DESIGN AND APPLICATIONS OF WEARABLE

ANTENNAS

A SEMINAR REPORT

submitted by

SARATH MC
[LCHN20EC084]
to
APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of the Degree

of

Bachelor of Technology

In

Electronics and Communication Engineering

Department of Electronics Engineering

College of Engineering Chengannur

DECEMBER 2023
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
CHENGANNUR

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this report entitled “optical fiber communication linked by Ethernet Protocol”
submitted by SARATH MC [LCHN20EC084] to APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in
Electronics and Communication Engineering, is a bonafide record of the seminar conducted under
our guidance in the year 2023.

Dr. Deepa J Smt Neethu Anilkumar Prof (Dr.) Laila D

Associate Professor Assistant Professor Head of the
Department
Seminar Guide Electronics Engineering
Smt. Anju V Sathyan
Assistant Professor
Seminar
Coordinators
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I take this opportunity to express my gratitude and respect to all those who have helped me throughout
my seminar.
I would like to place on record my deep sense of gratitude to our Principal, Dr. Smitha Dharan, and
the Head, Department of Electronics Engineering Dr. Laila D, Professor for providing more than
adequate facilities.

I am thankful to my seminar coordinators Dr. Deepa J and Smt. Anju V Sathyan for their timely help
and advice. Also indebted to Smt Neethu Anilkumar Assistant Professor for her guidance and support
throughout the Seminar.

Support from my family is something that helped me to move forward and is always my strength. I
would like to thank my dear friends and family for extending their cooperation and encouragement
throughout the Seminar preparation, without which I would never have completed the seminar this
well.
 ABSTRACT

Wearable antennas play a crucial role in Body Centric Communication (BCC). Researchers
have recently shown a lot of interest in these antennas due to their attractive characteristics and
opportunities. They are essential components in Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) for
healthcare, military, sports, and identification purposes. Unlike traditional antennas, wearable
antennas work in close proximity to the human body. Therefore, their performance in terms of
return loss, gain, directivity, bandwidth, radiation pattern, efficiency, and Specific Absorption
Rate (SAR) is influenced by the coupling and absorption of human body tissues. In addition to
this, the design of these antennas is also affected by size, power consumption, and speed.
Wearable antennas are usually integrated into clothing, or in some cases, they may be fixed over
the skin of users. This makes the design of wearable antennas challenging, particularly when
textile materials are used, high conductivity materials are used during the manufacturing process,
and various deformation scenarios have an impact on the design's performance. Metamaterial
surfaces are introduced to enhance the overall performance of wearable antennas and to reduce
the backward radiation toward the human body. These surfaces provide a high degree of isolation
from the human body and significantly reduce the SAR. This paper discusses the latest
developments in wearable technology, including state-of-the-art wearable/textile/flexible antennas
integrated with metamaterial structures composed of wearable/flexible substrate materials, with a
focus on single and dual-band antenna designs. The paper also reviews critical design issues,
various fabrication techniques, and other factors that need to be considered in the design of
wearable/textile/flexible antennas.
 CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES i

LIST OF TABLES ii

ABBREVIATIONS iii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER 2 FABRICATION OF WEARABLE ANTENNAS 3

2.1 MATERIALS USED 3

2.1.1 NON CONDUCTIVE MATERIALS 3

2.1.2 CONDUCTIVE MATERIALS 4

2.2 FABRICATION TECHNIQUES 6

2.2.1 SCREEN PRINTING 6

2.2.2 INKJET PRINTING 6

2.2.3 SEWING/STITCHING AND EMBROIDERY PROCESS 7

CHAPTER 4 EFFECTS OF WEARABLE ANTENNAS ON HUMAN BODY 10

5.1 RESONANT FREQUENCY SHIFT 14

5.2 IMPEDANCE MISMATCH 14

5.3 CHANGE IN RADIATION PATTERN 14

5.4 MECHANICAL STRESS 15

5.5 PREVENTION OF BENDING 15

CHAPTER 6 PROPERTIES OF WEARABLE ANTENNAS 16

6.1 FLEXIBILITY 16

6.2 LIGHTWEIGHT 16

6.3 BIOCOMPATIBILITY 16
 6.4 DURABILITY 17

6.5 SPECIFIC ABSORPTION RATE (SAR) 18

CHAPTER 7 APPLICATIONS OF WEARBALE ANTENNAS 19

7.1 MILITARY AND DEFENSE 19

7.1.1 BODY-WORN COMMUNICATION 19

7.1.2 HEALTH MONITORING 20

7.2 HEALTHCARE AND MEDICAL 20

7.2.1 MEDICAL TELEMETRY 20

7.2.2 TELEMEDICINE 21

7.3 SPORTS AND FITNESS 21

7.4 RESCUE OPERATIONS 21

7.4.1 LOCATION TRACKING 22

7.4.2 COMMUNICATION 22

7.5 INDUSTRIAL AND CONSTRUCTION 22

7.5.1 SAFETY MONITORING 22

7.5.2 REMOTE MACHINERY OPERATION 23

CHAPTER 8 IMPORTANCE OF METAMATERIALS IN WEARBALE APPLICATIONS 24

CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSION 26

REFERENCES 27
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Flexible antenna composed of liquid metal encased in the 2

elastomer
Figure 2. Simplified human body model a) Four layer arm b) Four 9
layer cylindrical wrist

Figure 3. Bending Of the proposed antenna at different radii along X and Y 12

axis

Figure 4. Prototype of the proposed antenna at various degrees of 12

bending along X and Y axis

Figure 5. Simulated and measured return loss of the proposed antenna 13

under various bending scenarios (a) along x-axis (b) along y-axis

i
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Summary of the dielectric properties of the 5

wearable/textile substrates

Table 2. Performance analysis of single band wearable antenna 25

with and without metamaterials

ii
 ABBREVIATIONS

BCWC Body Centric Wireless Communication

PIFA Planar Inverted F-Antenna

SAR Specific Absorption Rate

PEC Perfect Electric Conductors

CAD Computer-Aided Design

FCC Federal Communications Commission

HFSS High-Frequency Structure Simulator

PLB Personal Locator Beacon

GPS Global Positioning System

PCB Printed Circuit Boards

RMS Root Mean Square

IoT Internet of Things

PPE Personal Protective Equipment

FBR Front-to-Back Ratio

iii
 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

In the recent past, one of the key components of fourth-generation (4G) mobile communication
systems has emerged: Body Centric Wireless Communication, or BCWC. The fifth generation (5G)
of technology is promising since it will allow for the integration of various high-added-value
services in addition to meeting the demand for a high data rate for mobile phones and related
devices. Devices that are wearable and have built-in cellular connectivity or the capacity to
communicate with one another directly are known as wearable technology. Through their inbuilt
wireless modules, which work with other parts like a battery, sensors, and antenna, they can interact
with other devices. Because they improve a wearable wireless link's overall efficiency, antennas are
one of the most important parts of wearable technology. Wearable gadgets can incorporate compact
antennas as a component. The implementation of antennas depends on the wearable device's use,
size, polarization effects, electrical performance, efficiency, and bandwidth needs. Microstrip
antennas, printed dipole, monopole, printed loops, slot antennas, and planar inverted-Fs (PIFAs)
antennas are a few of the frequently utilized antenna technologies.

The purpose of wearable antennas is to communicate with their source station while they are
being worn and moved. The textile materials are used to create the wearable antennas in order to
achieve this. As a result, during design, the dielectric materials' properties are changed. In a similar
vein, some performance-based enhancements are also required to make a wearable antenna's
operational characteristics obvious. because the antenna's performance will vary depending on
whether it is in free space or another location. Wearable antenna performance will change
significantly due to water absorption and physical changes in humans. A form of communication
known as BCWC is used to link devices worn inside or on the body, as well as between two persons
who are close to one another. According to the method of communication, it is further divided into
three groups: off-body, in-body, and on-body communication. Wireless communication between
devices mounted on the body is referred to as "on-body communication."

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

The body-worn devices and nearby base units or mobile devices communicate with each other
through in-body communication. In-body communication is the term used to describe the
communication between medical implants and on-body devices. The proximity of wearable
antennas to the human body can affect their efficiency, driving point impedance, bandwidth, and
gain. A portion of the radiation from electromagnetic waves used for communication is directed
toward the human body, travels through the skin, and is absorbed by the body, which can have
detrimental effects on health. Apart from flexibility and the consequences of bending and
crumpling, wearable antennas should also meet the requirements of low specific absorption rate
(SAR) and high efficiency. SAR, which is expressed in W/kg, is the amount of energy that the
human body absorbs per unit mass. Because of the importance of this problem over the past few
years, several regulatory bodies have set a safe threshold for these antenna SAR. Similarly, some
performance-based enhancements are also necessary to give a body-worn antenna a distinct
functional characteristic. The design of these antennas is more difficult because they operate close
to the human body and because of the loading effect of the body's loss. Therefore, in order to be
suitable, these antennas must be easy to use, long-lasting, lightweight, comfortable, maintenance-
free, small, and installation- free. This is because the antenna's performance varies depending on
whether it is used in open space or another location.

Fig 1. Flexible antenna composed of liquid metal encased in the elastomer

Department of Electronics 2 College of Engineering Chengannur

 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

CHAPTER 2
FABRICATION OF WEARABLE ANTENNAS

1. MATERIALS USED
Traditional antenna designs may use materials that are unpleasant or inappropriate for body-
worn antennas. They can be designed using a suitable textile material to solve this issue. The
conductive materials, or e-textiles, have the properties of an anisotropic and imperfect electric
conductor. Consequently, the conduction characteristics of these conductive materials differ from
those of ordinary conductors utilized in conventional antenna construction.
The two most important materials that impact the overall performance of the wearable antennas are
conductive (radiating element) and non-conductive (substrate) materials which have the most effects on
the wearable antenna’s overall performance. The conductive materials are selected based on electrical
conductivity, while the substrate materials are chosen based on their dielectric qualities, deformation
(bending, crumpling, twisting, and stretching), sensitivity to miniaturization, and endurance in the
external environment. Prior to choosing a conductive material for the radiating components, such as the
feed line, patch, and ground plane, the substrate material that best supports the layers must be
determined. The wearable antennas will meet consumer’s needs for comfort and shield them from
dangerous radiation by utilizing these materials.

1. NON CONDUCTIVE MATERIALS

When designing wearable antennas, non-conductive (substrate) materials or smart textiles

might be crucial. To achieve greater durability, efficiency, and sufficient bandwidth, these materials
need to have a low dielectric loss, a high thermal expansion coefficient, and a relatively high
permittivity. The selected non-conductive material for the design has an effect on the overall
performance of the wearable antennas. These materials have an impact on the antenna's
performance metrics, including efficiency, bandwidth, and return loss (S11), in addition to just
supporting the radiating element. Furthermore, the substrate material is crucial for wearability,
manufacture, and operation. When choosing the substrate material, permittivity, thickness, loss
tangent, and flexibility should all be taken into account. The loss tangent affects the efficiency.

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

The lower the value of the loss tangent, the more efficient the antenna will be. In a similar vein,
the antenna's elasticity allows it to adjust to the users. Because of this, an appropriate substrate
material needs to fulfill the design's mechanical and electrical requirements. Characterizing the
substrate material’s characteristics is crucial before designing the antennas since the characteristics
of the materials vary based on the frequencies and materials chosen.

2. CONDUCTIVE MATERIALS

Conducting materials are needed for both the radiating element and the ground plane in all antennas.
To provide optimal antenna radiation characteristics, wearable antennas need to have groundplanes
composed of conductive materials and appropriate radiating components. Electro-textiles, whichare
conductive materials, are utilized in wearable/textile antenna designs to provide complete flexibility.The
conductivity of the material affects the current passing through the conductor, which produces radiation.
The capacity of a substance to permit unimpeded charge passage through it is known as conductivity. The
material's conductivity is expressed in Siemens per meter or S/m. Perfect electric conductors (PECs) have
unlimited electrical conductivity, making them suitable for use in antenna construction.
For example, 5.8 × 107 S/m is the conductivity of the copper substance that is often used.
Conductive textile, or e-textile, materials are utilized for the wearable antennas. Therefore, it is
preferable to select materials with comparatively higher electrical conductivity. Thus, high conductivity
conductive materials are required in the construction of flexible or wearable antennas.
When designing wearable antennas using conductive fabrics, it is important to consider the
following requirements:
1.Homogeneity: The resistance variation across the material should be small and
consistent throughout the antenna area.
2.High Conductivity: These materials should have a lower surface resistivity (1Ω/Sq.) to
minimize losses.
3.Flexibility: The materials used should be flexible to ensure that the antenna cannot be
distorted when worn on the human body.
4.Elasticity: The materials should also be elastic to prevent any changes in the antenna's
properties when bent, stretched, crumpled, or compressed.

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

Table 1. Summary of the dielectric properties of the wearable/textile substrates.

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

2. FABRICATION TECHNIQUES

Fabrication methods are the determinants of the speed and accuracy of low cost wearable
antenna prototypes. Mainly dependent on the choice of material, the most common wearable
fabrication techniques include wet-etching, inkjet printing, screen printing, and embroidery
methods. These techniques are being employed in the fabrication of antennas to ensure low
cost,durability, and comfort to the wearers in their daily outfits.

1. SCREEN PRINTING
Screen printing is a method widely used by electronic manufacturers and antenna designers due to
its cost-effectiveness, speed, and ease. It is a technique that can be employed in designing lightweight,
flexible, and low-cost wearable antennas. The process involves the use of a screen, through which ink
is pushed onto the substrate by a wiper blade. The ink is then released onto the exposed portion of the
substrate through the screen to create the desired pattern. The screen is made of a mesh of fabric
threads, with the non-image portion covered in emulsion and the image part left uncovered.
This method is highly adaptable, as it can be used to print images on most substrate materials,
including polyester and stainless steel. Currently, there are three types of screen printing techniques
used for creating wearable antennas: rotary, flatbed, and cylinder. Screen printing has a significant
drawback in the form of low printing resolution. This technology has limitations in terms of the
number of layers it can print, and the thickness of the conductive layers is also fixed. Due to these
limitations, screen printing is considered to be the least desirable technology for printing purposes.

2. INKJET PRINTING

There is a technique called inkjet printing that is used to make flexible antennas. It is a popular and
affordable printing technology due to its reliability and quick design speed. This method is highly
accurate and can produce a pattern with extremely high precision thanks to the very small ink droplets
used during the production process, which are only a few picoliters in size. Conductive inks, such as
silver nanoparticles, are used in this technique. Inkjet printing is divided into two categories: drop-on-
demand and continuous inkjet.

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

This method is very cost-effective because the specially designed printer only projects one ink
droplet from the nozzles to the intended region without any waste. Therefore, inkjet printing is a
noticeable benefit compared to conventional etching and milling methods used in the industry and can
be used as an alternative. However, some conductive ink varieties have large particle sizes that can
cause nozzle obstructions, making this technology unsuitable in certain cases. This is the main
drawback of the inkjet printing technique.

2.2.3 SEWING/STITCHING AND EMBROIDERY PROCESS

The traditional method of stitching and sewing is used to create wearable and flexible antennas.
Conductive fabric material thread is used to embroider the required shape of conductive parts directly
onto nonconductive materials. Technology-supported embroidery equipment is used to embroider
antennas directly onto nonconductive wearable fabric. Embroidered antennas are more flexible and
comfortable, making them suitable for wearable electronics. However, the stitching process may
cause creases in the cloth, giving the antenna a deformed appearance, and spacer textile substrates
cannot be used with this method.
The process involves importing the layout’s image into computer-aided design (CAD) software,
which creates a digitized design. This digital design guides the sewing machine for accurate stitching.
Prior to starting the embroidery process, the stitching gap, yarn tension, and embroidery speed must
be precisely regulated. For simple patch structures, the radiating thread can also be embroidered
manually. This technique is suitable for flexible electronics as it provides a better solution than
conventional antennas due to the embroidered shape, which is more elastic and flexible than antennas
with radiating sections made of metal.

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

CHAPTER 3

EFFECTS OF HUMAN BODY ON WEARABLE ANTENNAS

The human body is an irregularly shaped medium with a heterogeneous and lossy character. The
conductivity of the human body depends on the permittivity and frequency used. For example, breast fat has
a minimum conductivity of 0.10 S/m, while the Eye (Aqueous Humor) has a maximum conductivity of
3.46 S/m at 2.45 GHz frequency. It is crucial to consider the interaction between the antenna and the human
body for body-worn antennas. The complex permittivity and conductivity of the human body can
significantly affect the antenna's overall performance parameters such as radiation pattern, bandwidth,
resonant frequency, and efficiency. The performance parameters change considerably when the antenna is
placed near the human body. Researchers have distinguished and reported two different types of numerical
models known as "phantoms" to better understand how the human body affects the antenna's performance.
These phantoms include the theoretical phantom and the voxel phantom (realistic model), which employ
simulated biological tissue and the actual physical structure, respectively.

The conductive and dielectric properties of the human body can have a significant impact on the
performance and functionality of wearable antennas. They can cause changes in the antenna's resonant
frequency, impedance and resonance characteristics, leading to reduced efficiency and a mismatch with
the desired operating frequency. Additionally, the human body can reflect and scatter electromagnetic
waves, altering the antenna's radiation pattern and affecting its coverage area, gain, and directionality,
which can impact signal propagation. To obtain better results, realistic models like the voxel phantom,
which consists of the complex permittivity and conductivity of human body tissue, can be used.
However, these models require more computational resources and processing power. To optimize the
simulation, it is preferable to use simple 3D models of the human body, such as a single-layer
(homogeneous) or multi-layer (heterogeneous) phantom. The single-layer model consists of a single
dielectric material, while the multi-layer model is composed of different human body tissues, such as
muscle, fat, skin, and bone, that are available in commercial simulation software. For simulating the
human body arm, four-layered spherical phantoms are commonly used.

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

Wearable antennas are designed to work with wireless communication devices. However, the human
body can interfere with the signals emitted or received by the antenna. This is because the body's
electrical conductivity and dielectric properties can cause signal attenuation. To overcome this,
engineers use heterogeneous models for different body parts. For example, a three-layer model is used
for flat body sections like the chest, and a seven-layer model is used for the head. The presence of the
body can also cause an impedance mismatch between the antenna and its surrounding environment,
leading to increased reflection, loss, or distortion of the signals. This affects the overall performance of
the antenna. Additionally, the permittivity and conductivity values of human tissues vary depending on
the type of tissue and the operating frequency. This variation mainly affects the reflection coefficients,
decreases the radiation efficiency of the antenna, and reduces the power absorbed by the body.

It has been observed that when an antenna is placed on the chest (εr = 53.08, σ = 3.458 S/m) instead of
the upper arm (εr = 5.3, σ = 0.095 S/m) at 2.45 GHz, there is increased radiation loss. The human body
consists of an average of 65 to 80% water content (εr = 75 at 25 C0), which increases the dielectric loading
on the antenna. This increase in effective permittivity because of the antenna's proximity to the body lowers
the antenna's Q factor. The flux of the antenna in the vicinity of the human tissues compresses, making the
antenna appear to be electrically larger and radiate at lower frequencies than in free space. Therefore, the
dielectric loading on the antenna can adversely affect its radiation efficiency, gain, radiation pattern, and E-
field distribution, which can drastically reduce its overall performance.

(a) (b)

Fig 2. Simplified human body model a) Four layer arm b) Four layer cylindrical wrist

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

CHAPTER 4

EFFECTS OF WEARABLE ANTENNAS ON HUMAN BODY

In today's world, we are surrounded by a plethora of wireless devices that have made our lives
more convenient. Mobile phones, GPS devices, and other wireless gadgets have become an integral
part of our daily routine. However, using these devices exposes us to electromagnetic fields, which
could pose potential health risks. Therefore, it is crucial to study the effects of electromagnetic
fields on the human body.

In our daily lives, we use different antennas for our wearable devices like wristwatches, fitness
bands, etc. These devices emit less electromagnetic radiation due to their small SAR values, which
measure the rate at which electromagnetic energy is absorbed by the body tissues. Regulatory
authorities have set limits on SAR values to ensure that exposure to electromagnetic radiation
remains within safe levels. Manufacturers of wearable devices with antennas must comply with
these guidelines and ensure that the devices emit radiation within acceptable limits. One such
antenna is the wrist wearable dual-band antenna that transmits distress signals alerts and receives
GPS signals in a wearable PLB. To ensure its safety, SAR and temperature increase have been
calculated for different human tissues, such as the arm and head, as the antenna is always close to
the arm in a wrist wearable device. However, it is also important to know what happens if the
antenna is close to other parts of the body, especially the head. To obtain reliable results about the
temperature increase in different tissues, the Bio-Heat Equation has been used.

Wearable antennas typically operate in the near-field region, which is in close proximity to the
body. In this region, the electromagnetic fields are localized and dissipate rapidly with distance. The
energy absorbed by the body decreases significantly as the distance from the antenna increases.
Therefore, the exposure to electromagnetic radiation from wearable antennas is usually lower than that
of larger devices like cell phones or base stations. Nowadays humankind lives completely surrounded
by many wireless devices. Modern society lives and works with wireless applications such as mobile
phones, GPS devices, or other wirelessdevices that make our life easier.

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

It means that we are constantly interacting with electromagnetic fields. The study of electromagnetic
fields effects on human body is a very important subject, due to the possible health effects that these
many electromagnetic fields cancause in humans. In our daily lives, we use different antennas for our
wearable devices like wristwatches, fitness bands, etc. These will have less effect on the human body
because the SAR valuesare kept small while designing these. The SAR measures the rate at which
electromagnetic energy is absorbed by the body tissues. Regulatory authorities set limits on SAR values
to ensure that exposure to electromagnetic radiation remains within safe levels. Manufacturers of
wearable devices with antennas must comply with SAR guidelines and ensure that the devices emit
radiation within acceptable limits. Consider the antenna for a wrist-wearable dual-band antenna. The
particularity of this antenna is that is the first wrist wearable antenna that transmits distress signals alerts
and at the same time receives GPS signals in a wearable PLB. This antenna has been reproduced in
HFSS and then several studies about the radiation effects have been done. Inorder to know if the
antenna is totally safe, SAR and temperature increase have been calculated for different human tissues.
This has been done for different parts of the bodysuch as the arm and head. It has been considered that
this kind of antenna is always close to the armbecause is a wrist-wearable device, but it would be also
important to know what happens ifthe antenna is close to other parts of the body, especially the head.
The Bio-Heat Equation was used to obtain reliable results on temperature increases in simulated tissues.
Wearable antennas operate in the near-field region, close to the body, where electromagnetic fields
dissipate rapidly and energy absorption decreases with distance. Hence, exposure to radiation from
wearable antennas is typically lower than from larger devices such as cell phones.

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

CHAPTER 5
EFFECTS OF BENDING ON WEARABLE ANTENNAS

Wearable antennas are placed on different parts of the body as per the application's requirements.
This leads to various bending deformations of the antenna design due to the different human body
movements. The performance of wearable antennas is of utmost importance because bending can affect
the antenna's structural properties in several ways. The wearable antenna's performance must remain
consistent despite the various deformations. Thus, it is crucial to study the effects of bending on the
antenna's overall performance.

Physical deformation is a major concern when it comes to ensuring the effective functionality of
wearable antennas. Not only does it shift the resonant frequency of the antenna, but it also affects its
polarization due to changes in the current density of the radiating elements. Furthermore, it potentially
increases the SAR values on the wearer's body. Therefore, designing wearable antennas requires
methods to eliminate these effects, and the antenna should be placed in a way that avoids bending along
the y-axis as it causes severe performance degradation. Additionally, the antenna should be made as
small as possible to avoid significant changes in its effective length during bending.

Fig 3. Bending Of the proposed Fig 4. Prototype of the proposed antenna at

antenna at different radii along X and various degrees of bending along X and Y
Y axis axis

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

For analysis, we have proposed a wearable flexible antenna with a simple design operating in the
ISM 5.8 GHz frequency band. To study the effect of bending on the performance of the antenna, the
proposed antenna is examined using eight cases of different radii of bending deformation along the x-
axis and y-axis, using HFSS simulation software. To validate the simulated results, the prototype of the
proposed antenna is used for bending (Fig.). The comparison of the return loss (S11) between the
simulated and measured results with various degrees of bending is illustrated in Fig. 22. It was observed
that by reducing the bending radius 40 mm (x-axis) and 80 mm (y-axis) to 20 mm (x-axis) and 50 mm
(y-axis), the resonance frequency of the antenna shifts around 20 MHz and 50 MHz, respectively.
Furthermore, it was observed that the resonance frequency varies slightly when the radius is further
reduced from 25 mm (x-axis) and 60 mm (y-axis) to 10 mm (x-axis) and 40 mm (y-axis). However, it
was studied that the bandwidth varies a bit. Consequently, the -10 dB bandwidth is close 400 MHz in
all the bending scenarios

Fig 5. Simulated and measured return loss of the proposed antenna under various
bending scenarios (a) along x-axis (b) along y-axis

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

1. RESONANT FREQUENCY SHIFT

Wearable antennas can experience a change in their resonant frequency when they are bent or flexed.
The resonant frequency is the frequency at which the antenna is most effective in radiating or receiving
electromagnetic waves. The amount of change in the resonant frequency depends on various factors, such
as the antenna design, materials used, and the degree of bending. Therefore, it is important to carefully
consider and validate the performance of wearable antennas in bent or flexed conditions through testing
and analysis to ensure that their frequency performance meets the desired specifications.

2. IMPEDANCE MISMATCH
Wearable antennas can experience impedance mismatch problems when they are bent. Impedance
mismatch occurs when there is a difference between the impedance of the antenna and that of the
transmission line or connected device. When the antenna is bent, it can change its impedance, which
can result in signal loss and reflections. This can cause a drop in efficiency and signal quality. It is
important to note that the extent of impedance mismatch due to bending depends on various factors
such as the antenna design, materials used, and the degree of bending. Therefore, careful design
considerations, as well as testing, are necessary to achieve impedance stability and optimize the
performance of wearable antennas, even when they are bent or flexed.

3. CHANGE IN RADIATION PATTERN

The bending of an antenna can affect its radiation pattern, which describes the directionality and
coverage of the radiated electromagnetic waves. Bending can cause asymmetry in the antenna structure,
leading to changes in the radiation pattern. This distortion can result in altered signal propagation, reduced
antenna efficiency, and deviations from the desired coverage area. It's important to note that the specific
effects of bending on the radiation pattern of wearable antennas depend on various factors, including the
antenna design, materials used, and the degree and type of bending applied. Therefore, careful
consideration and validation through simulation and testing are necessary to achieve the desired radiation
pattern performance in wearable devices, even in bent or flexed conditions.

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

4. MECHANICAL STRESS
Mechanical stress poses significant challenges to wearable antennas. Excessive stress can deform
or damage the antenna structure, leading to reduced performance or complete failure. Changes in
electrical properties, such as impedance and resonant frequency, can occur due to deformation or
substrate displacement. Mechanical stress can also affect the connections between the antenna and other
components, resulting in signal loss or increased impedance mismatch. To mitigate these effects,
material selection plays a crucial role, with flexible and resilient materials being preferred.
Reinforcement techniques and support structures can help distribute stress and improve structural
integrity. Thorough mechanical simulation and testing are essential to identify stress concentrations
and weak points. Design optimization should consider expected stress conditions, ensuring mechanical
reliability.

5. PREVENTION OF BENDING

Maintaining the performance of antennas during bending or crumpling is crucial. One way to achieve
this is by designing antennas for wideband operation, which keeps their resonant frequency within the
required operating range even after bending. Additionally, wearable antennas should be designed to be as
symmetric as possible, so theyare minimally affected when bent in different directions. Antennas can also
incorporate structures or geometries that tolerate bending while maintaining their resonant frequency and
radiation characteristics. This may involve using meandered or folded structures that can withstand bending
without significant performance degradation. Reinforcement techniques like adding flexible support
structures or using elastomeric materials can help prevent mechanical stress and reduce the impact of
bending on the antenna. Finally, wearable antennas must undergo rigorous testing under various bending
conditions to ensure their durability and performance. This includes measuring the resonant frequency,
radiation pattern, and impedance matching before and after bending.

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CHAPTER 6

PROPERTIES OF WEARABLE ANTENNAS

1. FLEXIBILITY
Wearable antennas possess a crucial property known as flexibility. This property allows them to
bend, adapt, or conform to the irregular and often curved surfaces of the human body, or other
objects they are attached to. This characteristic is particularly important for antennas that are
designed to be worn on clothing, accessories, or integrated into various wearable devices.
Flexibility enables them to maintain optimal performance while conforming to the body's contours
or the shape of the wearable item. Wearable antennas should be comfortable to wear for extended
periods. Their flexibility enables them to be integrated into clothing or accessories without causing
discomfort or hindering the wearer's movements.

2. LIGHTWEIGHT
Wearable antennas are designed to be lightweight, meaning that they have a low mass or weight.
This is important because it ensures that the user is comfortable and able to move easily when the
antenna is integrated into wearable clothing or devices. The antenna should not add too much weight or
bulk, which would be uncomfortable or restrict movement. This is especially important for sports and
fitness wearables where the user's comfort and freedom of movement are critical. The design of
lightweight wearable antennas minimizes the burden on the wearer and ensures that the antenna does
not impede movement or compromise the intended purpose of the wearable item.

3. BIOCOMPATIBILITY

Wearable antennas, like any electronic devices, emit electromagnetic radiation when they
transmit and receive signals. The question of whether wearable antennas are biocompatible depends
on several factors, including the frequency and power levels at which they operate, as well as the
proximity of the antenna to the human body.

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Here are some considerations for assessing the biocompatibility of wearable antennas:
1. Frequency and Power Levels: The frequency at which the antenna operates and the power
levels it emits are crucial factors. Generally, lower-frequency signals, such as those used in
radio and television broadcasting, are less biologically active than higher-frequency signals
like microwave and millimeter-wave radiation. Wearable antennas that use lower-power,
lower-frequency signals are likely to be less biocompatible.
2. Distance from the Body: The closer a wearable antenna is to the human body, the greater
the potential for exposure to electromagnetic radiation. If the antenna is located very close
to sensitive tissues or organs, it could potentially have a more significant impact on
biocompatibility. Antennas designed to be worn directly on the body, like smartwatches or
fitness trackers, are typically subject to stricter biocompatibility regulations and standards.
3. Regulatory Compliance: Most countries have regulations and safety standards that limit
the specific absorption rate (SAR) of electromagnetic radiation in human tissue. Wearable
antenna manufacturers must ensure their products comply with these regulations to be
considered biocompatible.
4. Biocompatibility Testing: Manufacturers of wearable antennas often conduct
biocompatibility testing to assess the potential health risks associated with their devices.
These tests may include evaluating the SAR, thermal effects, and any potential non-thermal
effects of the electromagnetic radiation. Compliance with safety standards, such as those set
by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States, can help ensure a
certain level of biocompatibility.

6.4 DURABILITY
The durability of wearable antennas, like any electronic or mechanical device, depends on various
factors, including their design, materials, manufacturing quality, and how they are used and maintained.
It can vary widely depending on their design, materials, manufacturing quality, and usage context.
Manufacturers aim to design antennas that can withstand the rigors of daily use, but it's also essential
for users to follow care and maintenance guidelines to extend the lifespan of these devices.
Additionally, choosing products from reputable manufacturers with a track record of quality can
increase the likelihood of durable wearable antennas.

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Here are some factors to consider when assessing the durability of wearable antennas:
1. Materials and Build Quality: The choice of materials and the quality of manufacturing are
critical factors in determining the durability of wearable antennas. Antennas designed for
wearables need to be made of robust and reliable materials to withstand everyday wear and tear.
This may include materials like flexible PCBs (printed circuit boards), durable plastics, or even
protective coatings to make them more resilient.
2. Environmental Factors: The environment in which the wearable antenna is used plays a
significant role in its durability. Wearable antennas may be exposed to moisture, extreme
temperatures, dust, and physical impacts. Antennas designed for outdoor activities, for example,
may need to be more rugged and weather-resistant.

6.5 SPECIFIC ABSORPTION RATE (SAR)

Due to global concerns regarding the potential health impacts of radiation and legal regulations,
antenna designers, engineers, and researchers have always been mindful of the radiation that can be
absorbed by human body tissues. Protecting the human body from harmful radiation is a crucial aspect
that must be taken into account along with ensuring that wearable antennas are compatible. The
Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) is used to determine the amount of electromagnetic energy absorbed
by human body tissues. It is generally measured as the rate of absorbed radiation per unit mass of
human body tissues when they are exposed to an electromagnetic field. The SAR can be calculated by
either averaging over the entire body or a small volume of human body tissues.
The SAR can be expressed mathematically by using the following relationship:

The ρ represents the density of the tissue, E is the Root Mean Square (RMS) electric field and σ is
the conductivity of the tissue. The SAR is directly related to the tissue conductivity absorbing the
radiations and negatively related to the density of the tissue.

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

CHAPTER 7

APPLICATIONS OF WEARABLE ANTENNAS

Wearable antennas have found a wide range of applications in today's technology-driven world.
They are designed to be integrated into clothing, accessories, or even directly on the human body, and
they offer several valuable functionalities. In healthcare, wearable antennas can be used for remote
monitoring of patients, enabling continuous data collection and transmission to healthcare providers for
real-time health assessment. In the field of sports and fitness, they can be incorporated into smart clothing
to track vital signs, motion, and performance metrics. In the military and public safety sectors,
wearable antennas enhance communication and tracking capabilities for soldiers and first responders.
Furthermore, in the emerging realm of the Internet of Things (IoT), they play a crucial role in
connecting and collecting data from various sensors and devices seamlessly, creating a more
interconnected and efficient environment. Overall, wearable antennas are at the forefront of innovation,
offering improved connectivity, data collection, and convenience across diverse industries.

1. MILITARY AND DEFENSE

Wearable antennas play a significant role in military and defense applications, where reliable
and secure communication is essential for the success of operations and the safety of personnel.

1. BODY-WORN COMMUNICATION
Wearable antennas are integral in the military for body-worn communication, ensuring secure and
efficient connectivity on the battlefield. Military personnel wear communication devices with integrated
antennas as part of their tactical gear, enabling reliable voice communication and data sharing among
units and command centers. These antennas are designed to withstand the rigors of combat, providing a
lifeline for troops in challenging and dynamic environments. Whether it's coordinating maneuvers,
relaying critical information, or receiving mission updates, wearable antennas play a crucial role in
maintaining situational awareness and enhancing the effectiveness and safety of military operations.
Their encryption and resistance to interference make them indispensable for secure communication in
the field, contributing to the success of missions and the safety of personnel.

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

7.1.2 HEALTH MONITORING

Wearable antennas serve a dual purpose in the military by not only facilitating secure
communication but also contributing to the health monitoring of soldiers. In high-stress military
environments, these antennas are integrated into combat gear and body-worn systems to monitor the
vital signs and well- being of military personnel. They can track metrics such as heart rate, body
temperature, and hydration levels in real time. This health data is invaluable for assessing a soldier's
physical condition, especially in extreme conditions or during strenuous missions. By providing early
warnings of health issues, wearable antennas enhance the safety and performance of military
personnel, allowing for timely medical intervention when needed. Furthermore, the collected data can
be transmitted to remote medical facilities, enabling telemedicine support and improved battlefield
healthcare.

2. HEALTHCARE AND MEDICAL

Wearable antennas have several applications in healthcare and medical settings, where they play
a significant role in patient monitoring, diagnostics, and improving overall healthcare delivery.

1. MEDICAL TELEMETRY
Wearable antennas play a crucial role in medical telemetry, a field that involves monitoring and
transmitting physiological data wirelessly for diagnostic, research, and patient care purposes. These
antennas are integrated into wearable medical devices such as ECG (electrocardiogram) monitors, pulse
oximeters, and Holter monitors, allowing for continuous and remote tracking of vital signs, cardiac
activity, blood oxygen levels, and more. Medical professionals can access real-time data, providing
critical insights for early disease detection, postoperative monitoring, and patient rehabilitation.
Furthermore, wearable antennas enhance telemedicine and remote patient monitoring, making it
possible to offer healthcare services beyond traditional clinical settings and ensure timely medical
intervention when necessary. In research, they facilitate large-scale data collection for medical studies,
offering valuable insights into the health and well-being of individuals. Wearable antennas in medical
telemetry not only improve patient outcomes but also advance healthcare research and delivery by
providing continuous, data-driven insights.

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

7.2.2 TELEMEDICINE
Wearable antennas are instrumental in telemedicine, which leverages technology to deliver remote
medical care and consultation. These antennas are integrated into various wearable medical devices,
facilitating real-time data transmission and enabling healthcare providers to remotely monitor patients'
vital signs and health parameters. Patients can wear devices with antennas, such as telehealth kits, ECG
monitors, and pulse oximeters, which connect to healthcare professionals through secure and reliable
wireless communication channels. This technology allows for virtual doctor-patient interactions, remote
diagnostics, and timely healthcare interventions, especially in underserved or remote areas. Wearable
antennas in telemedicine bridge geographical barriers, enhance accessibility to
healthcare services, and enable cost-effective, efficient, and patient-centered care delivery. They
have become increasingly important, particularly in scenarios like pandemics, where remote healthcare
is a crucial component of patient care and public health management.

3. SPORTS AND FITNESS

Wearable antennas have numerous applications in sports and fitness, helping athletes,
coaches, and enthusiasts monitor, enhance, and optimize performance.
Wearable antennas have become indispensable in sports and fitness for performance monitoring,
offering athletes and enthusiasts the ability to track and enhance their physical capabilities. These
antennas are integrated into wearable devices like fitness trackers, sports smartwatches, and athletic
apparel to monitor critical performance metrics, such as heart rate, calorie expenditure, step count,
and distance covered. By providing real-time feedback during workouts and training sessions,
athletes can tailor their efforts to optimize performance and minimize the risk of overexertion or
injury. Coaches and trainers can also access this data to develop personalized training regimens and
make data-driven decisions. Wearable antennas not only help individuals reach their fitness goals but
also foster motivation and accountability, promoting an active and healthy lifestyle.

4. RESCUE OPERATIONS
Wearable antennas find valuable applications in rescue operations, where reliable
communication and tracking are critical for the safety and success of search and rescue teams.

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1. LOCATION TRACKING
Wearable antennas play a pivotal role in rescue operations, particularly in location tracking, where
they are instrumental in ensuring the safety and swift recovery of individuals in distress. Search and
rescue teams and outdoor enthusiasts wear devices equipped with antennas, incorporating GPS and
other location-based technologies. These wearable antennas facilitate real-time tracking, allowing
rescuers to precisely pinpoint the location of those in need, whether in remote wilderness areas,
disaster-stricken regions, or during water-based operations. They enable rapid response, improve
coordination, and enhance the chances of locating survivors quickly. Wearable antennas revolutionized
rescue operations by improving location tracking.

2. COMMUNICATION
Wearable antennas are essential in rescue operations for seamless communication, ensuring the
safety and coordination of search and rescue teams. Rescuers and first responders wear communication
devices equipped with wearable antennas to maintain contact with their teams, command centers, and
other units during critical missions. These antennas are designed to provide reliable wireless
connectivity in challenging and remote environments, including areas with limited cellular coverage or
disrupted infrastructure. They enable real-time information exchange, the relay of crucial updates, and
the coordination of resources, ultimately improving the effectiveness of rescue efforts. Wearable
antennas in communication are vital tools that enable swift decision-making and the efficient
deployment of resources, helping save lives in emergency situations.

5. INDUSTRIAL AND CONSTRUCTION

Wearable antennas are applied in industrial and construction settings to enhance
communication, safety, and productivity.

1. SAFETY MONITORING
Wearable antennas serve a critical role in safety monitoring within industrial and construction
environments. Workers in these sectors often wear personal protective equipment (PPE) embedded with
antennas, such as helmets, vests, or safety goggles, which facilitate real-time safety monitoring. These
antennas transmit data to a central system, providing insights into workers' locations, vital signs, and
environmental conditions. In the event of an emergency, these devices can quickly transmit

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distress signals, ensuring swift response and enhancing worker safety. Wearable antennas also help
enforce safety compliance by monitoring PPE usage, restricted zone access, and adherence to safety
protocols, ultimately reducing the risk of accidents and improving overall safety in high-risk industrial
and construction settings.

7.5.2 REMOTE MACHINERY OPERATION

Wearable antennas find application in remote machinery operation in industrial and construction
settings. Operators of heavy machinery like cranes, excavators, and loaders can wear devices
equipped with antennas, allowing them to remotely control the machinery from a safe distance. These
wearable control systems enable precise and efficient machine operation, enhancing worker safety in
hazardous environments. The technology provides operators with real-time feedback on the
machinery's status, allowing for quick responses to changing conditions. It also reduces the need for
operators to be physically present inside the machinery, which can be particularly advantageous when
dealing with heavy loads, toxic substances, or challenging terrain. Wearable antennas in remote
machinery operations improve productivity, safety, and operational flexibility in the industrial and
construction sectors.

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

CHAPTER 8
IMPORTANCE OF METAMATERIALS IN WEARABLE
APPLICATIONS

The SAR level increased when the antenna was near human body tissues due to its bidirectional
radiation characteristics. However, it was difficult to incorporate them into clothing and the human body
because they were not low-profile and conformal. The radiation was mostly directed toward the human
body, which altered the radiation pattern and reduced the antenna’s overall performance. The larger size
of these designs was also a challenge. The front-to-back ratio (FBR) and bandwidth of some antenna
designs are not great. This is because wearable antennas, which are often worn on the human body or as
part of clothing, can harm the antenna's performance. To solve this issue, metamaterials are now being
used in wearable/textile/flexible antennas. These materials help to isolate the antenna from the human
body, reducing the SAR level to a safe threshold. Additionally, bending the antenna can cause a shift in
the resonance frequency, which can affect the antenna's performance. The use of metamaterials can help
to regulate the performance of the antenna when it is bent. As a result, the use of metamaterials is
becoming more common in the design of body-worn antennas.

The first metamaterial-based wearable antenna with a frequency of 2.45 GHz was proposed and
explored. The traditional rigid FR-4 substrate material was used in the proposed design. The antenna
was not truly a wearable antenna because the substrate used was inflexible. However, the primary goal
of the study was to investigate the impact of the metamaterial on the performance of the antenna. The
antenna was fabricated on the thin FR-4 substrate, and the EBG structure was integrated into the
ground plane of the antenna by etching. The introduction of the EBG resulted in an increase in
impedance bandwidth, an increase in overall gain, a reduction in size, and a decrease in backward
radiation. It was observed that by adding the metamaterial to the antenna, the size of the antenna was
reduced by 30 % and the impedance bandwidth was enhanced by 50 %. In addition, the impact of
bending along both the principal (E & H) planes on the input matching and impedance bandwidth
without and with EBG was studied.

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

Table 2. Performance analysis of single band wearable antenna with and without metamaterials

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 Design and Applications of Wearable Antennas

CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION

Wearable and textile antennas are essential components of portable and wearable electronics. They are a
cost- effective and versatile alternative to outdated wireless sensor network technologies. In this article, we aim
to provide a general understanding of wearable and textile antennas and their applications in the military, sports,
and health sectors. We also delve into critical design issues and challenges such as material selection, human
body- antenna interaction, dimensional variations, and environmental effects on antenna performance. Material
selection is a crucial factor in wearable antenna design, and we thoroughly discuss conductive and non-
conductivematerials. We discovered that the loss tangent and permittivity of substrate material are important
factors to consider when selecting materials. The substrate is an essential component of wearable antennas, and
materials that provide higher efficiency and wider bandwidth should be used to construct these antennas, such
as thicker, low- permittivity substrates that offer wider bandwidth and reduce losses. To ensure the wearable
antenna designmeets specifications, testing must be conducted with the antenna in proximity to the human body.
We examine how the antenna and the human body interact, presenting voxel and equivalent tissue models for
on-body analysisand examining the antenna performance on various human body parts. We found that the
complex permittivity and conductivity of the lossy human body impact the performance of the antenna, such as
the radiation pattern, resonant frequency, bandwidth, and efficiency.
Moreover, wearable antennas must adhere to safety limitations due to widespread concerns about the health
effects of radiation and illegal requirements worldwide. We provide a summary of the concerns regarding the
harmful radiation absorbed by human body tissues and the protection methods from the harmful radiation. We
also examine how bending affects the radiation pattern and determines the resonance frequency of antennas. We
discuss various fabrication techniques that can improve the stability and performance of wearable antennas,
highlighting the benefits and limitations of each technique. It is worth noting that the coupling of the antenna
with the human body and the absorption of electromagnetic waves by human body tissues can impact the
overall performance of the antenna.

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Department of Electronics 27 College of Engineering Chengannur