Bismillahirrahamanirraheem

MECHANICS OF
MATERIALS-I
PROF. DR. YOUNIS JAMAL
Lecture 23
 THE ENERGY METHODS
In mechanics, energy is defined as the capacity to do work,
and work is the product of a force by the distance in the
direction the force moves.
In solid deformable bodies, stresses multiplied by their
respective areas are forces, and deformations are distances.
The product of these two quantities is the internal work done in
a body by externally applied forces.
 THE ENERGY METHODS
When a piece of material is deformed in a simple tension,
compression, shear, bending or torsion etc., within its elastic range,
internal work is done by the externally applied loading.
This work is stored in an elastic body as the internal elastic energy
of deformation or the elastic strain energy.
It has the same magnitude as the work done; and that strain
energy is recovered upon unloading.
On removal of the loading the material returns to its undeformed
state due to the release of stored energy.
 THE ENERGY METHODS
By using the principle of conservation of energy and
equating the internal work to the external work,
deformations can be obtained.
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO DIRECT LOADS
If the element, subjected to direct loads, Fig. 1 (a), is initially free of
stress, the force that finally acts on the element increases linearly
from zero until it attains its full value, Fig. 1 (b), if the material is
linearly elastic.
𝑃 = 𝑘Δ or Δ = 𝑓𝑃
where 𝑘 and 𝑓 are the stiffness coefficient and flexibility coefficient,
1
respectively, 𝑓 = .
𝑘
The average force multiplied by the distance through which it acts
is the work done on the element.
 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO DIRECT LOADS
The external work done during a small increment of extension dx,
(Fig. b) is dx and the total area under the curve up to the
proportional limit at point E is equal to the total work done which is
1
equal to 𝑃Δ, which is the stored strain energy
2
1
U= 𝑃Δ
2

Strain energy stored in a linearly elastic member is the average

force times the total elongation.
 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO DIRECT LOADS
For a perfectly elastic body no energy is dissipated, and the work done on the
element is stored as recoverable internal strain energy.
Triangular area that represents the strain energy 𝑈 can be expressed in any of
the following ways:
1 1 1
𝑈= 𝑃Δ = 𝑘Δ2 = 𝑓𝑃2
2 2 2
𝜎 𝑃𝐿
Δ=𝜀𝐿= 𝐿 =
𝐸 𝐴𝐸
1 𝑃𝐿 𝑃2 𝐿
∴ 𝑈= 𝑃 =
2 𝐴𝐸 2𝐴𝐸
𝑑𝑈 𝑃𝐿
= =Δ
𝑑𝑃 𝐴𝐸
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO DIRECT LOADS
Dividing 𝑈 by the area 𝐴 and length 𝐿 of the specimen, the stored
strain energy per unit volume is
1𝑃𝛥 1
𝑈𝑜 = = 𝜎 𝜀
2𝐴𝐿 2 𝑥 𝑥

It is also called modulus of resilience or proof resilience and is

defined as the maximum elastic strain energy per unit volume that a
material will absorb and is the area under the straight-line portion of
the stress-strain diagram (Fig. c).
 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO DIRECT LOADS
y Complementary
Load
E Energy
P
x Strain
dy  Energy
x x density
x Extension
dz O dx  x
dx
z
Fig. (a) Fig. (b) Fig. (c)

Fig. 1
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO DIRECT LOADS
Alternative Method:
For the uniaxial stress state (Fig. a)
Force = 𝜎𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
1
and Average Force = 𝜎𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
2

Elongation = 𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑥
therefore, 𝑑𝑈 = Average Force  Displacement
1 1
𝑑𝑈 = 𝜎𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
2 2
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO DIRECT LOADS
Alternative Method:
1
𝑑𝑈 = 𝜎𝑥 𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑉
2

The strain energy stored in an elastic body per unit volume of the
material is called strain energy density or resilience.
𝑑𝑈 1
𝑈𝑂 = = 𝜎 𝜀
𝑑𝑉 2 𝑥 𝑥

This expression is graphically interpreted as an area under the

inclined line on the stress-strain diagram (Fig. c).
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO DIRECT LOADS
Alternative Method:
∵ 𝜎𝑥 = 𝐸𝜀𝑥
𝑑𝑈 𝐸𝜀𝑥2 𝜎𝑥2
∴ 𝑈𝑂 = = =
𝑑𝑉 2 2𝐸
𝜎𝑥2
𝑈= ‫ 𝑒𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑉׬‬2𝐸 𝑑𝑉
For a uniform linearly elastic rod of length 𝐿 subjected to axial
end loads 𝑃 the strain energy is
𝜎𝑥2 𝑃2 𝑃2 𝐿 𝑃2 𝐿
𝑈= ‫ 𝑒𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑉׬‬2𝐸 𝑑𝑉 = ‫𝑡𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑙׬‬ℎ 2𝐴2𝐸 𝐴𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬0
𝑑𝑥 =
2𝐴𝐸 2𝐴𝐸
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO DIRECT LOADS
The area under the entire stress-strain diagram from zero to rupture
gives a measure of a material’s ability to resist energy load up to
fracture and is called the modulus of toughness and denotes the
energy per unit volume necessary to rupture the material.

The larger the total area under the stress-strain diagram, the
tougher the material.

Figure 2 shows that ductile materials are tougher than brittle

materials.
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO DIRECT LOADS
Stress
Stronger Steel Tougher Steel
A

Strain
O B C
Fig. 2
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO DIRECT LOADS
In the plastic range, only a small part of the energy absorbed by
a material is recoverable.
Most of the energy dissipated in permanently deforming the
material is lost in heat.
The energy which may be recovered when a specimen has been
stressed to some such point as A in Fig. 2 is represented by the
triangle ABC.
The line AB is parallel to OD, since all materials behave
elastically upon the release of stress.
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO SHEAR LOADS
For the shear loading of an elemental volume 𝑑𝑉, Fig. 3 (a),
subjected only to shear stress xy = yx = , the strain-energy
density is the area under the shearing stress-shearing strain
diagram, Fig. 3 (c).
𝑑𝑈 = Average Force  Displacement
1 1 1
𝑑𝑈 =
2
 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝛾𝑑𝑦 = 2
𝜏𝛾 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 =
2
𝜏𝛾 𝑑𝑉

𝑑𝑈 1 1 𝜏2 1
𝑈𝑂 = = 𝜏𝛾 = = 𝐺𝛾 2 ∵ 𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾
𝑑𝑉 2 2 𝐺 2
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO SHEAR LOADS
 dy 

 
dy dy

 dz 
dx dx
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO SHEAR LOADS
𝜏2
𝑈= ‫ 𝑒𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑉׬‬2𝐺 𝑑𝑉

For a uniform linearly elastic member of length 𝐿 subjected to pure shear

load 𝑃 the strain energy is
𝜏2 𝑃2 𝑃2 𝐿 𝑃2 𝐿
𝑈= ‫ 𝑒𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑉׬‬2𝐺 𝑑𝑉 = ‫𝑡𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑙׬‬ℎ 2𝐴2 𝐺 𝐴𝑑𝑥 = ‫𝑥𝑑 ׬‬ =
2𝐴𝐺 0 2𝐴𝐺

For shear loading, the expressions for strain energy are identical to that for
axial loading if  is replaced by  and 𝐸 by 𝐺.
This expression only applies if the shear stress is uniform over the element
of material. Δ P
𝑑𝑈 𝑃𝐿 𝜏𝐿 L 
= = =𝐿 = Δ
𝑑𝑃 𝐴𝐺 𝐺
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO TORSIONAL LOADS
The shaft shown in Fig. 4, has a uniform cross section of radius
𝑅, a length 𝐿, and is subjected to a torsional load (torque) 𝑇.
As the stresses produced by torque are shear stresses, the strain
energy in the shaft may be found by using the strain energy
relation due to shear
𝜏2
𝑈= ‫ 𝑒𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑉׬‬2𝐺 𝑑𝑉
𝑇𝑟
∵𝜏= and 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝐴
𝐽
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO TORSIONAL LOADS

B'


A B

R T
L
Fig. 4
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO TORSIONAL LOADS
𝜏2 1 𝑇𝑟 2
𝑈= ‫ 𝑒𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑉׬‬2𝐺 𝑑𝑉 = ‫ 𝑒𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑉׬‬2𝐺 𝐽 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝐴
𝑇2
𝑈= ‫𝑡𝑔𝑛𝑒𝐿׬‬ℎ 2𝐺𝐽2 ‫ 𝑟 𝑎𝑒𝑟𝐴׬‬2 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑥
∵ ‫ 𝑟 𝑎𝑒𝑟𝐴׬‬2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐽
𝑇2
𝑈= ‫𝑡𝑔𝑛𝑒𝐿׬‬ℎ 2𝐺𝐽 𝑑𝑥
For a uniform linearly elastic shaft of length 𝐿 subjected to end torque 𝑇
𝑇2 𝐿 𝑇2𝐿
𝑈= ‫׬‬0
𝑑𝑥 =
2𝐺𝐽 2𝐺𝐽
𝑑𝑈 𝑇𝐿
= =𝜃
𝑑𝑇 𝐽𝐺
 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO TORSIONAL LOADS
If torque increases gradually from zero to a value 𝑇, and 𝜃 is the
corresponding angle of twist, then the energy stored in the shaft is,
1
U = 𝑇𝜃 (which is the area under 𝑇𝜃 curve)
2

𝑇 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐺𝜃 T
∵ = =
𝐽 𝑅 𝐿
𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐽 𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐿
𝑇= and 𝜃=
𝑅 𝑅𝐺

1 𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐽 𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐿 2
1 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐽

∴𝑈= = 𝐿
2 𝑅 𝑅𝐺 2 𝐺 𝑅2
 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO TORSIONAL LOADS
For a solid circular shaft of radius 𝑅,
𝜋 𝑅4
Volume = 𝜋𝑅2 𝐿 and 𝐽=
2
2
1 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜋𝑅 4 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑈= 𝐿= 𝜋𝑅2 𝐿
2 𝐺 2𝑅 2 4𝐺
2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑈= volume of solid shaft
4𝐺

Torsional resilience of the shaft or Elastic strain energy per unit volume
2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑈𝑜 =
4𝐺
 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO TORSIONAL LOADS
For a holllow circular shaft of outer radius 𝑅𝑜 and inner radius 𝑅𝑖
𝜋 𝑅𝑜4 −𝑅𝑖4
Volume = 𝜋 𝑅𝑜2 − 𝑅𝑖2 𝐿 and 𝐽=
2

2
1 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜋 𝑅𝑜4 −𝑅𝑖4 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅𝑜2 +𝑅𝑖2
𝑈= 𝐿= 𝜋 𝑅𝑜2 − 𝑅𝑖2 𝐿
2 𝐺 2𝑅𝑜2 4𝐺 𝑅𝑜2

2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅𝑜2 +𝑅𝑖2
𝑈= volume of hollow shaft
4𝐺 𝑅𝑜2

2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅𝑜2 +𝑅𝑖2
Elastic strain energy per unit volume, 𝑈𝑜 =
4𝐺 𝑅𝑜2
 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO BENDING LOADS
Considering the pure bending, that is, the contribution of the flexure
stresses only.
Since bending stresses are normal stresses therefore using the
energy relation for direct loads
𝜎𝑥2
𝑈= ‫ 𝑒𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑉׬‬2𝐸 𝑑𝑉
From flexure formula bending stresses are
𝑀𝑦
𝜎𝑥 =
𝐼
STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO BENDING LOADS
𝜎𝑥2 1 𝑀𝑦 2
𝑈= ‫ 𝑒𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑉׬‬2𝐸 𝑑𝑉 = ‫ 𝑒𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑉׬‬2𝐸 𝐼 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝐴

1 𝑀 2
𝑈= ‫𝑡𝑔𝑛𝑒𝐿׬‬ℎ 2𝐸 𝐼 𝑑𝑥 ‫ 𝑦 𝑎𝑒𝑟𝐴׬‬2 𝑑𝐴

∵ ‫ 𝑦 𝑎𝑒𝑟𝐴׬‬2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼

𝑀2
∴𝑈= ‫𝑡𝑔𝑛𝑒𝐿׬‬ℎ 2𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥
 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO BENDING LOADS
Alternative Method:
Since the full value of 𝑀 is attained gradually the average moment
1
acting through an angle 𝑑 is 𝑀.
2

Therefore, external work done on a segment, which is stored as

elastic strain energy would be
M
1
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑀𝑑
2


 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO BENDING LOADS
Alternative Method:
1
∵ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑅𝑑 or 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑥 d
𝑅
R
1 1
∴ 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 dx
2 𝑅
1 𝑀 d
∵ =
𝑅 𝐸𝐼

1 𝑀 𝑀2
∴ 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
2 𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼

𝑀2
𝑈= ‫𝑡𝑔𝑛𝑒𝐿׬‬ℎ 2𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥
 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO BENDING LOADS
For example, for a cantilever beam loaded at its free end,
𝑀 = 𝑃𝑥, P
x
𝐿 𝑃2 𝑥 2
𝑈= ‫ 𝑜׬‬2𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥
y
L
𝑃2 𝐿 2
𝑈 = ‫𝑥 ׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼 𝑜

𝑃2 𝐿3
𝑈=
6𝐸𝐼

𝑑𝑈 𝑃𝐿3
= = 𝑦, the deflection of free end
𝑑𝑃 3𝐸𝐼
 CASTIGLIANO’S THEOREM
It states that the derivative of the strain energy with respect to a load gives the
deformation corresponding to that load.
(Load means a force, a bending moment, or a twisting moment, whereas the
deformation means linear displacement, deflection or an angle of twist.)
If U is the total energy from any structure due to the application of external
loads P1, P2, P3 … at O1, O2, O3, … in the directions O1X1, O2X2, O3X3, … and
to couples M1, M2, M3 … ; then the deflections at O1, O2, O3, … in the
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
directions O1X1, O2X2, O3X3, … are , , , …, and the angular rotation of
𝜕𝑃1 𝜕𝑃2 𝜕𝑃3
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
the couples are , , , … at their applied points.
𝜕𝑀1 𝜕𝑀2 𝜕𝑀3
 CASTIGLIANO’S THEOREM
If a deflection (or rotation) is required where no force (moment) is acting,
a fictitious force (or moment) must be applied at the point in question.
Then after applying Castigliano’s equation, the fictitious force (or
moment) is set equal to zero in order to obtain the desired results.
Since, according to Castigliano’s theorem, the required deflection is a
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
derivative of strain energy function, 𝑦 = or 𝜃 = , it is
𝜕𝑃1 𝜕𝑀1
advantageous to differentiate the expression for U before integrating.
In problems where M is a complex function, this scheme is particularly
useful.
 CASTIGLIANO’S THEOREM
For this purpose, the following relation becomes applicable.
𝜕𝑈 𝑀 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑈 𝑀 𝜕𝑀
𝑦= = ‫𝑃𝜕 𝐼𝐸 ׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 or 𝜃= = ‫𝑀𝜕 𝐼𝐸 ׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑃1 1 𝜕𝑀1 1

For example, in the case of cantilever beam,

𝑀 = 𝑃𝑥
𝜕𝑀
=𝑥
𝜕𝑃

𝜕𝑈 𝐿 𝑃𝑥 𝑃 𝐿 2
= ‫𝑜׬‬ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫𝑥 ׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑃1 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝑜

𝜕𝑈 𝑃𝐿3
= =𝑦
𝜕𝑃1 3𝐸𝐼
 P. S. NO. 1 P. NO. 14
A solid circular steel rod of 6 mm diameter and 150 mm long is
fastened to the end of a square brass bar 24 mm on a side and 300 mm
long; the geometric axis of the brass being lying along the same line.
An axial tensile force of 5 kN is applied at each of the extreme ends.
Determine the total elongation of the assembly.
Est = 200 GPa and Ebr = 90 GPa.
(Ans: 0.16 mm)
 P. S. NO. 1 (SOLUTION) P. NO. 14
𝑑𝑐 = 6 mm 𝐿𝑐 = 150 mm 𝐸𝑐 = 200103 N/mm2
𝑏𝑠 = 24 mm 𝐿𝑠 = 300 mm 𝐸𝑠 = 90103 N/mm2
𝑃 = 5 103 N
 = 𝑐 + 𝑠
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿
= +
𝐴𝐸 𝑐 𝐴𝐸 𝑠

51031504 5103300
= +
62200103 24 290103

 = 0.13 + 0.03
 = 0.16 mm
THANK YOU