiber by total internal reflection. This
causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals
travel along them with less loss, and they are also immune to electromagnetic interference,
which is caused by thunderstorm. fibers are also used for illuumination , and are wrapped in
bundles so they can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in tight spaces . specially
designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including, sensors and fiber
lasers..
Deptt. of Electrical Engg. MBSCET 1

Optical Fiber
CHAPTER 2
HISTORY OF FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY
In 1870, John Tyndall, using a jet of water that flowed from one container to another and a
beam of light, demonstrated that light used internal reflection to follow a specific path. As
water poured out through the spout of the first container, Tyndall directed a beam of sunlight
at the path of the water. The light, as seen by the audience, followed a zigzag path inside the
curved path of the water. This simple experiment, illustrated in Figure, marked the first
research into guided transmission of light.
In the same year, Alexander Graham Bell developed an optical voice transmission system he
called the photo phone. The photo phone used free-space light to carry the human voice 200
meters.
Specially placed Mirrors reflected sunlight onto a diaphragm attached within the
mouthpiece of the photo phone. At the other end, mounted within a parabolic reflector, was a
light sensitive selenium resistor.
This resistor was connected to a battery that was, in turn, wired to a telephone receiver. As
one spoke into the photo phone, the illuminated diaphragm vibrated, casting various
intensities of light onto the selenium resistor. The changing intensity of light altered the
current that passed through the telephone receiver which then converted the light back into
speech. Bell believed this invention was superior to the telephone because it did not need
wires to connect the transmitter and receiver. Today, free-space optical links find extensive
use in metropolitan applications.

Optical Fiber
The first practical all-glass fiber was devised by Brian O'Brien at the American Optical
Company and Narinder Kapany (who first coined the term 'fiber optics' in 1956) and
colleagues at the Imperial College of Science and Technology in London. Early all-glass
fibers experienced excessive optical loss, the loss of the light signal as it traveled the fiber,
limiting transmission distance.
In 1969, several scientists concluded that impurities in the fiber material caused the
signal loss in optical fibers. the basic fiber material did not prevent the light signal from
reaching the end of the fiber. these researchers believed it was possible to reduce the losses
in optical fibers by removing the impurities.
Jun-ichi Nishizawa, a Japanese scientist at Tohoku University, was the first to propose the
use of optical fibers for communications in 1963. Nishizawa invented other technologies that
contributed to the development of optical fiber communications as well. Nishizawa invented
the graded-index optical fiber in 1964 as a channel for transmitting light from semiconductor
lasers over long distances with low loss.
Fiber optics developed over the years in a series of generations that can be closely tied to
wavelength. Below Figure shows three curves. The top, dashed, curve corresponds to early
1980's fiber, the middle, dotted, curve corresponds to late 1980's fiber, and the bottom, solid,
and curve corresponds to modern optical fiber.

Optical Fiber
The earliest fiber optic systems were developed at an operating wavelength of about 850 nm.
This wavelength corresponds to the socalled 'first window' in a silica-based optical fiber. This
window refers to a wavelength region that offers low optical loss. As technology progressed;
the first window became less attractive because of its relatively high loss. Then companies
jumped to the 'second window' at 1310 nm with lower attenuation of about 0.5 db/km. In late
1977 the 'third window' was developed at 1550 nm. It offered the theoretical minimum
optical loss for silica-based fibers. A 'fourth window,' near 1625 nm, is being developed.
While it is not lower loss than the 1550 nm window, the loss is comparable, and it might
simplify some of the complexities of long-length, multiple-wavelength.

Optical Fiber
CHAPTER 3
CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL FIBER CABLE
Fig.2 Construction off Iber
An optical fiber is a very thin strand of silica glass in geometry quite like a human hair. In
reality it is a very narrow, very long glass cylinder with special characteristics. When light
enters one end of the fiber it travels (confined within the fiber) until it leaves the fiber at the
other end.
An optical fiber consists of two parts: the core and the cladding. The core is a narrow
cylindrical strand of glass and the cladding is a tubular jacket surrounding it. The core has a
(slightly) higher refractive index than the cladding. Light travelling along the core is confined
by the mirror to stay within it even when the fiber bends around a corner.
A fiber optic cable has an additional coating around the cladding called the jacket. The jacket
usually consists of one or more layers of polymer. Its role is to protect the core and cladding
from shocks that might affect their optical or physical properties. It acts as a shock absorber.
The jacket also provides protection from abrasions, solvents and other contaminants. The
jacket does not have any optical properties that might affect the propagation of light within
the fiber optic cable.

Optical Fiber
CHAPTER 4
GUIDING MECHANISM IN OPTICAL FIBER
Light ray is injected into the fiber optic cable on the right. If the light ray is injected and
strikes the core-to-cladding interface at an angle greater than an entity called the critical angle
then it is reflected back in to the core.
Since the angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection the reflected light will
again be reflected. The light ray will then continue this bouncing path down the length of the
fiber optic cable. If the light ray strikes the core-to-cladding interface at an angle less than the
critical angle then it passes into the cladding where it is attenuated very rapidly with
propagation distance. Light can be guided down the fiber optic cable if it enters at less than
the critical angle. This angle is fixed by the indices of refraction of the core and cladding and
is given by the formula:
The critical angle is measured from the cylindrical axis of the core. By way of example, if n1
= 1.446 and n=1.430then a quick computation will show that the critical angle is 8.53
degrees, a fairly small angle.
Of course, it be noted that a light ray enters the core from the air outside, to the left of Figure.
The refractive index of the air must be taken into account in order to assure that a light ray in
the core will be at an angle Less than the critical angle. This can be done fairly simply.
Suppose a light ray enters the core from the air at an angle less than an entity called the
external acceptance angle It will be guided down the core.

Optical Fiber
CHAPTER 5
BASIC COMPONENT OF OPTICAL FIBER

COMMUNICATION
5.1 TRANSMITTERS
Fiber optic transmitters are devices that include an LED or laser source, and signal
conditioning electronics, to inject a signal into fiber. The modulated light may be turned on or
off, or may be linearly varied in intensity between two predetermined levels.
Fig.3 The basic component of OFC
5.2 FIBER
It is the medium to guide the light form the transmitter to the receiver.
5.3 RECEIVERS
Fiber optic receivers are instruments that convert light into electrical signals. They contain a
photodiode semiconductor, signal conditioning circuitry, and an amplifier at the receiver end.
5.4 PROCESS OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION
A serial bit stream in electrical form is presented to a modulator, which encodes the data
appropriately for fiber transmission.
 A light source (laser or Light Emitting Diode - LED) is driven by the modulator and
the light focused into the fiber.

Optical Fiber
 The light travels down the fiber (during which time it may experience dispersion and
loss of strength).
 At the receiver end the light is fed to a detector and converted to electrical form.
 The signal is then amplified and fed to another detector, which isolates the individual
state changes and their timing. It then decodes the sequence of state changes and
reconstructs the original bit stream.
 The timed bit stream so received may then be fed to a using device.

Optical Fiber
CHAPTER 6.
PRINCIPLE OF OPTICAL TRANSMISSION
6.1 INDEX OF REFRACTION
This is the measuring speed of light in respective medium. it is calculated by dividing speed
of light in vacuum to the speed of light in material. The RI for vacuum is 1, for the cladding
material of optical fiber it is 1.46, the core value of RI is 1.48(core RI must be more than
cladding material RI for transmission. it means signal will travel around 200 million meters
per second. it will 12000 km in only 60 seconds. other delay in communication will be due to
communication equipment switching and decoding, encoding the voice of the fiber.
6.2 SNELL'S LAW
In order to understand ray propagation in a fiber. We need one more law from high
school physics. This is Snell's law

Optical Fiber
N1 sin .01 = n2 sin.02
Where n denotes the refractive index of the material.01/02 are angles in respective medium.
Higher Refractive Index means denser medium.
1. When light enters in lighter medium from denser it inclines towards normal.
2. When light enters in denser medium from lighter it inclines away to normal.
6.3 CRITICAL ANGLE
If we consider we notice above that as the angle 01 becomes larger and larger so does the
angle 02. Because of the refraction effect 02.
becomes larger more quickly than 01 .At some point 02 will reach 90° while 01 is still well
less than that. This is called the ―critical angle‖. When 01is increased further then refraction
ceases and the light starts to be reflected rather than refracted.
Thus light is perfectly reflected at an interface between two materials of different refractive
index if:
1. The light is incident on the interface from the side of higher refractive index.
2. The angle is greater than a specific value called the ―critical angle‖. Glass refractive
index is 1.50 (critical angle is 41.8), Diamond critical angle is 24.4 degree.
6.4TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (TIR):-
When light traveling in a dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle (larger than the
"critical angle ―for the boundary), the light will be completely reflected. this phenomenon is
called total internal reflection. this effect is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core.
light travels along the fiber bouncing back and forth off of the boundary; because the light
must strike the boundary with an angle .
angle within the fiber. In Figure 2 we see that for rays where angle01 is less than a Critical
value then the ray will propagate along the fiber and will be ―bound‖ within the fiber. In
Figure 1 we see that where the angle 01 is greater than the critical value the ray is refracted
into the cladding and will ultimately be lost outside the fiber. This is loss.

Optical Fiber
6.5 ACCEPTANCE CONE:-
Fig.4 Acceptance cone
When we consider rays entering the fiber from the outside (into the end face of the Fiber) we
see that there is a further complication. The refractive index difference between the fiber core
and the air will cause any arriving ray to be refracted. This means that there is a maximum
angle for a ray arriving at the fiber end face at which the ray will propagate. Rays arriving at
an angle less than this angle will propagate but rays arriving at a greater angle will not. This
angle is not a ―critical angle‖ as that term is reserved for the case where light arrives from a
material of higher RI to one of lower RI. (In this case, the critical angle is the angle within the
fiber.) Thus there is a ―cone of acceptance‖ at the end face of a fiber. Rays arriving within the
cone will propagate and ones arriving outside of it will not. The size of acceptance cone is
function of difference of RI of core and cladding.
6.6 NUMERICAL APERTURE (NA):-
Fig 5.(Numerical aperture)

Optical Fiber
One of the most often quoted characteristics of an optical fiber is its ―Numerical Aperture‖.
The NA is intended as a measure of the light capturing ability of the fiber. However, it is used
for many other purposes. For example it may be used as a measure of the amount of loss that
we might expect on a bend of a particular radius etc
Figure 2 on shows a ray entering the fiber at an angle close to its axis. This ray will be
refracted and will later encounter the core-cladding interface at an angle such that it will be
reflected. This is because the angle 02 will be greater than the critical angle. The angle is
greater because we are measuring angles from a normal to the core-cladding boundary not a
tangent to it.
Figure 1 on shows a ray entering at a wider angle to the fiber axis. This One will reach the
core-cladding interface at an angle smaller than the critical angle and it will pass into the
cladding. This ray will eventually be lost. It is clear that there is a ―cone‖ of acceptance
(illustrated in Figure 3 ). If a ray enters the fiber at an angle within the cone then it will be
captured and propagate as a bound mode. If a ray enters the fiber at an angle outside the cone
then it will leave the core and eventually leave the fiber itself.
The Numerical Aperture is the sine of the largest angle contained within the cone of
acceptance. In figure 4 it is SINE 0O.
We know that sin 02 =n2/n1
Because 02 is the critical angle
And n0 sin 00 = n1 sin 01 from Snell's Law
Now, cos 01 = sin 02 =n2/n1
We know that sin x = (1 − cos2x )1/2(Rule)
Therefore sin 01 = (1 –n22/n12)1/2
Since n0 = 1 then sin 00 = n1 (1 –n22/n12)1/2
Therefore NA = (n12-n22)1/2
Where n1 = refractive index of the core n2 = refractive index of the cladding
Typical NA for single-mode fiber is 0.1. For multimode, NA is between
0.2 and 0.3(usually closer to 0.2)

Optical Fiber
6.6.1 Significance of NA with fiber characteristics:-
 It is a measure of the ability of the fiber to gather light at the input end.
 Because it is a measure of the contrast in RI between the core and the cladding. It is a
good measure of the light guiding properties of the fiber. The higher the NA the
tighter (smaller radius) we can have bends in the fiber before loss of light becomes a
problem.
 The higher the NA the more modes we have rays can bounce at greater angles and
therefore there are more of them. This means that the higher the NA the greater will
be the dispersion of this fiber (in the case of Multi Mode fiber).
 In Single Mode(SM) fiber a high RI contrast usually implies a high level of dopant in
the cladding. Since a significant proportion of optical power in SM travels in the
cladding we get a significantly increased amount of attenuation due to the higher level
of dopant. Thus (as a rule of thumb) the higher the NA of SM fiber the higher will be
the attenuation of the fiber.

Optical Fiber
CHAPTER 7
ADVANTAGE OF OPTICAL FIBER
Fiber optic transmission systems a fiber optic transmitter and receiver, Connected by fiber
optic cable offer a wide range of benefits not offered by traditional copper wire or coaxial
cable. These include:
 Less Expensive. First, fiber optics are less expensive than copper wire. This is
because many miles of optical cable are easier and less expensive to install than the
same amount of copper wire or cable.
 Thinner. Fiber optics is thinner than copper wire cables, so they will fit in smaller,
more crowded places. This is important for underground cable systems, like in cities,
where space needs to be shared with sewer pipes, power wires, and subway systems.
 Higher Carrying Capacity. More information can also be carried over fiber optic
systems. This can be especially important for computers, since a computer has to send
so much information at one time. Also, more phone lines can be in one optical fiber.
Many people use the same optical cable for phone conversations at the same time.
 Less signal degradation. Information gets lost over distances an any kind of wire. But,
fiber optic cables don’t lose as much signal (information) as other kinds of wires and
cables.
 Use Light Signals. Because fiber optics use light signals instead of electricity, the
signals don’t interfere with each other. This makes the signals clearer and easier to
understand.
 Low Power. Optical fiber signals are created using low-power transmitters because
the signal degrades less (instead of highpower electric transmitters used for copper
wires). Lower power use saves money for users and providers.
 Digital Signals. Computer networks need digital information, since fiber optic cables
send information digitally; they are the best thing to use for computer networks.
 Non-flammable. Since fiber optics send light instead of electricity, fiber optics are
non-flammable. This means there is not a fire hazard. Fiber optics also does not cause
electric shocks, because they do not carry electricity.
 Light weight. Fiber optics is easier to install and transport than copper wires. That is
good news for technicians

Optical Fiber
 Flexible. Since fiber optics is more flexible, they can go around corners and into
tighter places than traditional cable. This is important in computer and very big office
networks.
Other benefits are:-
 The fiber is totally immune to virtually all kinds of interference, including lightning,
and will not conduct electricity. It can therefore come in direct contact with high
voltage electrical equipment and power lines. It will also not create ground loops of
any kind.
 As the basic fiber is made of glass, it will not corrode and is unaffected by most
chemicals. It can be buried directly in most kinds of soil or exposed to most corrosive
atmospheres in chemical plants without significant concern.
 Fiber optic cables are virtually unaffected by outdoor atmospheric conditions,
allowing them to be lashed directly to telephone poles or existing electrical cables
without concern for extraneous signal pickup.
 Fiber optic cable is ideal for secure communications systems because it is very
difficult to tap but very easy to monitor. In addition, there is absolutely no electrical
radiation from a fiber.
7.1 ADVANTAGE OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION:-
 Wider bandwidth: The information carrying capacity of a transmission system is

directly proportional to the carrier frequency of the transmitted signals. The optical
carrier frequency is in the range 1013 to 1015 Hz while the radio wave frequency is
about 106 Hz and the microwave frequency is about 1010 Hz. Thus the optical fiber
yields greater transmission bandwidth than the conventional communication systems
and the data rate or number of bits per second is increased to a greater extent in the
optical fiber communication system. Further the wavelength division multiplexing
operation by the data rate or information carrying capacity of optical fibers is
enhanced to many orders of magnitude.
 Low transmission loss: Due to the usage of the ultra low loss fibers and the erbium
doped silica fibers as optical amplifiers, one can achieve almost lossless transmission.
In the modern optical fiber telecommunication systems, the fibers having a
transmission loss Of 0.002 dB/km are used. Further, using erbium doped silica fibers
over a short length in the transmission path at selective points; appropriate optical

Optical Fiber
amplification can be achieved. Thus the repeater spacing is more than 100 km. Since
the amplification is done in the optical domain itself, the distortion produced during
the strengthening of the signal is almost negligible.
 Dielectric waveguide: Optical fibers are made from silica which is an electrical
insulator. Therefore they do not pickup any electromagnetic wave or any high current
lightning. It is also suitable in explosive environments. Further the optical fibers are
not affected by any interference originating from power cables, railway power lines
and radio waves. There is no cross talk between the fibers even though there are so
many fibers in a cable because of the absence of optical interference between the
fibers.
 Signal security: The transmitted signal through the fibers does not radiate. Further the
signal cannot be tapped from a fiber in an easy manner. Therefore optical fiber
communication provides hundred per cent signal security.
Small size and weight: Fiber optic cables are developed with small radii, and they are
flexible, compact and lightweight. The fiber cables can be bent or twisted without damage.
Further, the optical fiber cables are superior to the copper cables in terms of storage,
handling, installation and transportation, maintaining comparable strength and durability.

Optical Fiber
CHAPTER 8
DISPERSION
Fig .6 Effect of Dispersion
Dispersion occurs when a pulse of light is spread out during transmission on the fiber. A
short pulse becomes longer and ultimately joins with the pulse behind, making recovery of a
reliable bit stream impossible. (In most communications systems bits of information are sent
as pulses of light. 1 = light, 0 = dark. But even in analogue transmission systems where
information is sent as a continuous series of changes in the signal, dispersion causes
distortion.)
There are many kinds of dispersion, each of which works in a different way, but the most
important three are discussed below:
8.1MATERIAL DISPERSION (CHROMATIC DISPERSION)
Both lasers and LEDs produce a range of optical wavelengths (a band Of light) rather than a
single narrow wavelength. The fiber has different refractive index characteristics at different
wavelengths and therefore each wavelength will travel at a different speed in the fiber. Thus,
some wavelengths arrive before others and a signal pulse disperses (or smears out).

Optical Fiber
8.2 INTERMODAL DISPERSION (MODE DISPERSION)
When using multimode fiber, the light is able to take many different paths or ―modes‖ as it
travels within the fiber. The distance traveled by light in each mode is different from the
distance travelled in other modes. When a pulse is sent, parts of that pulse (rays or quanta)
take many different modes (usually all available modes). Therefore, some components of the
pulse will arrive before others. The difference between the arrival times of light taking the
fastest mode versus the slowest obviously gets greater as the distance gets greater.
8.3 WAVEGUIDE DISPERSION
Waveguide dispersion is a very complex effect and is caused by the shape and index profile
of the fiber core. However, this can be controlled by careful design and, in fact, waveguide
dispersion can be used to counteract material dispersion.
Dispersion in different fibers:
Mode dispersion > .material dispersion > waveguide dispersion.

Optical Fiber
CHAPTER 9
ATTENUATION
Fiber Infrared Absorption Spectrum. The lower curve shows the characteristics of a single-
mode fiber made from a glass containing about 4% of germanium dioxide (GeO2) dopant in
the core. The upper curve is for modern graded index multimodefibre. Attenuation in
multimode fiber is higher than in singlemode because higher levels of dopant are used. The
peak at around 1400 nm is due to the effects of traces of water in the glass.
Attenuation in fiber optics, also known as transmission loss, is the reduction in intensity of
the light beam with respect to distance travelled through a transmission medium.
Attenuation coefficients in fiber optics usually use units of dB/km through the medium due to
the relatively high quality of transparency of modern optical transmission media.
Attenuation in an optical fiber is caused by absorption, scattering, and bending losses.

Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels along the fiber. Signal attenuation is
defined as the ratio of optical input power (Pi) to the optical output power (Po). Optical input
power is the power injected into the fiber from an optical source. Optical output power is the
power received at the fiber end or optical detector.
Each mechanism of loss is influenced by fiber-material properties and fiber structure.

However, loss is also present at fiber connections i.e. connector, splice, and coupler losses.

Optical Fiber
9.1 ABSORPTION LOSS
Absorption in optical fibers is explained by three factors:
 Imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material.

 The intrinsic or basic fiber-material properties.
 The extrinsic (presence of impurities) fiber-material properties.
Imperfections in the atomic structure induce absorption by the presence of missing molecules
or oxygen defects. Absorption is also induced by the diffusion of hydrogen molecules into the
glass fiber.
9.1.1 Intrinsic Absorption. –
Intrinsic absorption is caused by basic fibermaterial properties. If an optical fiber were

absolutely pure, with no imperfections or impurities, then all absorption would be intrinsic.
Intrinsic absorption sets the minimal level of absorption.
9.1.2 Extrinsic Absorption. –
Extrinsic absorption is caused by impurities introduced into the fiber material. Trace metal
impurities, such as iron, nickel, and chromium, OH ions are introduced into the fiber during
fabrication. Extrinsic absorption is caused by the electronic transition of these metal ions
from one energy level to another.
9.2 LIGHT SCATTERING
Basically, scattering losses are caused by the interaction of light with density fluctuations
within a fiber. Density changes are produced when optical fibers are manufactured. During
manufacturing, regions of higher and lower molecular density areas, relative to the average
density of the fiber, are created. Light traveling through the fiber interacts with the density
areas as shown in Light is then partially scattered in all direction

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Fig.7 (Scattering process)
In commercial fibers operating between 700-nm and 1600-nm wavelength, the main source
of loss is called Rayleigh scattering.. As the wavelength increases, the loss caused by
Rayleigh scattering decreases. If the size of the defect is greater than one-tenth of the
wavelength of light, the scattering mechanism is called Mie scattering.
9.3 BENDING LOSS

As light travels along the fiber, it is reflected from the interface between the core and
cladding whenever it strays from the path straight down the Center. When the fiber is bent,
the light only stays in the fiber because of this reflection. But the reflection only works if the
angle of incidence is relatively low. If you bend the fiber too much the light escapes.
The amount of allowable bending is specific to particular cables because it depends on the
difference in refractive index, between core and cladding. The bigger the difference in
refractive index, the tighter the allowable bend radius. There is a tradeoff here because there
are many other reasons that we would like to keep this difference as small as possible. Two
types of losses are there.microbend loss or macro bend loss.
Micro bends losses are small microscopic bends of the fiber axis that occur mainly when a
fiber is cabled. Micro bend losses are caused by small discontinuities or imperfections in the
fiber. External forces are also a source of micro bends.
Fig .8 Bending loss

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CHAPTER 10
FIBER
Fiber is the medium to guide the light form the transmitter to the receiver. It is classified into
two types depending on the way the light is transmitted: multimode fiber and single-mode
fiber.
10.1 MULTIMODE FIBER
Multimode fiber designed to transmit more than one light at a time. Fiber diameter ranges
from 50-to-100 micron. Multimode fibers can be divided in to two categories Multimode
Step-index Fiber and Multimode Graded-index Fiber.
In Multimode Step-index Fiber the lights are sent at angles lower than the critical angle or
straight (or simply the angle is zero). Any light angle exceed the critical angle will cause it to
penetrate through cladding (refracted) and being lost as shown in Figure 9. Obviously light
with lower angle which has less number of reflection, reach the end faster than those with
larger angle and this will result in unstable wave light. To avoid this problem there should be
spacing between the light pulses, but this will limit the bandwidth and because of that it is
used for very short distance.
Fig.9 Multimode Step-index Fiber
Multi-mode fiber is mainly used where a signal needs to be transmitted and received from
multiple locations. The Multimode Graded-index Fiber designed to reduce the problem in
Multimode Step-Index fiber by making all the beams reaching the receiver at the same time.
This can be done by slowing down the ones with shorter distance and increasing the speed for
ones with longer distance, see Figure 10. This is done in fiber implementation by increasing
its refractive index at the center and gradually decreases it toward the edges. In the Figure 10
we can see the light near the edges is curved until it is reflected, this is due to the refraction
caused by the change in density.

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Fig .10 Multimode Graded-Index Fiber
10.2 SINGLE-MODE FIBER
In single-mode, only one light is transmitted in the fiber which diameter ranges from 8.3 to
10 microns, see Figure 11. Since there is only one light the problem associated with the
multimode fiber does not exist and by this we can have a higher transmission rate and also it
can be used for longer distance.
Fig.11 Single-Mode Fiber

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CHAPTER 11
OPTICAL SOURCES
There are two kinds of devices that are used as light sources: Lasers and LEDs.
11.1 LED
LED is just a forward biased p-n junction. There is a recombination of holes and electrons.
This recombination requires energy possessed is the unbound free electron is transferred to
another state. In all semiconductor p-n junctions some of this energy will be given off as heat
and some in the form of photons .In silicon and germanium greater percentage is given up in
the form of heat and the emitted light is insufficient. In other material, such as gallium
arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) or gallium phosphide (GaP) , the number of photos of light
energy emitted is sufficient to create a very visible light source. The process of giving off
light by applying an electrical source of energy is called electroluminescence.
11.1.1 Operation of LEDs
The wavelength of light emitted by the LED is inversely proportional to the band gap energy.
The higher the energy the shorter the wavelength. The formula relating electron energy to
wavelength is given below.
The materials of which the LED is made determine the wavelength of light emitted. The
following table shows energies and wavelengths for commonly used materials in
semiconductor LEDs and lasers.

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11.1.2 Heterojunctions (Practical LEDs):-
Heterojunction means that a p-n junction is formed by a single crystal such that the material
on one side of the junction differs from that on the other side of the junction. In the modern
GaAs diode lasers, a hetero junction is formed between GaAs and GaAlAs. This type of p-n
junction diode laser or LED is used at 800 m wavelength. At longer wavelengths, InP-
InGaAsP heterojunction diodes are used.
Fig.12 Hetrojunction LED
Generally heterojunction LEDs have minimum threshold current density (10 A/mm2), high
output power (10 mW) even with low operating current (<500 mA) high coherence and high
monochromaticity, high stability and longer life.
Characteristics of LEDs:-
 Low Cost
 Low Power
 Relatively Wide Spectrum Produced
 Incoherent Light
 Digital Modulation
 Analogue Modulation

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11.2 LASERS
LASER is an acronym for ―Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation‖.

Lasers produce far and away the best kind of light for optical communication. Ideal laser
light is singlewavelength only. This is related to the molecular characteristics of the material
being used in the laser. It is formed in parallel beams and is in a single phase. That is, it is
―coherent‖.
 Lasers can be modulated (controlled) very precisely (the record is a pulse length of
0.5 femto seconds.
 Lasers can produce relatively high power. Indeed some types of laser can produce
kilowatts of power. In communication applications, semiconductor lasers of power up
to about 20 mill watts are available. This is many times greater power than LEDs can
generate. Other semiconductor lasers (such as those used in ―pumps‖ for optical
amplifiers) have outputs of up to 250 mill watts.
 Because laser light is produced in parallel beams, a high percentage (50% to 80%) can
be transferred into the fiber.
11.2.1 Principle of the LASER:-
1. An electron within an atom (or a molecule or an ion) starts in a low energy stable state
often called the ―ground‖ state.
2. Energy is supplied from outside and is absorbed by the atomic structure whereupon
the electron enters an excited (higher energy) state.
3. A photon arrives with energy close to the same amount of energy as the electron
needs to give up reaching a stable state. (This is just another way of saying that the
wavelength of the arriving photon is very close to the wavelength at which the excited
electron will emit its own photon.)

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Fig.13 Principle of operation of laser
Fig.14 Spontaneous Emission
 The arriving photon triggers a resonance with the excited atom. As a result the excited
electron leaves its excited state and transitions to a more stable state giving up the
energy difference in the form of a photon.

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CHAPTER 12
OPTICAL DETECTORS
The predominant types of light detector used in communications systems based on the
principle of ionization in a semiconductor material. When discussing photo detectors there
are four important parameters:
Detector Responsivity:-
This is the ratio of output current to input optical power. Hence this is the efficiency of the
device.
Spectral Response Range:-
This is the range of wavelengths over which the device will operate.
Response Time:-
This is a measure of how quickly the detector can respond to variations in the input light
intensity.
Noise Characteristics:-
12.1 PHOTOCONDUCTORS
Photoconductors are the simplest conceivable optical detector. The device consists of a piece
of (undoped) semiconductor material with electrical contacts attached. A voltage is applied
across the contacts.
When a photon arrives in the semiconductor it is absorbed and an electron/hole pair is

created. Under the influence of the electric field between the two contacts the electron and the
hole each migrate toward one of the contacts. Wave length depends on amount of light falling

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Fig.15 Photoconductor detector
12.2 PHOTODIODES
Photodiodes convert light directly to electric current. An ideal (p-i-n) diode can convert one
photon to one electron of current
12.2.1 P-N Diodes:-
The principle involved in a PIN diode is simply the principle of the LED in reverse. That is,
light is absorbed at a p-n junction rather than emitted. The big problem here is that the
depletion zone in a p-n junction is extremely thin. But current produced is insufficient and
devices are not fast enough for current communications.
12.2.2 P-I-N Diodes:-
Fig.16 Silicon P-I-N Diode Schematic
The answer to the problem created by the extreme thinness of a p-n junction is to make it
thicker! The junction is extended by the addition of a very lightly doped layer called the
intrinsic zone between the p and n doped zones. Thus the device is called a p-i-n diode rather

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than a p-n diode. The wide intrinsic (i) layer has only a very small amount of dopant and acts
as a very wide depletion layer. There are a number of improvements here:
 It increases the chances of an entering photon being absorbed because the volume of
absorbent material is significantly increased.
 Because it makes the junction wider it reduces the capacitance across the junction.
The lower the capacitance of the junction the faster the device response. Increasing
the width of the depletion layer favors current carriage by the drift process which is
faster than the diffusion process. The result is that the Addition of the ―i‖ layer
increases the responsivity and decreases the response time of the detector to around a
few tens of picoseconds.
12.3 AVALANCHE PHOTODIODES (APDS)
APDs amplify the signal during the detection process. They use a similar principle to that of
―photomultiplier‖ tubes used in nuclear radiation detection.
Methodology of Conduction in APDs:-
1. A single photon acting on the device releases a single electron.

2. This electron is accelerated through an electric field until it strikes a target material.
Fig.17 Avalanche Photodiode (APD)
3. This collision with the target causes ―impact ionization‖ which releases multiple
electrons.
4. These electrons are then themselves accelerated through the field until they strike
another target.
5. This releases more electrons and the process is repeated until the electrons finally
hit a collector element.

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APDs develop a very high electric field in the intrinsic region as well as to impart more
energy to photoelectrons to produce new electron-hole pairs by impact ionization. This
impact ionization leads to avalanche breakdown in the reverse biased diode. So the APDs
have high sensitivity and high responsivity over p-i-n diodes due to the avalanche
multiplication.

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CHAPTER 13
LIMITATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBER
1. The terminating equipment is still costly as compared to copper wire.

2. Delicate so has to be handled carefully.
3. Communication is not totally in optical domain, so repeated electric to optical to
electrical conversion is needed.
4. Optical amplifiers, splitters, MUX-DEMUX are still in development stages.
5. Tapping is not possible. Specialized equipment is needed to tap a fiber.
6. Optical fiber splicing is a specialized technique and needs expertly trained manpower.
7. The splicing and testing equipments are very expensive as compared to copper
equipments.
8. Bending Cables
9. Gamma Radiation
10. Electrical Fields
11. Sharks Eat the Cable Gophers (and Termites) Really Do Eat the Cable

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CHAPTER 14
APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBER
Due to the advantages of fiber optic over the traditional connectivity networks, networks are
being changed to the new technology of fiber optic. Here is some applications use fiber optics
for the communication: Long Haul telecommunication systems on land and at sea to carry
many simultaneous telephone calls (or other signals) over long distances. These include
ocean spanning submarine cables and national backbone networks for telephone and
computer data transmission. Interoffice trunks that carry many telephone conversations
simultaneously between local and regional switching facilities. Connections between the
telephone N/W and antennas for mobile telephone service. Links among computers and high
resolution video-terminals used for such purposes as computer aided design. Transmission of
signals within ships and aircraft. Local area Networks operating at high speeds or over large
areas, and backbone systems connecting slower local area Networks. High speed
interconnections between computer and peripherals devices, or between computers, or even
within segments of single large Cable TV,CCTV ,Optical Fiber Sensors, X-ray Imaging
,Night Vision Other uses of optical fibers Fibers are widely used in illumination applications.
They are used as light guides in medical and other applications where bright light Some
buildings, optical fibers are used to route sunlight from the roof to other parts of the building .
Optical fiber illumination is also used for decorative applications, including signs, art, and
artificial Christmas trees. Optical fiber is also used in imaging optics i.e. an endoscope, which
is used to view objects through a small hole. Medical endoscopes are used for minimally
invasive exploratory or surgical procedures (endoscopy). Industrial endoscopes are used for
inspecting anything hard to reach, such as jet engine interiors. In spectroscopy, optical fiber
bundles are used to transmit light from a spectrometer to a substance which cannot be placed
inside the spectrometer itself, in order to analyze its composition. A spectrometer analyzes
substances by bouncing light off of and through them. By using fibers, a spectrometer can be
used to study objects that are too large to fit inside, or gasses, or reactions which occur in
pressure vessels.
Future Applications of Optical Fiber Communication:-
Today, however, lower costs and higher production volumes mean that fiber optics can now
make sense in areas where it didn't before, including relatively short distances.

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Advancement in Communications: -
Fiber technologies provide higher bandwidth, higher speed, and increased reliability over
existing DSL technology, which uses Copper wires for communication.
In future it will be possible to have Wave length Band in Radio compare to FM band (where
synchronizing is done through frequency).In Wavelength band Channels will have Different
wavelengths (earlier, it was once just one wavelength of light traveling through the fiber,
today it is more like 160 wavelengths traveling at once.).So as research is going on number of
wavelength per fiber is increasing.
In cars, fiber optics is replacing copper as a lighter alternative for entertainment systems, CD
players, and global positioning systems.
Research is going on to integrate semiconductor devices, including a transistor, inside micro

structured optical fibers. Then it will be possible to manipulate signals inside optical fibers.
After these developments there will be not any need of electronic switching devices at both
ends of fiber. So signal will never leave fiber. This results in faster cheaper and more efficient
operation.
INTEL has developed new technology to connect PC USB to Optical Fiber. So direct
communication can be achieved between users through Optical Fiber
Advancement in Fiber Optics
In the research world, fiber is enabling the creation of clocks that are more accurate than ever
before, By combining a laser with an optical fiber, these clocks allow scientists to measure
time more accurately than they've been able to previously, enabling better, more precise.
By using Fiber optics it is possible to prepare more reflective and shining cloths.
Room Lighting may improve. Now you can imagine a home with cheerful splashes of
natural sunlight in every room at once. Lighting Colour wili be changed. So, by using some
almost invisible optical fibers to an outside light source, they could bring natural, outside
light to a space that needs.
This is new way to get sunlight into a place that wouldn't otherwise have it. Such as a dark,
interior room.
Fiber-optic light bulbs have already been developed, and may be an additional way to tap
into fiber optics for household lighting.

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CHAPTER 15
ITS USE IN POWER TRANSMISSION
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Due to additions of new generating plants, grid stations and sub-stations, the complexity of
the power system has increased. A national power grid in any country is basically a high –
voltage electric power transmission Network to connect power generating stations and major
sub stations. Such grid ensure that electricity generated anywhere within the country can be
used to satisfy demand elsewhere.
The saving of electric power is equal to the generation of electricity, this encourage use of
advance technology for reducing transmission losses. Hierarchical load dispatching systems
are employed to monitor, supervise and control the power grid in effective and efficient
manner.
To perform the load dispatch function efficiently, on-line acquisition of power system data
and its real time processing is required. A Computer Based Supervisory Control And Data
Acquisition (SCADA) system with Intelligent Electronics Devices (IED) and OPGW as
communication link associated with Energy Management System is a prime requirement of
National Power Grid. So we use optical fiber wire, a single fiber can carry nearly 8000
simultaneous voice channels.
Keywords: IED,EMS,SCADA,OPGW
India has a large complicated electric power system of generation having capacity about
170.2GW. Central Govt. undertakings generates 52.7 GW, while various states govt.
undertaking generates 82.2GW. The private sector companies generate 35.3GW.
The Indian Power Grid is expanding at a fast pace to achieve its goal of ―Electricity for all ‖.
There is an ambition of adding 78.7GW capacity during the 11th 5 year plan by the central
and state utilities together. In order to achieve this goal, regional grids of Indian Power
System are being connected synchronously to help in seamless transfer of power from one
region to another.
India is thickly populated, tropically diversified and has heterogeneous geography. Power
system of India has been divided in five regional grids namely North, West, East, North-east

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and South region. First four of the above five regional electricity grids are operating in a
synchronous mode since 25th August 2006 and the interconnection is called the
―NEW GRID‖. The southern Regional Grid is presently connected to the ―NEW GRID‖
through several High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) asynchronous ties and a few AC lines
in radial mode.
In India such load dispatch has been divided in five regions of grids i.e. regional load
dispatch centers (RLDC). They are currently owned, operated and maintained by central
govt. owned company (Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd). It is the central transmission
utility (CTU) of the country. State of Rajasthan falls under the North Region Load Dispatch
Centre (NRLDC). The current overall generation capacity of NRLDC is 45.5 GW and state
owned Rajasthan Rajya Vidyut Prasran Nigam Ltd. (RRVPNL) contributes 8.5GW to
NRLDC.
Such a widely spread grid require wide area monitoring for efficient control. To meet this
objective, a modern SCADA system employ a computerized SCADA master in which the
remote information is either displayed on an operator‟s computer terminal or made available
to a large Energy Management System (EMS) through network connections. The basis of
monitoring is data collection from every substation under a grid.
Each such sub-station has a remote terminal unit (RTU) either hardwired to digital, analog
and central points. It frequently acts as a sub-master or data concentrator. It connect various
Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) installed at the substation, and transfer their status/data
using communication links.
Till today, the power sector still relies upon Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC)
technology for transfer of data through the power transmission lines. The frequency spectrum
allotted to the power sector for PLCC communication is already saturated and frequency
crunch is being experienced in getting new/additional frequencies for new transmission lines.
Besides PLCC equipment supports a very low data rate due to its narrow band of 4kHz Under
this 4kHz all speech, data and protection control signals
are to be accommodated. Thus it permits merely up to a maximum of 1200 baud in ideal case
but only up to 200 baud in practical cases for data transmission. Transferring larger amount
of data collected from ever increasing grid substations, has already stretched the PLCC
channels to their full capacity. PLCC channels working merely @200 bauds require larger
amount of time to make data reach the controlling computers, creating a bottle neck for

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effective control over the grid. It necessitates development of an alternative communication

link for the Indian Power Sector. A composition of Optical fiber with power ground wire is
able to fulfill this need. Such a technique is known as Optical Power Ground Wire (OPGW).
Using OPGW, the power grid controller can receive data @ Mb/Sec to Tb/Sec, achieving a
speedup by a huge factor, for handling large data for supervisory and protection control
requirement of modern SCADA.
15.2. INTELLIGENT ELECTRONIC DEVICE
An intelligent electronic device (IED) is a term used in the electric power industry/ utility to
describe microprocessorbased controllers of power system equipment, such as circuit
breakers, transformers and capacitors banks.
IED receive data from sensors and power equipment, and can issue control commands, such
as tripping circuit breakers if they sense voltage, current, or frequency anomalies or
raise/lower voltage levels in order to maintain the desired level, Common types of IED
include protective relaying device, load tap changer controllers, circuit breaker controllers,
capacitor bank switches, recloser controllers, voltage regulators, etc. Digital protective relays
are primarily IEDs, using microprocessor to perform several protective, control, and similar
functions. A typical IED can contain around 5-12 protection functions, 5-8 control functions
controlling separate devices, an auto reclose function, self monitoring function,
communication functions etc. Hence they are called Intelligent Electronic Devices. Some
recent IEDs are designed to support the IEC61850 standard for sub station automation,
which provides interoperability and advanced communications capabilities.
15.3. SCADA & ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (EMS) FOR

POWER SECTOR
For decades, traditional SCADA measurement have been providing information on bus
voltages, line, generator and transformer flows (MW, MVAR and Ampers), transformer taps
and breaker status as well as other system parameters viz, frequency and weather data. These
measurements are typically taken once every 4 or 10 seconds offering a steady state view of
the power system behavior. However for monitoring and control of present times large grid,
only steady state information may not be sufficient. Currently, a pilot project has been
implemented in Northern Region (NR) based on a technique called synchrophasor
measurement to gain firsthand experience in use of this technology for monitoring and

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control of large power grids. Use of synchrophasor measurement, facilitates better

supervisory controls, optimizes and managements of generation and transmission of larger
complicated and ever increasing demand and supply of Indian Power System network. It will
provide for better utilization of the power grid system, as the behavior of the system can be
dynamically predicted and controlled. Such an implementation will facilitate achieving even
better Energy Management System such that Transmission and Distribution (T&D) losses
could be reduced. It has been initially estimated that such a reduction shall be of the order of
almost 25%
The back bone of a sound EMS is an efficient SCADA system. However it is the underlying
communication system that makes a SCADA perform in real time.
For power sector, an efficient SCADA means quick collection of data from various field
devices and other data processing units. The EMS on the basis of this information, system
creates and provides various type of pre-defined, customized reports and user – friendly
screen shots to the dispatcher for smooth and disciplined real time power system operation.
15.4. OPGW COMMUNICATION
The National Power Grid of India has been divided in five Regions to provide efficient
Energy Management System in real-time. It can be achieved only with on-line data collection
and processing. Thus an intelligent SCADA along with high speed telecommunication
facilities at every state, becomes the strongest need for central EMS.
To handle large data with the adoption of IED and IT based SCADA/EMS for the Power
System in India requires a switch over to the advance telecommunication technology such as
optical fiber communication system.
Use of fiber optic based communication offers availability of phenomenal bandwidth. Not
only this, it also offers low attenuation and capable of covering large distances with higher
transmission rates. Currently the OPGW of single mode fiber type has experimentally
established that almost 400 kms distance can be covered without repeater for transferring the
status of various data measurements and protection control signals and other parameters to
the SCADA. Such OPGW makes use of optical signals of 1310 to 1550 nanometer (nm)
wave length in 6-12-24-...-144 core.

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CHAPTER 16
TYPES OF OPTICAL CABLES
Overhead transmission powerline corridors provide the telecommunications industry with

cost-effective alternative routes and at the same time benefit the electric utilities by
generating additional revenues using existing facilities. The inherent advantage of fiber optic
technology as a means of communication is that fiber optics provide fixed link ,point to point
communications with a remarkably high capacity for carrying data. For example, a single pair
of fiberscancarrynearly8000simultaneousvoicechannels. Currently, fiber optics can be
integrated into an over head power transmission line in four different ways. The optical fibers
can be:
 Encased within the Ground Wire(OPGW)

 Encased within the Phase Conductor (OPPC)
 Wrapped around the Phase Conductor or the Ground Wire(WRAP)
 Contained in an All-Dielectric-Self-Supporting Cable(ADSS)
However ,the practice of integrating fiber optic cables into high-voltage corridors also poses
some technical and safety related challenges. Since ADSS and WRAP type fiber optic cables
are located in high electric fields there is the threat of sheath damage and cable failure similar
to the phenomena related to aging of non-ceramic insulators. Also, the high working tensions
necessary for adequate ground clearance and minimum amounts of self-damping expose the
light-weight OPGW and self supporting ADSS fiber optic cables to wind-induced vibration,
which can damage the cables and hardware.
16.1 OPWG(OPTICAL GROUND WIRE)
The fiber unit containing the optical fibers is placed inside the ground wire. This type of
construction is called an 'Optical Ground Wire'(OPWG). ,the number of optical fibers that
can be readily fitted into an OPGW aerial wire construction can reach upto 144 fibers.
Operation
OPGW is a composite type of cable, used for the construction of electric power transmission
and distribution lines. Such cable performs two functions i.e. it provides a Ground wire and
also a communication link for the transmission of voice, video or data by incorporating optic
fibers within power cable. OPGW fiber cables shall replace conventional ground wire of old

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power lines with increase in the communication capacity due to optical fiber. Fig. 1 depicts
the cross section view of an OPGW cable. It has a tubular structure with one or more single
mode optical fiber inside surrounded by layers of steel and aluminum wire.
Overhead optical fiber systems shall be able to play the key role in telecommunication
facility for power sector networks. In addition it offers a distinct advantage that no civil
works are required for its installation. It can be installed along existing power transmission
lines straight way. Thus it is possible to minimize costs and most importantly, the time
required to begin network operation. Since the various state electricity boards across the
entire country have already dedicated transmission lines crossing the entire states i.e.
interstate connectivity is also achieved.
The earth wire (a galvanized steel wire which is run on the peak of transmission lines) is
replaced with a OPGW (composite optical power Ground Wire) which serves the purpose of
acting as earth wire and has an embedded stainless steel tube which carry a bunch of fibers to
serve or communications. The transmission line terminates at receiving stations or
generating stations and these locations the OPGW is terminated and the fiber carried to
special equipments called Optical Line Terminal Equipments (OLTE). These OLTE are
similar as used in telecom companies and carry signals in the SDH format (An international
telecom standard accepted across globe). The installation of OPGW is similar to earth wire,
with the exception that mid-span compression joints are not possible with OPGW. Jointing
/splicing are done usually at tension towers and with suitable modification at the suspension
towers. Although some extra length is needed it is convenient to do the splicing at the ground
level. The jointing box is normally placed on the tower above the anti-climbing device. As
the OPGW cannot be subjected to any radial compression, performed type fittings are used in
tension towers and armoured grip suspension clamps are used in suspension towers. The
special core is necessary during installation as the twisting/rotation of cable may strain the
fibers.
The signals from telephone exchanges or computer network such as Ethernet or data from
RTU (Remote Terminal Unit) or connected to the SDH gate way through specialized
equipment called primary multiplexer at the sending end. At the receiving end these are
again ―dropped‖ out of SDH gateway through another set of similar equipment and connected
to the exchange or ethernet. Providing this OPGW over existing comparable communication
links of Electricity board achieve increase band width at a low investment with increased

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automation being taken in terms of computerization of billing and collection, accessing their
main load center points.
TRENDS
It is envisaged that Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) installed at different generating stations,
EHV sub stations acquire analog (MW, MVR etc) and digital (Breaker & Isolator) data from
field devices and send it to SCADA system as and when interrogated by SCADA. The
digital data collected shall be given highest priority and its information transmitted to the
SCADA system in immediate next cycle of interrogation in a short span of time. All RTUs
are equipped with dual redundant communication ports to avoid data interruption and are
connected with SCADA system through PLCC/OPGW network.
Fig 18. OPGW system across Power Grid in India
Technological progress is expected to increase the requirement of power sector to include

more services to be utilized along with the OPGW as communication. The internet facilities
may be through this network can be utilized by the Indian Power Sector for their IMIS
utilities.
16.2 ALL-DIRECT SELF-SUPPORTING CABLES
ADSS cables must be designed with sufficient tensile strength to maintain minimum
clearances and protect the optical fibers from external stresses and strains throughout the
predicted service life Consideration must be given to long term fatigue and creep. The
support element of ADSS aerial cables is typically glass, Aramide fiber, or both(see Figure ).
Metallic strength elements may also be used in other self-supporting aerial cables but are
typically not recommended where a parallelism exists between the routes of communication
and the power supply cables due to the induction potential on the aerial cable from the phase

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conductors. Due to the light weight and high-strength-to-weight ratio, ADSS aerial cables can
be utilized on very long spans(i.e., upto 1000m or 3284feet) for most climatic loading
conditions. The number of optical fibers in ADSS cables is typically higher than the number
of optical fibers in OPGW or WRAP aerial cables. Fiber counts usually vary between 24 to
48 fibers for most long distance applications, while local area loops may have fiber counts of
upto 288 for ADSS and 144 for OPGW aerial cable. Optical fibers may be bundled, formed
into ribbons or individually housed in loose buffer tubes or slots to provide adequate
mechanical protection. Typically ,the tubes or slots are filled with grease to protect the optical
fibers from water penetration.

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Figure2-5 shows an ADSS aerial cable that consists of multiple glass or Aramide strength
members and loose tube buffered fiber cables stranded together inside the outer sheath.
Typically, this design process shows to be very flexible which makes it most suitable for
applications that require a small turning radius.
16.3WRAP-TYPE FIBER OPTIC CABLES (WRAP)
WRAP aerial fiber optic cables can be fastened to or wrapped around the existing phase or
ground wire as shown in Figure
Fig. 19 Wrap aerial fiber optic cables
Typically, the wrapping-type system is the only system still used in today's installation of
communication networks.
These fiber optic cables are usually light weight since they rely on the strength of the
conductor or ground wire for support. The number of fibers typically used in WRAP

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Optical Fiber
CHAPTER 17
ADANTAGES OF OPTICAL CABLES ON TRANSMISSION

TOWER
The key advantages of using overhead electricity distribution lines to carry cables providing
broadband connectivity can be summarised in three distinct areas: speed, security and cost
 Speed: It is always much, much quicker to install Fiber-Optic cable by attaching it to

poles than it is to dig trenches to bury it underground. Directional drilling or
ploughing are alternative ways of installing underground cable, but these are also
slow and expensive compared to installation on overhead lines. Circumstances will
vary according to the time of year with factors including weather conditions, whether
or not crops or animals are in the fields and what the ground conditions are like
underfoot; however it is generally possible to install at least 1km of Fibre Optic cable
a day on overhead power lines and up to 5km per day is possible in favorable
circumstances.
 Security: This is a key concern in any Fiber-Optic cable installation. Cables have been
installed on overhead power lines since the very early 1980s and have developed an
excellent reputation for security and reliability over that time. Power utilities use these
cables to carry critical communications for control of the electricity network. Fiber-
optic cables installed above ground are not subject to „dig-ups‟ which is the biggest
cause of cable damage that are being experienced by companies everytime. Cables
that are installed as part of the electricity infrastructure are protected by the proximity
of power conductors, which provide protection against theft and vandalism.
 Cost: The higher unit cost of aerial cables compared to underground cables is more
than offset by the much lower cost of installation and therefore aerial cables have the
lowest total cost. Aerial cables have much higher installation rates and so networks
are built much more quickly, begin to provide services earlier and so have quicker
returns on investment. Put another way, with reduced initial costs and earlier in-
service dates, aerial cables have shorter pay back times than underground networks.

Optical Fiber
System reliability
These features involves stem from the low loss property of Optical Fibre cables which
reduces the requirement for intermediate repeaters to boost the transmitted signal strength.
Hence with fewer repeaters, system reliability is generally enhanced in comparison with
conventional electrical conductor systems. It also tend to reduce the maintenance time and
cost.
Durability:-
The ultra-pure silica glass used in optical fiber has a higher tensile strength than copper. The
jacketing material further strengthens and protects the fiber. The toughness of fiber optic
cables is well understood. The durability of very fine copper wire without thick insulation is
not as well understood.
Safety
The fiber is nonconducting, and is therefore safe in all electromagnetic environments. On

land, this means it can safely be used around electrical transmission lines, as well as in high
RF and magnetic fields. Also, it will not attract or transmit lightning.
A broken or damaged, optical fiber can be detected extremely quickly by monitoring either
the actual power transmission or (preferably) the transmission of a pilot signal at a shorter
wavelength. With a suitable crowbar circuit, the laser transmission can be shut off within 1-2
microseconds. At a 1 kW laser power level, even a worst-case fiber break releases at most a
few mJ of laser power, with no high temperature arc.
By contrast, a break in a 1 kV electrical power cable will almost certainly result in an arc
discharge and unless great care is taken in the circuit design to detect arcs and minimize
energy storage, the arc can persist for milliseconds and deliver joules of energy. Such an arc
can ignite volatiles or flammable materials.
Both high voltages and high power lasers are potential hazards to users or (particulary)
service personnel; both hazards can be readily mitigated in most cases by suitable safety
interlocks. We do note, however, that high voltage, high current sources can kill if even a
small fraction of the power escapes; laser sources can cause eye damage and in extreme
circumstances burn skin, but cannot be lethal (unlike high voltage copper).

Optical Fiber
CHAPTER 18
TYPES OF FAILURES ASSOCIATED WITH FIBER

NETWORK
The failure classes that are associated with fiber optic networks are classified as:-
 Patch panel failures,

 Installation failures, and
 Construction failures.
Patch panel failures are failures that create malfunctions in the system by high attenuation.
Poor connection points can cause some of these malfunctions when the fiber was terminated
with the appropriate connectors. When the fiber is spliced together poorly the signal inside
the fiber optic cable can have large dB losses. If the connections were not inserted in the
connectors correctly or the fiber cable has fractured parts in the glass, there can be very high
attenuation to no signal propagation into other parts of the communication network. This is
going to possibly show communication outages within the system.
Installation failures are associated with failures that are caused when installing the fiber optic
network. If a fiber optic cable is bent past the specification bending radius of the cable then
the cable can fail instantly or could possible fail over time. This might not be an automatic
failure as mentioned but could be failures later in time as the fiber optics weaken. This
mainly happens when the installer is not aware of the specification of the cable and not
paying attention to what he or she is doing. Failures in fiber optics can also be caused by
improper dressing and from terminating the fiber optic connections. This kind of installation
failure is sort of an overlap from a patch panel failure. When fiber optic cable connections are
terminated to the cable poorly, weather it be ST connectors, SC connectors or similar
connectors for example, these cables can present a point of failure in the installation process.
Terminating fiber optic cable can be a very hard skill to master.
Construction failure
The last failure class is the failures that are related to the construction of the fiber optics
networks. These cables are always going to be strung from pole to pole, similar to the high or
medium voltage lines that form our electric grid.

Optical Fiber
18.1 PHYSICAL PHENOMENA THAT CAUSE CABLE FAILURES
Corona discharge at the tips of assembly rods that are not all terminated at the same location
on the cable (i.e., one rod sticks out further than others); and Dry band arcing on the surface
of the cable under polluted conditions BPA concentrated their observations and experiences
on the corona phenomena.
1 Corona
The outer plastic sheath of an ADSS aerial cable is subject to erosion by discharges when
placed in the electric field of the phase conductors of the overhead power line. While the
influence is negligible at lower voltage levels, problems have been observed on lines with
higher voltage ratings. Typically, the surface of the ADSS cable sheath changes in
appearance and structure near the dead end and armor grip suspension points. These changes
indicated a degradation of the ADSS sheath surface. Typically, the damage of the sheath,
normally black with high density polyethylene, arises within a few weeks to months.
Consequently, the sheath material of ADSS aerial cables must be resistant to electrical
discharges
2 Grounding
Since the ADSS used in high voltage environments does not contain metallic parts, there is
no question of grounding the cable. However, it must be recognized that the ADSS aerial
cable is mechanically attached to grounded parts at each structure. These grounded parts
include the structure members, clamps and armor rods. Also, since the ADSS is placed in the
electric field of the energized phase conductors, significant induced voltages may be
developed on the cable. This is important from the viewpoint of ADSS cable aging and
safety of personnel working in the cable while the line remains energized

Optical Fiber
CONCLUSION
The age of optical communications is a new era. In several ways fiber optics is a pivotal
breakthrough from the electric communication we have been accustomed to. Instead of
electrons moving back and forth over a regular copper or metallic wire to carry signals, light
waves navigate tiny fibres of glass or plastic to accomplish the same purpose.
With a bandwidth and information capacity a thousand times greater than that of copper
circuits, fiber optics may soon provide us with all the communication technology we could
want in a lifetime, at a cost efficient price.
At present there are many optical fiber communication links throughout the world without
using optical solutions. When we introduce optical solutions as light pulses through the
fibers, we can achieve high quality telecommunication at a lower cost. We can expect a great
revolution in optical fiber communication within a few years by means of solutions.
Optical Fibre cable in domestic communication of power grid network as an alternative

media installed to the power line carrier and microwave radio to enhance adequate and
efficient communication and security in the grid. The use of 132 KV power transmission line
infrastructures between the Optical network can satisfy present need of high speed and
reliable data, video and voice communications from all existing equipments, offices,
operators, and maintenance engineers and technicians. Primarily, there are three different
cable options available to an electric companies that opts to integrate communications into
their existing power transmission system. The currently available cables and wires that can
be used in high voltage passages are:
ADSS (All-Dielectric Self Supporting Cable)
OPGW (Optical Ground Wire)
WRAP (Optical Cable Wrapped on Ground Wire)
Future expansion of the network to include all other 132 KV and 400 KV substations have
been taken into account in the design work. Extra Optical Fibres in the OPGW are reserved
for future use to connect all towns the network pass through or pass by. And the people living
in these towns will be served when the future expansions are implemented. The issue of
security power network Inspection and damage assessment tools need to be identified to
evaluate the integrity and confidentiality of aerial cables and wires. These inspection and
assessment tools are required by electric utilities to locate developing problem areas prior to
Optical Fiber
catastrophic failure. Regular inspection and reliable damage detection procedures and tools
could be used in preventive maintenance programs that could significantly reduce repair cost
and increase the reliability of the communication system.
With the advent of OPGW, the power sector SCADA can focus on gathering and circulating
the right amount of system information to the right person or computer within the right
amount of time. It will create solutions to fight or avoid blackouts. It will provide an
information highway for power sector to achieve surplus electricity utilization quickly and
orderly. An intelligent EMS shall be able to function well only when it makes use of
combination of technologies i.e. IEDs, IT based SCADA along with the optical fiber
communication for the transfer of data at fast rate. By use of OPGW, the power utilities can
manage the operation of the large power grid more efficiently and save power losses. OPGW
can also earn extra revenue by leasing out spare capacity to other agencies for their
communication purposes. It can be concluded clearly that OPGW technique is best suited for
the Indian Power Sector to achieve dynamic real time control over the grid.

Optical Fiber
REFERENCES
 From paper written by Harry J. R. Dutton for International Technical

 Support Organization titled as Understanding Optical
Communications by IBM.
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber
 http://www.fiber-optics.info/articles/wdm.htm
 http://www.arcelect.com/fibercable.htm
 From paper Optical fiber communication—An overview by M ARUMUGAM
(Department of Physics), Anna University.
 An educational resource published by Communications Specialties, Inc.paper titled
Introduction to Fiber Optics PowergridPaper on connectivity in north eastby
powergrid.
 Paper on fiber optic cable in transmission corridors.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber cables and its use in power transmission.

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OPTICAL FIBER

SUBMITTED IN THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENT FOR THE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Date : RAJAT CHOPRA

Ms. Amrinder Kour

Mr. Randeep Singh

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION OF OPTICAL FIBBER 1

CHAPTER 2 HISTORY OF FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY 2

CHAPTER 3 CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL FIBER CABLE 5

CHAPTER 4 GUIDING MECHANISM IN OPTICAL FIBER 6

CHAPTER 5 BASIC COMPONENT OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION 7

5.4 PROCESS OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION 7

CHAPTER 6. PRINCIPLE OF OPTICAL TRANSMISSION 9

6.1 INDEX OF REFRACTION 9

6.2 SNELL'S LAW 9

6.3 CRITICAL ANGLE 10

6.4TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (TIR):- 10

6.5 ACCEPTANCE CONE:- 11

6.6 NUMERICAL APERTURE (NA):- 11

6.6.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF NA WITH FIBER CHARACTERISTICS 13

CHAPTER 7 ADVANTAGE OF OPTICAL FIBER 14

7.1 ADVANTAGE OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION:- 15

8.1MATERIAL DISPERSION (CHROMATIC DISPERSION) 17

8.2 INTERMODAL DISPERSION (MODE DISPERSION) 18

9.1 ABSORPTION LOSS 20

9.1.1 INTRINSIC ABSORPTION 20

9.1.2 EXTRINSIC ABSORPTION 20

9.2 LIGHT SCATTERING 20

9.3 BENDING LOSS 21

10.1 MULTIMODE FIBER 22

10.2 SINGLE-MODE FIBER 23

CHAPTER 11 OPTICAL SOURCES 24

11.1.1 OPERATION OF LEDS 24

11.1.2 HETEROJUNCTIONS (PRACTICAL LEDS):- 25

11.2.1 PRINCIPLE OF THE LASER:- 26

CHAPTER 12 OPTICAL DETECTORS 28

12.2.1 P-N DIODES 29

12.2.2 P-I-N DIODES 29

12.3 AVALANCHE PHOTODIODES (APDS) 30

CHAPTER 14 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBER 33

CHAPTER 15 ITS USE IN POWER TRANSMISSION 35

15.2. INTELLIGENT ELECTRONIC DEVICE 37

15.3. SCADA & ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (EMS) FOR

15.4. OPGW COMMUNICATION 38

CHAPTER 16 TYPES OF OPTICAL CABLES 39

16.1 OPWG(OPTICAL GROUND WIRE) 39

16.2 ALL-DIRECT SELF-SUPPORTING CABLES 41

16.3WRAP-TYPE FIBER OPTIC CABLES (WRAP) 45

CHAPTER 17 ADANTAGES OF OPTICAL CABLES ON TRANSMISSION

CHAPTER 18 TYPES OF FAILURES ASSOCIATED WITH FIBER NETWORK 49

18.1 PHYSICAL PHENOMENA THAT CAUSE CABLE FAILURES 50

Fig.1 Our Current 1

Fig.2 Construction off Iber 5

Fig.3 The basic component of OFC 7

Fig.4 Acceptance cone 11

Fig 5 (Numerical aperture) 11

Fig .6 Effect of Dispersion 17

Fig.7 (Scattering process) 21

Fig .8 Bending losses 21

Fig.9 Multimode Step-index Fiber 22

Fig .10 Multimode Graded-Index Fiber 23

Fig.11 Single-Mode Fiber 23

Fig.12 Hetrojunction LED 25