How to Conduct Research in Psychology

HANDBOOK IN PSYCH 125

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
IN PSYCHOLOGY

NIXON V. AGASER
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
CENTRAL LUZON STATE UNIVERS ITY
2012
How to Conduct Research in Psychology

TOPIC 10

Basic Steps in Research

As mentioned, scientific research is composed of steps one needs to follow. Figure 7
presents a summary of these steps in the conduct of research.

1. Problem
Formulation 2. Research
hypothesis

6.
Generalization 3. Data
gathering

5. Data 4. Analysis of
interpretation Data

Figure 7.
The cyclical steps in research: from problem formulation to generalization.

The figure indicates that the first thing you have to do is to formulate a problem, then
develop a hypothesis, gather data, and then up to generalization. In my opinion however, this is
not strictly the case in all research situations. There are instances that one may start anywhere
between steps 1 to 3. For example, you may initially gather data which could help you formulate
or revise your problem. Anyway, my point is that these steps were made to guide and not to
“imprison” the researcher.
How to Conduct Research in Psychology

TOPIC 11

Developing the Problem

Formulating a problem is the first step in doing research. Students more often than not
spend much of their time in this stage. It is also the stage where I usually observed confusio n
among my students. They often consider this stage as one of the hardest if not the hardest part of
the research process. Actually, students should not feel depressed because in reality, even seasoned
researchers experienced difficulties in finding a problem. Perhaps, veteran researchers only
advantage is their longer exposure in the research enterprise. So do not be anxious even if you
have spent the whole day thinking and searching for a problem only to find nothing. The good
thing is that you are aware that you have to formulate one and you are giving a lot of your effort!
(Remember, there are students who pass courses mainly because of the effort, ).

Initial Steps in Search of Problem Area

Several books in social science research state that problem conceptualization reflects the
analytical and creative skills of the researcher. I agree. These skills could be developed though, as
one goes through the research process. For beginners, what follows are practical tips that can be
done in thinking of a problem.
1. Reflect on your interests. Ask yourself on what topic/s interests you most- things that
make you curious about. Many great scientists are one in saying that scientific
discoveries start with curiosity. It is highly suggested that you write them down. You
can trim your list later, perhaps focusing on the first three. This will help you focus on
what you really want. Remember, its more of fun and excitement when you work on a
topic that you like best.
2. Talk and brainstorm with others, perhaps with your classmates, colleagues, and
mentors. So find time to share your thoughts and hear others’ ideas with respect to
possible topics you like to pursue.
3. Keep abreast with current social issues, concerns, and problems. That is, be
updated with what is happening around you, in your locality, in society, and around the
world.
4. Look into your past and current experiences as a person. Your personal
circumstances in life, both past and present, may serve as a source of possible research
topics.
5. Read books, journals, magazines, papers, and all sources that can help you
formulate your problem. Wide readers often have more concepts in mind than those
who are not. Make reading part of your daily routine! It will help a lot not only in
problem conceptualization but all throughout the research process.
6. Search the net. There are good sites in the net where you can get valuable literature
for your projects. For example, google scholar. There are also some free e-journals
which you can use as reference. Just be aggressive in finding one.
How to Conduct Research in Psychology

Writing the Problem Areas

In generating your problem, it is highly suggested that you write all the important things
you are doing and interesting concepts that come to your mind along the process. More
importantly, you may write at least three (3) or even five (5) areas of which you are interested.
Then think, reflect, read literature, and brainstorm on these initial areas. Along the way, and sooner
or later, you may be able to decide which one you are really interested in. After finally deciding
on the area you would like to focus with, you can now proceed to a more focused literature review.
The end goal, of course, is when you are able to write the overall and the specific problems of your
study. To illustrate, here are the steps we did together with one of my advisees:

1. Writing three initial areas:

Marital satisfaction, achievement motivation, episodic memory

2. Decide on the specific area:

Episodic Memory

3. Develop and state clearly the overall problem/focus:

Episodic future thinking among Filipino Preschool Children
What is the level of episodic future thinking among Filipino preschool children?
4. From the overall problem, indicate your specific problems:
a. At what age one can observe episodic future thinking in Filipino preschool
children?
b. Are there significant differences between boys and girls on episodic future
thinking?
c. Are there significant differences across age on episodic future thinking?

Practical Issues in Problem Conceptualization

There are things that researchers and students must consider in developing a problem. The
following are some of them:

Feasibility. Can it be done? Can the problem be subjected to empirical investigation? If

you are thinking of your research projects in your subjects or your thesis, you have to consider
things like time frame, finances, availability of materials, and participants. Of course, for students,
you must not forget that you are working within a time frame ( e.g, a semester or a full school
year). This is not only true for students, even researches outside the academe have time frames.

Ethics. Do you think your research problems do not violate basic ethical consideratio ns?
Are there no ethical limitations? For example, at present, your panel may not approve if you want
to work on the effect of sexual intercourse on self-concept, or the effect of a slap on one’s
temperament. So when you are embarking on a research project, do not forget to think about
practical things that may come as a problem along the way. It really pays to be future-orie nted
when it comes to research making.
How to Conduct Research in Psychology

TOPIC 12

Reviewing the Literature

After deciding on a topic, you now proceed with a focused literature review; focused in the
sense that you are guided by your topic. You now disregard articles that are unrelated to your
interest. In this stage, you are concerned with what the literature says about the topic you have
chosen.

Reviewing the literature enables you to learn deeper about concepts related to your topic.
It gives you general and specific overviews about what has been done. It makes you learn about
the variables that have been and have not been explored. And of course, it provides a guide for
future research. This is exactly what a good literature review is; lets you know about what has been
done and what needs to be done.

When reading the literature, pay special attention to findings and results of empirica l
studies, take note on the sample and the methods employed and the recommendations, as these are
important in developing your proposed study.

At this point also that you need to record all your sources. For APA, you have to take note
of the authors’ name, year of publication, title, publisher, volume, and page numbers. These are
the major entries in the reference section. And take note, all source you will cite in your paper
should be written in the reference section. Entries in the APA Reference are like these:

Agaser, N. & Lorenzo, M. (2005). Effects of glutaphos on learning and memory. Unpublished
undergraduate thesis. Central Luzon State University.

Cohen, J.,(1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. 2nd ed. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

As to the number of sources, there are no specified rules. The main point however is that
the literature review must be comprehensive enough as backdrop of your current research. That is,
your research focus should flow directly from the points you presented in your literature. My
suggestion is, if you are working on your thesis, your references should not be less than 15.
How to Conduct Research in Psychology

TOPIC 13

Writing the Title, Introduction and the Literature Review

Title

The title of your research should indicate the general focus of your topic. Usually it
emanates from the research problem. For example, if the major problem is to find out the effects
of glutaphos and Ginkgo Biloba on learning and memory of rats and college students, a good title
must look like this: “ On Rats and Students: Effects of Glutaphos and Ginkgo Biloba on
Learning and Memory “. Majority of research books tell us that a good research title should
contain the basic variables of the research. Often this can be done by limiting the title between 12-
16 words.

Do not however preoccupy yourself with the title of your research. You could develop it as you
proceed with your work, or perhaps your panel will suggests one for you. An initial working title may do.

Introduction
According to the APA 6th Edition (2010), the introduction should “presents the specific problem
under study and describes the research strategy”. In your introduction, you have to present a clear research
focus and be able to state why there is a need to work on it. Your introduction is a prelude to your detailed
and more focused literature review. So your introduction (which can either be 1-3 page long, double space)
should connect smoothly to your literature review. Since it introduces the entire research, you can, by all
means cite in your introduction.

One good characteristics of an introduction is that it should not be too broad or too specific. The
first few statements must be enough to indicate what you would like to do and your reasons why there is a
need to do it. It often is written in the present tense. Overall, it should be like telling a short and
comprehensive story that justifies your topic.

Review of Literature

The major aim of the literature review is to provide a conceptual and/or a theoretical
backdrop of your proposed study. The focus of your current study (your problem, the variables
you intend to examine, the measures you plan to use, the relationships you would like to determine,
etc.., ) should flow logically from the review of literature. This means that your problems are
properly developed based on the points you have discussed in your literature. Problems which are
restatement of the issues raised in the literature review or are answerable by the literature are
considered poor. In other words, your current research must have something to contribute later in
the literature. Generally, it may attempt to extend an existing concept or resolve conflicting results.

Organizing the literature review could be quite difficult since you need to present a logical
continuity between your literature and your study. As mentioned, your problem should flow
smoothly from the literature. To do this, the best way is to become very familiar with your literature
so you can relate it well with your problem. You could make several options in presenting your
How to Conduct Research in Psychology

literature and then select the best form to suit your topic. In the literature review, you must provide
a conceptual integration of what has been done, point gaps, and themes and be able to link them
with your current problem.

In order to create a clear connection, have a summary of your literature before presenting
your problem. Often, it must be written with the use of headings. A logical connection between
your problems and the summary of literature must be evident. Reading your summary toward your
problems, one must be convinced that there is really a need to conduct your study.

Students should take note also that the literature review is not an enumeration of studies
done in the past. This misconception is one of the reasons why the practice of “cut and paste” is
rampant. As emphasized, plagiarism is unacceptable. Paraphrase. Write in your own style and then
cite authors properly.
How to Conduct Research in Psychology

TOPIC 14

The Problem and Research Hypothesis

After having a clear grasp of the literature of your research topic, you are now ready to
write your specific problems. Since we term it as problem, it should therefore be written in problem
form- it ends with a question mark (?). This is what we follow in the department. We acknowledge
however that in can also be written as objectives, but for purposes of uniformity, we follow the
question format. Usually, students are encouraged to create a general problem from which the
specific problems come from. The general problem serves as a guide in developing specific
problems. It can also be one of the specific problem. Overall, the general problem is seen as the
centerpiece of your research, the central focus of your study. On the other hand, you may specify
directly your problems without having a general problem, provided that your problems are
conceptually related. That is, they are logically connected. We can illustrate this using the example
mentioned earlier :

General problem:

Is episodic future thinking observed among Filipino children?

Specific problems:

1. At what age does episodic future thinking is observed among

Filipino children?
2. Are there age and gender differences in episodic future thinking
among Filipino children?

Take note that they are closely related and that the problems are focused on one major
variable: episodic future thinking. Is there a required number of specific problems? So far, I have
not read of any book that states a required number. In my own experience, between 2-7 are the
typical number of specific problems.

After specifying your problems, you next indicate your research hypotheses. We define
research hypotheses as your expected answers to your problems; what you theorize as the relations
of the variables in your research. As such, it should be hinged directly from the general and specific
problems. It must be clear, and to do that you should specify the expected relationship at the levels
of the variables. In short, you must explain what you are thinking as the relationships of the
variables you included in your study. The detailed research hypothesis is I think a must for causal
and correlational researches. Based from the problems mentioned, the hypotheses could be as
follows:

1. I expect that, as with the research results in the west, the pivotal year in the
emergence and observation of episodic future thinking among Filipino
children is four years old.
How to Conduct Research in Psychology

2. It is also expected that there would be significant differences between boys

and girls on episodic future thinking, with boys having more developed
episodic future thinking than girls. This is because episodic future thinking
is theorize as related to spatial abilities which is more observed among boys
than girls.
3. With age, it is anticipated that six years old children are more advanced in
episodic future thinking compared to five years old, who in turn, are more
advanced than four years old.

Here, I would like to emphasize that it would be good if you make a detailed explanatio ns
on the possible relationships that you expect between and among your variables. It may not be just
enough to say that demographic characteristics such as age, sex, religion, and monthly income are
significantly related to these variables. Actually, these are the types of hypotheses that we typically
read from among our undergraduate research papers. These are very general, and everyone could
say these. Let’s remember that research is a scientific work, and therefore, our hypotheses should
also be scientific. It should be evident of sensible and clear theoretical or practical explanations of
relationships between variables. If you included age as a variable in your study, you must have a
reason why, and you need to explain it. For instance, do you expect that an 18 year old sees you
variable differently compared with a 10 year old? Your hypothesis must be clear. Do not just
include or choose any demographic characteristics you like without any reason.

With clear and detailed hypotheses, we can directly state later on in the discussion whether
the data support or contradict the hypotheses. This is actually one of the excitement of doing
research. You make a sensible guess, and then try to prove whether your guess is truly sensible.
How to Conduct Research in Psychology

TOPIC 15

The Significance of the Study and Scope and Limitation

Whether you are conducting an applied or basic research, your topic is important in its own
right. Therefore, you must indicate clearly the importance of your study. Of course, just like any
other parts of the research paper, you must have some points in mind on the significance of your
study in the process of fine-tuning it. Write down all points that comes to your mind and when you
are now on the writing stage, it would be much easier for you to compose the significance of the
study.

Usually, the significance of the study focuses on the contributions of your study in
extending our understanding about your topic. These could be theoretical, conceptual, or practical
issues your study would like to address. In addition, your study might have implications in the
development of intervention programs for a specified group of individuals or organizations. As
such, you must discuss and present them. As an illustration, the study on episodic future thinking
(Dancel, 2012) has the following significance:

This study has both conceptual and practical significance.

First, the concept of episodic future thinking is a recent development in
episodic memory; hence, a study of this kind helps in further exploring and
understanding its nature.
Second, an attempt to look into differences between boys and girls on
episodic future thinking may add more light in the present understanding of this
concept.
And third, memory studies in the Philippines is lacking especially on
memory development in children. This study may contribute to our
understanding of Filipino children in general and episodic future thinking in
particular.

After the significance of the study is the scope and limitation. As its heading suggests, it
should tell the scope (concepts and variables you want to include) and limitations (things that set
boundaries) for your study. Although there are no rules on what to indicate, I think the scope and
limitations makes the research even clearer and focused. As if you are stating that these are just
the things that you want to address. And since you state the scope and limitations before conducting
the research, these are a-priori limitations. However, you can also cite further limitations of your
study after the conduct of your research. In the later part of your discussion, you can indicate
additional limitations that you observed in carrying out your research. We can call these limitatio ns
as a-posteriori limitations- things you realized as limitations after conducting your research. This
may include so called “strength and weaknesses” of your research.
How to Conduct Research in Psychology

TOPIC 16

The Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

In my own observation, writing the theoretical and conceptual framework is one of the
most difficult parts in the development of thesis proposals. Perhaps, this is understandable since
one needs to be familiar with a number of theories related to your topic. This of course, should
also be done in the literature review stage. That is, in addition to reading related researches, you
must also learn about the theories used in understanding your topic. (Which of course demands a
lot of time and effort from students). In other words, to be able to write clearly your theoretical
framework, you must know your theory very well.

In here that you must operationalize variables of your study; present assumed relationships between
variables
How to Conduct Research in Psychology

TOPIC 17

Method: Participants and Instrumentation

The method section specifies how you answered your problems. The APA 6 th Edition
(2010) explains that it “describes in detail how the study was conducted… and enables reader to
evaluate the appropriateness of your method and the reliability and validity of your results”.
Generally, the subsections of the method include but are not limited to participants,
instrumentation/materials, data gathering procedure, and data analysis. For experimental studies,
the design together with an operational definition of the variables is also included.

Participants
Pertinent characteristics of your participants should be reported especially if you are going
to include them as variables of your study. Clearly describe demographic characteristics such as
sex, age, educational attainment, civil status and other important characteristics so that readers
know the extent to which results can be generalized.
In addition, you need to specify the number of your participants and your sampling
strategy. In here that you are able to use what you learned in your statistics subjects. You can either
choose any of the probability or non-probability sampling methods depending on which suits your
topic (and your situation, of course). Also, indicate specific agreements between you and your
participants, for instance, rewards or tokens given to them.
For experimental studies, you need discuss in detail, how you randomly assigned your
participants in your treatment conditions, the sample size, and the mortality rate per condition. To
aid your presentation, you may put your sample size relative to major variables in table form.

Instrumentation
The goal of a research project is to investigate relationships between constructs.
However, because constructs are usually impossible to measure directly, you must select
or develop indicators that will approximate them as well as possible. In this portion you
are going to mention the instruments you’re going to use. If an instrument is already
established, the proposal should include its name and reported evidence of its reliability
and validity for the intended purpose. In cases in which the instruments are to be developed
by the researcher, it is necessary to outline the procedure to be followed in developing
them. This outline should include the steps that will be taken to obtain validity and
reliability data on these instruments. If describing the reliability and validity procedures
results in so much detail that it interrupts the continuity of the proposal, it is preferable to
include this material in an appendix rather than in the text.
Clipped from: Ary, D., Jacobs, L.C., Sorensen, C., Razavieh, A. (2010) Introduction to
Research in Education- 8th Edition
How to Conduct Research in Psychology

TOPIC 18
Method: Data Gathering Procedures and Data Analysis

In this section, the author describes the way in which the study will be carried out.
By designing the study explicitly as an operation to permit the observation of the
hypothesized relationships, you lay the foundation for the study. Include in this
section all the information necessary for replication of the study. In an experimental
research proposal, for example, the author should describe the design by listing the
groups and how subjects will be assigned to groups and by giving a step-by-step
description of the manipulations planned for each. These steps should be completely
designated in operational form. You should also mention the possibility of
confounding variables and specify how you propose to control for these variables.
For instance, you might control for student and teacher differences by randomly
assigning students and teachers to the control and experimental groups and making
the time spent, physical setting, and facilities equivalent. If the proposal involves a
survey, you need to describe all the steps involved in the development of the
instrument, its distribution, follow-up procedures, training of the interviewers (if
used), and so on. You should also mention any known limitations of the proposed
methodology. The limitations are any factors that may negatively impact the results
of the study or the generalizability of the results. Limitations may include size of the
sample, selection of the participants, the setting for the study, use of a pretest, length
of the study, and so on. But you should be careful about pointing out too many weak-
nesses. Bryant (2004) writes, “Don’t downplay the potential importance of your
study. One wants to be cognizant of weaknesses in design and method, but I think it
is a strategic mistake to speak too loudly of weaknesses in concept or method until
after the dissertation proposal has been approved” (p. 59). Assuming the study goes
forward, one can always discuss limitations in the final report. Documents such as
teaching or reading materials planned for an experiment need not be included in the
main text of the proposal because discussion of such details usually interrupts
continuity of the proposal. We recommend that the author place these documents in
an appendix, describing them briefly but clearly in the procedures section. However,
it is essential to explain in this section any differences in the presentation of these
materials to the different groups involved in the experiment. After the section on
procedures has been drafted, read it to verify that you have described all steps
necessary to answer every question and test every hypothesis. You can check the
completeness of this section with the following question: Given the time and
resources needed, could the reader carry out this research by following the steps as
described? If you can answer this question in the affirmative, this section is
complete. Clipped from: Ary, D., Jacobs, L.C., Sorensen, C., Razavieh, A. (2010)
Introduction to Research in Education- 8th Edition
How to Conduct Research in Psychology

References
4. APA Writing Style

References

Lupdag, A.D. (2000). General Psychology.

Yusi, D.K, Cabinian, R., Reyes, R., & Ramones, J. (2001). Perception on Virginity Among
Academic and Non-academic Scholars. A undergraduate research paper in General
Psychology.