I

NTERNSHI
PREPORT
On
MACHI
NEDESI
GNPART-
1
Ar
epor
tsubmi
tt
edinpar
ti
alful
fi
lmentoft
her
equi
rement
s
fort
heAwardofDegreeof
BACHELOROFTECHNOLOGY
I
N
MECHANICALENGI NEERI
NG

Submit
tedBy
GURUBI
LLIBHANUPRASAD
(
Regd.No.
:18A55A0311)

UnderSuper
visionof
COURSERA(ONLINEI NTERNSHI
P)

(
Dur
ati 12thMar
on: o15thApr
ch2020t il2020)

DEPARTMENTOFMECHANI CALENGI NEERING

ADI
TYAI NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGYANDMANAGEMENT
(AnAutonomousInsti
tut
ion)
Appr
ovedbyAICTE,Permanentl
yaffi
li
atedtoJNTU, Kaki
nada,Accr
edi
tedbyNBA
(AI
CTE)&NAACA+( UGC),Recogni
zedbyUGCu/ s2(f)&12(
B),
RecognizedasSIRObyDSI R,
DST, NewDel hi
.
TEKKALI,
ANDHRAPRADESH
2017–2021

a AI
TAM
 DEPARTMENTOFMECHANI CALENGINEERI
NG
ADI
TYAINSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGYANDMANAGEMENT
(
AnAut
onomousInst
it
ute)
TEKKALI

CERTI
FICATE
Thisi
st ocer
ti
fyt hatthe“
Inter
nshiprepor
t”submitt
edbyGURUBI LLIBHANU
PRASAD ( Regd.No.:18A55A0311)i s work done byhi m and submitted duri
ng
2020–2021academi cy ear,i
npart
ialful
fi
lmentoftherequi
rement
sf ortheawar dof
thedegr eeofBACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY i n MECHANI CALENGI NEERI NG,at
Coursera(Onl
ineInt
ernship).

Coll
egeInter
nshipCoordi
nator Depar
tmentInter
nshipCoor di
nator
Dr.B.Raj
esh,M.Tech.
,Ph.D Sr
i.
B.Ramakrishna, M.Tech.
Associat
eProfessor
,ECE AssociateProfessor,ME

HEADOFTHEDEPARTMENT
Dr.
Ch.JanardhanaRao,
Ph.
D.
Depart
mentofME

b AI
TAM
 I
NTERNSHI
PCERTI
FICATE

i AI
TAM
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Fi
rst,Iwoul dli
ketothankteam ofCourseraforgi
vi
ngmetheoppor
tuni
tytodoan
onli
neI nter
nshipf
rom home.
I
tisi ndeedwi thagreatsenseofpleasureandimmensesenseofgrat
it
udethatI
acknowl edgethehel
poftheseindi
vi
duals.
Iam highl
yindebt
edt
oDirect
orProf.
V.V.Nageswar
aRaoandPr i
nci
palDr
.A.S.
Sr
ini
vasaRao,fort
hef
aci
l
iti
esprov
idedtoaccompl
i
shthi
sint
ernshi
p.
Iwouldli
ket othankmyHeadoft heDepartmentDr
.Ch.
Janar
dhanaRaof
orhi
s
const
ruct
ivecr
it
ici
sm t
hroughoutmyint
ernshi
p.

I wouldl i
ke to thank Dr.B.
Rajesh,Col
lege inter
nship coordi
nator and Sr
i.
B.Ramakr
ishna,Depart
mentinter
nshipcoor
dinatorforthei
rsupportandadv i
cest
o
getandcompleteint
ernshi
pinabovesaidor
ganizati
on.

Iam ext
remel
ygreat
fultomydepart
mentstaf
fmember
sandf
ri
endswhohel
pedme
i
nsuccessful
completi
onoft
hisint
ernshi
p.

GBHANUPRASAD
(
18A55A0311)

i AI
i TAM
 LEARNI
NGOBJECTI
VES/
INTERNSHI
POBJECTI
VES

 Internshipsar egener all

yt houghtoft ober eservedf orcol legest udents
l
ooki ngt ogai nexper iencei naf i
eld.Howev er,awi dear rayofpeopl ecan
benef itf r
om Tr aining Int ernshi ps tor eceiver ealwor ld exper i
ence and
dev elopt heirskil
ls.
 An obj ectivef ort hisposi tion shoul d emphasi ze the ski l
lsy ou already
possessi nt hear eaandy ouri nterestinlearningmor e
 Internships ar e ut il
i
zed i n sev eral diff
erent car eer f ields,including
architectur e,engi neering,heal thcare,economi cs,adv er
tising and many
mor e.
 Somei nternshipi susedt oal lowi ndivi
dualst oper f
orm scient if
icresearch
whi l
eot her sar especi ficallydesi gnedt oal low peopl et ogai nfir
st-hand
exper iencewor ki
ng.
 Utili
zingi nternshipsi sagr eatwayt obuildy ourr esumeanddev el
opski ll
s
thatcanbeemphasi zedi ny ourr esumef orf ut urejobs.Wheny ouar e
appl yi
ngf oraTr ainingInt ernshi p,mak esur etohi ghli
ghtanyspeci alskill
sor
tal
ent st hatcanmak ey oust andapar tfrom t her estoft heappl i
cantsso
thaty ouhav eani mpr ov edchanceofl andingt heposi ti
on.

Qui
z Subj
ect Week Passcr
it
eri
a

1 Mat
eri
alspr
oper
ti
esi
ndesi
gn Week1 8/
9poi
nts

2 St
ati
cfai
l
ure Week2 9/
11poi
nts

3 Ful
l
yrev
ersedl
oadi
nfat
igue Week3 2/
2poi
nts

4 Fl
uct
uat
ingf
ati
gueandmi
ner
'sr
ule Week4 2/
2poi
nts

5 Compr
ehensi
veexam Week5 4/
5poi
nts

i AI
i
i TAM
 I
NDEX
1.
Mat
eri
alpr
oper
ti
esi
ndesi
gn1
1.
1.I
mpor
tanceofengi
neer
ingmat
eri
al1

1.
2.Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofengi
neer
ingmat
eri
al1

1.3.
Mechanical
pr
operti
es.
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..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
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..
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..
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..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.2

1.4.
Ashby
pl
ots.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
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..
..
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..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
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..
..
3

2.
Stat
icf
ail
uret
heor
ies6
2.
1.St
ressconcent
rat
ion6
2.2.Tor
sional
st
ress…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………6

2.
3.Bendi
ngst
ress………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7

2.
4.Theor
iesoff
ail
ureunderst
ati
c
l
oad…………………………………………………………………………………………7

3.
Fat
iguef
ail
ure……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
13

3.
1.Fati
guef
ail
ureof
mat
eri
al………………………………………………………………………………………………………13

3.
2.S-
NCur
ves(st
rengt
h-
l
i
fe)……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
13

3.
3.Endur
ancel
i
mit
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………15

3.
4.Compl
etel
yrev
ersed

i
v AI
TAM
st
resses…………………………………………………………………………………………………17

3.
5.Goodmanmet
hod…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………20

v AI
TAM
 Chapt
er-
1

Mat
eri
alPr
oper
ti
esi
nDesi
gn
1.
1.I
mpor
tanceofEngi
neer
ingMat
eri
als:
The benef it
s ofmoder n ci
vil
i
sati
on are mainlydue to availabi
l
ityof
engineeringmat erial
s.Thest andar
dofl ivi
ngint hesocietyisdeter
mi nedbyt he
mat er
ials avail
able,and t hei
rconversi
on into usef
ulpr oduct
s.The conv ersi
on
techniquesar er angingfrom stoneaget otheageofst eel
.Theadv ancei nour
technologicaldevelopmenthasnecessitatedimprovementintheavail
ablemat eri
als
anddi scoveryofnewmat erial
s.

1.
2.Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofEngi
neer
ingMat
eri
als:
Engi
neer
ingmat
eri
alsar
ebr
oadl
ycl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wogr
oups:

1.Met
als

a.Fer
rousmet
als

b.Nonf
err
ousmet
als

2.Non-
met
als

a.Or
gani
cmet
als

b.Cer
ami
cmet
als.

Materi
alswithcombi
nat
ionofmetalsandnon-
metal
sarecalledcomposit
es.They
areconsider
edasmostimpor
tantengi
neer
ingmat
eri
alsbecauseofthei
rincr
eased
useinindust
ry.

Thedet
ail
edcl
assi
fi
cat
ionofengi
neer
ingmat
eri
alsi
sshowni
nFi
g.1.
1.

1 AI
TAM
1.
3.MECHANI
CALPROPERTI
ES:
STRENGTH:St rengthi
stheabi l
ityofmater
ialtowithstandtheexternalloadwithout
fr
actureorexcessivedeformation.St
rengt
hi sani nherentmateri
alpr oper
tyoft he
objectort
hecomponent .It'
sbasedof fofmat er
ial
satomi candmol ecularstr
ucture
andt heprocessingandt reatmentthatmat eri
alhasseenbef orei tbecamet he
componentitis.Str
engt
hi sthecapaci
tyofmat eri
altotakestr
ess.

a.Tensil
estrengt
h:Theabi
l
ityofmat
eri
alt
oresi
stt
ensi
l
e(st
ret
chi
ngorpul
l
ing)l
oad
i
scalledtensil
estr
engt
h.

b.Compressi
vestr
engt
h:Theabi
l
ityofmateri
alt
oresi
stcompr
essi
ve(
squeezi
ngor
pushi
ng)l
oadiscall
edcompr
essi
vestrengt
h.

c.Shearst
rength:Theabil
i
tyofmateri
altoresi
stshearloadwi
thoutsl
i
dingor
cut
ti
ngtheport
ionofthepar
twi
thr
especttot
heotherpar
t.

ELASTI CITY:Iti
st he pr
opert
yofa mat eri
alt
or egainit
s ori
ginalshape af
ter
deformat i
onwhentheext er
nalforcesareremoved.Thi sproper
tyisdesir
abl
ef or
mat er
ialsusedint
oolsandmachi nes.I
tmaybenot edt hatt
hesteelismoreel
astic
thanrubber .

PLASTI
CITY:I
tistheproper
tyofmater
ialwhichretai
nsthedef or
mati
onproduced
underl
oadpermanent
ly.Thi
sproper
tyofthemat eri
alisnecessar
yforfor
gings,i
n
stampi
ngimagesoncoi
nsandinornamental
wor k.

DUCTILITY:I
tisthepropert
yofamat er
ialenablingitt
obedrawnintowirewiththe
appli
cati
onofat ensi
l
eforce.Aduct
il
emat er
ialmustbebothstrongandplast
ic.The
ducti
li
tyusuall
ymeasur ed bytheterms,per centageel
ongat
ion and per
centage
reduct
ioninar
ea.

MALLEABILITY:I
tisaspecial
caseofduct i
l
itywhichpermi
tsmat
eri
alst
oberoll
edor
hammer edint
ot hi
nsheets.A mal l
eabl
emat er
ialshoul
dbeplast
icbutitisnot
essenti
alt
obesost r
ong.Themal leabl
emat eri
alscommonlyusedinengi
neeri
ng
pract
icear
elead,sof
tsteel
,wroughtir
on,copper,
alumini
um.

BRITTLENESS:I tisthepropert
yofamateri
alopposit
etoductil
i
ty.I
tisthepropert
y
ofbr eakingofamat eri
alwi t
hli
tt
leper
manentdi st
ort
ion.Bri
tt
lemat er
ial
swhen
subjectedtotensil
eloads,snapof
fwit
houtgiv
inganysensibl
eelongat
ion.Casti
ron
i
sabr i
ttl
ematerial
.

TOUGHNESS:I tisthepropert
yofamat eri
altoresistfract
ureduetohighimpact
l
oadsl i
kehammerbl ows.Thetoughnessofthematerialdecr
easeswheniti
sheated.
I
tismeasur edbyt heamountofener gythatauni tvolumeofthemat eri
alhas
absorbedaft
erbei
ngst r
esseduptothepointoffr
acture.Thispr
opert
yisdesi
rabl
ein
part
ssubject
edtoshockandi mpactloads.

HARDNESS:I
tisv
eryi
mpor
tantpr
oper
tyoft
hemet
alsandhasawi
dev
ari
etyof
2 AI
TAM
meanings.I tembrace manydif
ferentpr
oper
ti
es such as r
esi
stance t
o wear,
scrat
chi
ng, def
ormati
onandmachi
nabil
it
yet
c,I
talsomeanstheabi
li
tyofamet alt
o
cutanothermetal
.

FATIGUE:Whenamat erialissubject
edt or epeatedst
resses,i
tfail
satstresses
bel
owt heyi
eldpointstresses.Suchtypeoff ai
lureofamateri
alisknownasfati
gue.
Thefail
urei
scausedbymeansofapr ogressivecrackf
ormationwhichar
eusual l
y
fi
ne and ofmicroscopi c si
ze.This propertyis consi
dered i
n desi
gni
ng shafts,
connecti
ngr
ods,springs,gears.

CREEP:Whenapartissubj
ectedtoaconstantst
ressathi
ght emperatur
eforalong
peri
odofti
me,itwi
llunder
goasl owandpermanentdeformationcall
edcreep.Thi
s
proper
tyi
sconsi
der
edindesigni
ngint
ernal
combust i
onengines,boi
l
ersandturbi
nes.

MACHI NABILITY:Itisthepropert
yofamat er
ialwhichref
er stoarelati
vecasewi th
whichamat eri
alcanbecut .Themachi nabi
l
ityofamat eri
alcanbemeasur edin
numberofway ssuchascompar i
ngt hetoolli
feforcuttingdif
ferentmat er
ialsor
thr
ustrequi
redt or emovethemat eri
alatsomegi venrateortheener gyrequiredto
removeauni tvolumeoft hemat er
ial
.Itmaybenot edt hatbrasscanbeeasi ly
machinedthanst eel.

RESILI
ENCE:Itist
heproper
tyofamat er
ialtoabsorbener
gyandt or
esistshockand
i
mpactl oads.Iti
smeasuredbyt heamountofener gyabsorbedperunitvolume
wit
hinelast
icli
mit
.Thi
sproper
tyessenti
alforspr
ingmateri
als.

IMPACTSTRENGTH:Theabi
li
tyofmater
ialt
oresi
sti
mpact(suddenshock)l
oads
wit
houtfr
act
urei
scalledi
mpactstr
ength.Toughmater
ialpossesshi
ghimpact
str
engt
h.

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS:Temper atur

eef fectsofMechani calchar acterist
icsof
mostmat er
ial
sar egreatl
yinfl
uencedbyt heoper ati
ngt emperat ure.St ress-St
rain
di
agramsar eobt ai
nedatspecifi
ctemperatures.Hi
ght emper at
urer educesmat erial
sti
ff
nessand st rengt
h,Whi l
el ow temperatureincreasesmat erialst i
ffnessand
str
ength.Almostallmat er
ial
screepovertimei fexposedt oelev atedt emper atures
underappl i
ed load.Atl ow temperatur
es,Duct i
le mat er
ials behav el ike brit
t l
e
materi
als,Whereasathi ghtemperatur
e,Br i
ttl
emat eri
alsbehav emor el ikeduct il
e
materi
als.

1.4.ASHBYPLOTS:Ther earealotofmat er i
als,
andeachhasal otofproperti
es.We
needagoodwayt odisplayandcompar et hem.Ausef ulmet hodofdoingt hisi
sby
plotti
ngthem asmat eri
alproper
tycharts,somet i
mescal l
edbubbleorashbychar ts,
wi t
honepr opert
yononeaxi sandanot herpropertyontheother.Eachmat eri
alhasa
rangeofv aluesforeachproperty
,dependi ngont heexactcomposi t
ion,grade,heat
treatment,suppl
ieretc.Themat eri
alsarer epresent
edont hechartasel l
i
psesor
bubbles,whosewi dthandhei ghtaredet erminedbyt herangeoft hev alueoft he
properti
es.

3 AI
TAM
Ther angeoft heaxesont hechar tsischosent oincl
udeal lmater
ial
s,fr
om density
,
sti
ffnessandst rongmet alsli
ket ungstentolightandf l
exibl
epolymerfoams.Thi s
huger angeiscov eredbyusingl ogarit
hmic( l
og)scales,whereeachmaj orstepon
theaxesr epresent
saf actorof10. Wewi l
lseet hatmateri
alsgrouptoget
her,
wi t
hall
thecer amics,forexamplehav ingsi mil
arv al
ues.Thef i
rstchartaboveshowst he
dif
ferentmat eri
alf
amili
esandhowt heygrouptogether

Fi
g.1.
2.Youngsmodul
usv
sDensi
ty

4 AI
TAM
 Fi
g.1.
3.St
rengt
hvsDensi
ty

5 AI
TAM
 Fi
g.1.
4.Ther
mal
expansi
onv
sTher
mal
conduct
ivi
ty

6 AI
TAM
 Fi
g.1.
5.Youngsmodul
usv
sEmbodi
edener
gyperuni
tvol
ume

Chapt
er-
2

St
ati
cFai
l
ureTheor
ies
2.1.STRESSCONCENTRATI ON:Whenev eramachi necomponentchangest heshape
ofi tscross-section,t hesimpl estressdi stributi
onnol ongerhol dsgoodandt he
neighbour hood oft he discont i
nui
tyi s di f
ferent.Thi sirregul ari
tyint he st ress
distri
buti
oncausedbyabr uptchangesoff ormi scal l
edst ressconcent ration.I t
occur sforal lki
ndsofst ressesi nthepr esenceoff il
let
s,not ches,hol es,key way s,
splines,surfaceroughnessorscr at
cheset c.Inordert ounder standf ull
ythei deaof
stressconcent rati
on, consideramemberwi t
hdi ff
er entcross-sect ionunderat ensi l
e
l
oadasshowni nFi g.2.1.Al i
tt
leconsi derati
onwi l
lshowt hatt henomi nalstressi n
ther i
ghtandl efthandsi deswi llbeuniform buti nther egionwher ethecross-section
i
schangi ng,ar e-di
stributi
onoft heforcewi thi
nt hemembermustt akeplace.The
mat eri
alneart heedgesi sst r
essedconsi der ablyhighert hant heav er
agev al
ue.The
maxi mum st r
essoccur satsomepoi ntont hef i
lletandi sdir ectedparall
elt ot he
boundar yatt hatpoint.

Fi
g.2.
1.st
ressconcent
rat
ion

2.2.TORSIONALSTRESS:Whenamachi nememberi ssubjectedt

otheact ionoftwo
equalandoppositecoupl
esactinginparal
lelpl
anes( ort
orqueortwistingmoment )
,
thent hemachinememberi ssaidtobesubj ect
edt otorsi
on.Thest resssetupby
torsi
oni sknownast orsi
onalshearstress.Itiszer oatt hecentroidalaxisand
maxi mum attheoutersurf
ace.Themaxi mum t orsi
onalshearstressatt heouter
surfaceoftheshaf
tmaybeobt ainedf
rom thefol
lowingequat i
on

τ/
r=T/
J=C.
θ/L

wher
e

τ=Tor
sionalshearst
ressi
nducedatt
heout
ersur
faceoft
heshaf
tormaxi
mum

7 AI
TAM
shearst
ress,

r=Radi
usoft
heshaf
t,

T=Tor
queort
wist
ingmoment
,

J=Secondmomentofar
eaoft
hesect
ionabouti
tspol
araxi
sorpol
armomentof
i
ner
ti
a,

C=Modul
usofr
igi
dit
yfort
heshaf
tmat
eri
al,

L=Lengt
hoft
heshaf
t,andθ=Angl
eoft
wisti
nradi
ansonal
engt
hL.

2.3.BENDINGSTRESS:Whenabeam i ssubject
edtoasi mplebendi
ng,thest
resses
thatar einduced are 1.a t
ensi
le stress on one si
de ofthe neutr
alaxis,2.a
compr essi
vest r
essont heothersideoft heneutralaxi
s,andt heshearstress
i
nducedi ssmallandcanbeneglected.Whenabeam i ssubject
edtosimplebending,
themaxi mum stressi
nducedi
sgivenbyt heequati
on:

M/
I=σ/
y=E/
R

wher
e M =Bendi
ngmomentact
ingatt
hegi
vensect
ion,

σ=Bendi
ngst
ress,

I=Momentofi
ner
ti
aoft
hecr
oss-
sect
ionaboutt
heneut
ral
axi
s,

y=Di
stancef
rom t
heneut
ral
axi
stot
heext
remef
ibr
e,

E=Young’
smodul
usoft
hemat
eri
aloft
hebeam,

R=Radi
usofcur
vat
ureoft
hebeam.

2.
4.THEORI
ESOFFAI
LURESUNDERSTATI
CLOAD:

Ithasal readybeendi scussedi nt hepr evi

ouschapt ert hatst rengthof
machi nemember sisbasedupont hemechani calproperti
esoft hemat er i
alsused.
Sincet hesepr opertiesar eusual lydetermi nedf r
om simpl etensionorcompr ession
tests,therefor
e,pr edi ct
ingf ai
lurei nmember ssubjectedt ouniaxialst ressi sbot h
simpleandst raight-forwar d.Butt hepr oblem ofpr edict
ingthef ai
lurest ressesf or
member ssubject edt obi-axialortri
-axi
al stressesismuchmor ecompl i
cated.Inf act
,
thepr oblem issocompl i
catedt hatal argenumberofdi ff
erentt heorieshav ebeen
formulated.Thepr i
nci paltheoriesoffailuref oramembersubj ectedt obi-axialstress
areasf ollows:

1.Maxi
mum pr
inci
pal(
ornor
mal
)st
resst
heor
y(al
so known asRanki
ne’
s
t
heor
y).

2.Maxi
mum shearst
resst
heor
y(al
soknownasGuest
’sorTr
esca’
stheor
y).

8 AI
TAM
 3.Maxi
mum pr
inci
pal(
ornor
mal
)st
rai
ntheor
y(al
soknownasSai
ntVenant
t
heor
y).

4.Maxi
mum st
rai
nener
gyt
heor
y(al
soknownasHai
gh’
stheor
y).

5.Maxi
mum di
stor
ti
onener
gyt
heor
y(al
soknownasHenckyandVonMi
ses
t
heory
).

Since ducti
l
e mat erials usuall
yf ailby y iel
ding i.
e.when per manent
defor
mationsoccurint hemat er i
alandbr i
ttl
emat eri
alsfailbyfract
ure,t
hereforethe
l
imiti
ng str
engthf ort hese two cl asses ofmat eri
alsi s normall
ymeasur ed by
di
ffer
entmechani calpr oper
ti
es.Forduct il
emat eri
als,thelimiti
ngstrengthi sthe
str
essaty i
eldpoi
ntasdet er
minedf rom si
mpl etensiontestandi ti
s,assumedt obe
equalintensionorcompr ession.Forbr i
tt
lemat eri
als,thel i
miti
ngstrengthi sthe
ul
timatestr
essintensionorcompr essi
on.

2.
4.1.Maxi
mum Pr
inci
pleorNor
mal
Str
essTheor
y(Ranki
ne'
sTheor
y):

Accordingt othi
st heory,thefai
lureory i
eldi
ngoccur satapoi ntinamemberwhen
themaxi mum pr incipalornor malstressi nabi -
axialstresssy st
em r eachest he
l
imiti
ngst rengthoft hemat eri
alinasimpl etensiont est.Si
ncet heli
mi t
ingstrength
forductil
emat erialsi syi
eldpointstr
essandf orbrittl
emat erials(whichdonothav e
welldefinedy i
eldpoi nt)thelimiti
ngstrengthisulti
mat estress,therefor
eaccor ding
totheabov etheor y,taki
ngf actorofsafety(F.S.
)i ntoconsi derati
on,themaxi mum
pri
ncipalornormal stress(σt1)i
nabi -
axialstr
esssy st
em isgi venby

Sincethemaximum princi
pal ornormal st
resst heor
yisbasedonf ai
l
ureintensionor
compr essi
onandignoresthepossi bi
l
ityoff ai
lureduetosheari
ngstress,t
hereforei
t
i
snotusedf orducti
l
emat erial
s.Howev er,forbrit
tl
emat er
ial
swhichar erelati
vel
y
stronginshearbutweakint ensi
onorcompr ession,t
hist
heoryisgeneral
l
yused.

2.
4.2.Maxi
mum ShearSt
ressTheor
y(Guest
’sorTr
esca’
sTheor
y):

Accordi
ngtothi
stheor
y ,t
hefai
l
ureoryi
eldi
ngoccursatapoi ntinamemberwhen
themaximum shearst
ressinabi-
axi
alst
resssystem reachesav al
ueequalt
othe
shearst
ressaty
iel
dpointinasi
mplet
ensi
ont est
.Mathemat i
cal
l
y,

τmax=τyt/
F.S .
..
..
(1)

wher
e τmax=Maxi
mum shearst
ressi
nabi
-axi
alst
resssy
stem,

9 AI
TAM
 τyt =Shearst
ressaty
iel
dpoi
ntasdet
ermi
nedf
rom si
mpl
e
t
ensi
ont
est
,

F.
S.=Fact
orofsaf
ety
.

Si
ncetheshearstr
essaty
iel
dpointi
nasi mpl
etensi
ontestisequalt
oone-
hal
fthe
yi
eldst
ressi
ntensi
on,t
her
efor
etheequat
ion(1)maybewrit
tenas

τmax= σyt/
2*F.
S.

Thi
stheor
yismost
lyusedf
ordesi
gni
ngmember
sofduct
il
emat
eri
als.

2.
4.3.
Maxi
mum Pr
inci
pal
Str
ainTheor
y(Sai
ntVenant
’sTheor
y):

Accordi
ngtot
histheory,thefai
l
ureory i
eldingoccursatapoi nti
namemberwhen
themaximum pri
ncipal(ornormal)str
aini nabi -
axialstresssy st
em reachest he
l
imiti
ngval
ueofstr
ain(i.
e.str
ainatyiel
dpoi nt)asdeterminedf r
om asimplet ensil
e
test
.Themaxi
mum pr i
ncipal(
ornormal)straininabi
-axial
st r
esssy st
em isgiv
enby

εmax=(σt1/
E)-
(σt2/
m.E)

∴Accor
dingt
otheabov
etheor
y,

εmax=(σt1/
E)-
(σt2/
m.E)=ε=σy
t
/
E*F.
S. .
..
..
..
(1)

wher
e

σt
1andσt
2=Maxi
mum andmi
nimum pr
inci
pal
str
essesi
nabi
-axi
alst
ress
sy
stem,

ε=St
rai
naty
iel
dpoi
ntasdet
ermi
nedf
rom si
mpl
etensi
ont
est
,

1/
m =Poi
sson’
srat
io,

E=Young’
smodul
us,

F.
S.=Fact
orofsaf
ety
.

Fr
om equat
ion(
1),
wemaywr
it
ethat

(
σt1)
-σt2/
( m)= σt/
y F.
S.

Thistheor
yisnotused,i
ngener
al,becausei
tonl
ygi
vesr
eli
abl
eresul
tsi
npar
ti
cul
ar
cases.

2.
4.4.Maxi
mum St
rai
nEner
gyTheor
y(Hai
gh’
sTheor
y):

Accor
dingt
othi
stheor
y,t
hef
ail
ureory
iel
dingoccur
satapoi
nti
namemberwhen
10 AI
TAM
thest r
ainenergyperuni tvol
umeinabi-
axi
alstr
esssyst
em r
eachest
heli
miti
ng
strai
nenergy(i.e.st
rainenergyatt
hey
iel
dpoint)peruni
tvol
umeasdeter
mined
from si
mpletensiontest.

2.
4.5.Maxi
mum Di
stor
ti
onEner
gyTheor
y(HenckyandVonMi
sesTheor
y)

Accor di
ngt othi
st heor
y,thefai
lur
eory i
eldingoccursatapoi nti
namemberwhen
thedistorti
onstrainenergy(al
socall
edshearst r
ainener
gy)perunitvolumeinabi-
axialstr
esssy stem reachesthelimi
tingdistorti
onenergy(i
.e.di
stor
tionenergyat
yiel
d poi nt) per unitv ol
ume as det ermi ned from a si mpl
e t ensi
on test
.
Mat hemat i
cal
ly,t
hemax imum dist
ort
ionener gytheor
yforyi
eldi
ngisexpressedas
2 2 2
(
σt1)+(
σt2)–2σt1×σt2=(
σyt/
F.S.
)

Thistheor
yismost
lyusedf
orduct
il
emat
eri
alsi
npl
aceofmaxi
mum st
rai
nener
gy
theor
y.

Tr
ansv
erseShearSt
ressRev
iew
1.Belowinfi
gures1and2i sr
odOA, whi
chisat t
achedt
oanot
herrod,AB.Assume
thatr odABisstrongenough,andstr
essanal ysi
sonrodABi snotpartofthi
s
problem.RodOAhasadi ameterof4cm.Af orceF=1000Ni sappl
iedinthe–x
directi
onattheendoft herodOA,andaf orceP=500N i sappli
edint he–y
directi
onatpoi
ntB.AssumethatrodOAismadeofaduct i
l
emetal.
Fi
ndt
het
ransv
erseshearst
ressatpoi
ntC.

11 AI
TAM
 Fi
gur
e2.
2:I
somet
ri
cvi
ewofr
odOAandr
odAB.
Assumpt
ions:
I
sot
ropi
c,homogenous,
Fisaxi
alcent
ri
cload,
negl
ect
ingwei
ghtofr
odOAandAB.
Thought
s:

.
 ForceFcr eat esanaxi alcompr essivestressi nrodOA. For
ceFdoes
NOT cont ribut etothet ransv
erseshearst r
ess.
 Force P cr eates a posi ti
vetorsionalshearst r ess i
nr od OA.We
calculatedt hisi nthesol uti
ontowor ksheet3.
 ForcePal socr eatesabendi ngst r
essinr odOA.
 Theneut r
al axisi sapl ane,andliesalongt heX-Zpl aneatthecent
reof
thebar .
 Thet opofr odOA( atpoi ntO)isintension, andhasst r
essesacti
ngin
theposi ti
v ex- direct
ion.Thebot tom ofr odOAi si ncompressi
on,and
hasst ressesact ingint henegativex-di
rection.

Fi
gur
e2.
3:FBDofr
odOAandr
odAB

Anal
ysi
s:

τ=(
VQ/
Ib)
Fi
gur
e3:
Bendi
ngMomentdi
agr
am ofr
od
OA
V=P=500N
b=d=0.
04m
4 -
7 4
I=(
[πd ]
/ 25x10 m
64)=1.

Q=A’
y’
2 2
A’
=[0.
5*π*
(d/
2)]=0.
0006m

12 AI
TAM
 y
’=[
4*(
d/2)
]/[
(3*
π)]=0.
008m
-
6 3
=5.
3x10 m

-
6 3 -
7 4
τ=(500N*5.
3x10 m )
/(1.
25x10 m *
0.04m)
τ=0.5MPa

St
ressConcent
rat
ion

2.Supposey ouhav ea4340st eelplateinst ati

cl oadingontheext eri
oroftheJames
WebbTel escope( JWST) .Toall
owel ectr
oniccabl est opassthrought hepl
ate,i
thasa
transv
er se hole.The pl ate mustbe abl et o wi thstand t
he mi ni
mum oper ati
ng
temper atureofJWST.Thepl atei
s1⁄ 4”t hick,2”hi gh,and5”long.Thehol eisinthe
centreoft hepl ate,andis1/4“indiamet er.Thepl ateisloadedi ntensi
on,wit
hal oad
F=5000l bf.Seet heductil
eto br i
tt
let r
ansitiont emperaturechartandst r
ess
concent rat
ionf actorchartonthenextpage.
1.Whatisthemaxi
mum st r
essinthi
scomponenti
norbitdur
ingoper
ationofJWST?
Hint
:Googletheoperat
ingtemperat
ureofJWST.
2.Whatwouldthemaximum stressi
nthecomponentbeinst
orageatroom
temperatur
eonearth?

Assumpt
ions:
I
sot
ropi
c,homogenous,
Fisaxi
alcent
ri
cload,
negl
ect
ingwei
ghtofbar
.
Thought
s:
 For
ceFcr
eat
esanaxi
alt
ensi
l
est
ress.
 Mi
nimum oper
ati
ngt
emper
atur
eofJWSTonor
biti
s-225C.
 Theonorbi
ttemperat
ureiswellbel
owt heducti
l
etobri
ttl
etransi
ti
on
temper
atur
efor4340,andther
eforethesteel
barwil
lbehaveinabrit
tl
e
manneronorbi
t
 Forcal
cul
ati
ngstr
essesinthebaronorbi
t,ast
hemateri
ali
sbehav
ingi
na
bri
tt
lemanner,
astressconcent
rat
ionf
actormustbeused
13 AI
TAM
  Room t
emper
atur
ei saround21C,
whi
chi
swel
labov
etheduct
il
etobr
it
tl
e
tr
ansi
ti
ont
emperature
 Forcal
culati
ngstr
essesi
nthebari
nstor
ageatr
oom t
emper at
ure,t
he
materi
alisbehavi
nginaduct
il
emanner,
andastr
essconcentr
ati
onfact
ori
s
notnecessary.
Anal
ysi
s: Duct
il
etoBr
it
tl
eTr
ansi
ti
onTemper
atur
e
4340St
eel

1)Atoper
ati
ngt
emper
atur
eof-
225°
C

σnom =F/
A,A=[
t(
w-d)
]
σnom =5000l
bf/
[0.
25i
n*(
2in-
0.25i
n)]=
11,
428psi
=11.
4ksid/
w=0.
25i
n/2i
n=
0.
125
Kt=2.
65

σmax=Kt*snom =(
2.65*11.
4ksi
)=30.
2ksi
2)Atst
oraget
emper
atur
eof21º
C

σmax=F/
A,A=[
t(
w-d)
]
σmax=5000l
bf/
[0.
25i
n*(
2in-
0.25i
n)]=11,
428psi
=11.
4ksi

Chapt
er-
3
Fat
igueFai
l
ure
3.
1.Fat
igueFai
l
ureofMat
eri
als:
Fati
guef ail
ureofmat eri
alsr eferstotheirfai
lur
eundert heacti
onofcyclic
el
asticstress.Fat
iguegeneral
l
yi nvolvesthefor
mat i
onandgr adualgr
owthofcr
acks
andultimatelytofract
ureasar esultofreducedloadcarr
yingcapacit
y.Weconsider
uni
-axialcycl
icstr
essloadi
ngasshownbel owinfi
gure1.

14 AI
TAM
 Fi
g3.
1.Def
ini
ti
onsassoci
atedwi
thcy
cli
cst
ress

Themeanst
ressσmandst
ressampl
i
tudeσaar
edef
inedas

σm =½(
σmax+σmin)
σa=½(
σmax-σmin)
Whenthemeanst r
essσm equal
szerowehavecompl et
elyr
eversedstress.The
st
ressvari
ati
onΔσaisref
err
edtoasther
angeofst
ress.Forsi
nusoidal
loading,
the
st
ress-
ti
mer el
ati
onisgi
vensi
mplyas

σ=σm +σasi
n(2π/
T)t

whereTdenotestheper
iodofthest
resscycl
e.Thest
ress-
ti
mev ar
iati
onneednot
necessar
il
ybesi
nusoi
dalforf
ati
guef
ail
ure,
thoughi
nmanypr act
icalcasesi
tis.

3.
2.S-
NCur
ve(st
rengt
h-l
i
fecur
ve)
:
Usingthi
st est
,thest ressampl i
tudesassociatedwi t
hf ati
guef
ail
ureaf terNcy cles
canbedet ermi
nedandpl ott
ed.Thebasi softheSt ress-
Lifemet
hodi stheWohl erS-
N diagr
am,shownschemat ical
lyfort womat eri
alsinFi gur
e3.2.TheS- N di
agram
plotsnominalstressampl it
udeSv ersuscyclestof ail
ureN.Ther ear enumer ous
testi
ngprocedurest ogeneratetherequir
eddat aforapr operS-
Ndi agram.S- Nt est
dataareusuall
ydi splayedonal og-l
ogplot,
wi ththeactualS-Nli
ner epresenti
ngt he
meanoft hedataf rom sever
al t
ests.
Thecurveoff i
gure3.2issomet i
mesr eferr
edast heS-Ncur ve.Wedenot ethevalue
ofσaforf ai
l
ur eafterN cyclesasσ N.No tethatforsteels,thereisast r
esslev el
bel
owwhi chnof ail
ureisobserved.Thi
si sknownast heendur ancelimi
t.I
tgenerally
doesnotex istforot hermat eri
alssuchasal umini
um,et c.Fi gure3.3showsa
compari
sonoft woS- N curv
esf orsteel,wit
hanendur ancel i
mi t
,andalumini
um,
wit
houtanendur ancelimit
.

15 AI
TAM
 Fi
g.3.
2Ty
pical
S-Ncur
ve

Fi
g3.
3.Compar
isonofAl
umi
nium andSt
eel
S-Ncur
ves
I
tistobeemphasi zedt hatfatiguef
ailurecanoccurev enthought hestr
ess
nev erexceedstheel asti
cl i
mitoft hemat eri
al.I
nt heel ast
icr ange,thefati
gue
5
fail
ureusuallyoccur safter10 cy clesofst r
ess( highcy cl
ef atigue).Forl
arge
stressescausingplasti
cdef ormation,muchf ewercy clesofst r
essar eneededf or
fail
ure( l
ow cycl
efatigue).I
nl ow-cyclefat
igue,thest rai
nv s.numberofcy cl
esi s
plotted,si
ncethecalculat
ionofst r
essbyelast i
cformul asi
snol ongerv ali
d.

16 AI
TAM
3.
3.Endur
ancel
i
mit
:
Cert
ainmateri
alshav eaf ati
guelimitorendurancelimitwhichrepr esentsast ress
l
evelbelow whicht hemat eri
aldoesnotf ailandcanbecy cl
edi nfini
tel
y .Ift he
appl
iedstr
essl evelisbelow theendurancel i
mitoft hemat eri
al,thest ruct
urei s
sai
dt ohaveani nfi
niteli
fe.Thi sischaract
erist
icofst eelandtitanium inbeni gn
envi
ronmentalconditi
ons.At y
picalS-Ncurvecorrespondingtothi
st y
peofmat erial
i
sshownCur veAi nFigure3.2.

Manynon- fer
rousmet al
sandal loy
s,suchasal uminium,magnesi
um,andcopper
all
oys,do notexhi bi
twel l-
defi
ned endurance l
imi
ts. These mater
ial
si nstead
displ
ayacont i
nuouslydecreasi
ngS-Nr esponse,
simil
artoCurveBinFi
gur e3.2.In
suchcasesa f ati
guestrengthSfforagi vennumberofcy cl
esmustbespeci fied.
Anef f
ecti
veendurancelimitfort
hesemat eri
alsi
ssomet i
mesdefi
nedast hestress
8 8
thatcausesfai
lur
eat1x10 or5x10 l oadingcycl
es.

Theendur anceli
mitisnotat ruepropert
yofamat er
ial
,sinceothersigni
fi
cant
i
nfluencessuchassur facefini
shcannotbeent i
rel
yeli
minated.Howev er,atest
values(Se'
)obtai
nedf r
om pol i
shedspecimensprovi
deabasel i
netowhi chother
factor
scanbeappl i
ed.I
nfluencesthatcanaff
ectt
heenduranceli
mitincl
ude:

 Sur
faceFi
nish

 Temper
atur
e

 St
ressConcent
rat
ion

 Not
chSensi
ti
vi
ty

 Si
ze

 Env
ironment

 Rel
i
abi
l
ity

3.
3.1.
Eff
ectofLoadi
ngonEndur
anceLi
mit
-LoadFact
or:

Theendurancel imit(σe)ofamat eri

alasdet er
minedbyt herot
ati
ngbeam met hod
i
sf orrev
er sed bending load.Ther e are many machi ne member s which are
subject
edtol oadsot herthanrev
er sedbendingloads.Thustheendurancelimitwil
l
alsobedif
fer entfordiff
erentt
ypesofl oading.Theenduranceli
mitdependingupon
thetypeofloadingmaybemodi f
iedasdi scussedbelow:

Let

17 AI
TAM
Kb=Loadcorr
ect
ionfact
orf
ort
her
ever
sedorr
otat
ingbendi
ngl
oad.I
tsv
alues
usual
l
ytakenasuni
ty.

Ka=Loadcor
rect
ionf
act
orf
ort
her
ever
sedaxi
all
oad.I
tsv
aluemaybet
akenas
0.
8.

Ks=Loadcor
rect
ionf
act
orfort
hereversedtor
sionalorshearload.I
tsv
aluemay
bet
akenas0.
55forduct
il
emateri
alsand0.8forbri
tt
lemat er
ials.

Endur
ancel
i
mitf
orr
ever
sedbendi
ngl σeb=σe.
oad, Kb=σe .
..
.(kb=1)

Endur
ancel
i
mitf
orr
ever
sedaxi
all σea=σe.Ka
oad,

endur
ancel
i
mitf
orr
ever
sedt
orsi
onal
orshearl τe=σe.
oad, Ks

3.
3.2.
Eff
ectOfSur
faceFi
nishOnEndur
anceLi
mit
-Sur
faceFi
nishFact
or:

Whenamachi nememberissubject
edtov ar
iabl
el oads,t
heendur anceli
mitofthe
materi
alfort
hatmemberdependsupont hesurfaceconditions.Fi
g.3.
4showst he
val
uesofsurf
acefi
nishf
act
orforthevar
ioussurf
aceconditionsandul t
imat
etensil
e
str
ength.

Fi
g.3.
4Sur
facef
ini
shf
act
orf
orv
ari
oussur
facecondi
ti
ons

Whenthesurfacefi
nishf
act
ori
sknown, t
hentheenduranceli
mitforthemat er
ialof
themachinemembermaybeobt ai
nedbymul ti
ply
ingtheendurancelimitandt he
surf
acefi
nishfact
or.Weseethatforami r
rorpoli
shedmateri
al,t
hesur f
acefinish
fact
orisunit
y.Inotherwor
ds,theendur
ancel i
mitformirr
orpolishedmat er
ialis

18 AI
TAM
maxi
mum andi
tgoesonr
educi
ngduet
osur
facecondi
ti
on.

ksur=Surfacefi
nishf
act
or

σe1=σeb.
Ksur=σe. Ksur=σ
Kb. e.
Ksur .
..
(Kb=1)

3.
3.3.
Eff
ectofSi
zeonEndur
anceLi
mit
—Si
zeFact
or:

Ali
ttl
econsider
ationwil
lshowthati
fthesizeofthestandardspeci
menasshowni n
Fi
g.3.
5isincreased,t
hent heendur
anceli
mi tofthemat er
ialwi
lldecr
ease.Thi
sis
duetothefactthatal
ongerspeci
menwi l
lhavemor edefect
sthanasmal l
erone

Fi
g.3.
5.St
andar
dspeci
men

Ksz=Si
zef
act
or

σe2=σe1×Ksz .
..
(Consi
der
ingsur
facef
ini
shf
act
or
al
so)

=σeb.
Ksur.
Ksz=σe.
Kb.
Ksur.
Ksz=σe.
Ksur.
Ksz (
Kb=1)

3.
3.4.Ef
fectofMi
scel
l
aneousFact
orsonEndur
anceLi
mit
:

I
naddi ti
ontot hesur facef i
nishf actor(
Ksur)
,sizefactor(Ksz)andloadfact
orsKb,Ka
andKs, t
herear emanyot herf actorssuchasr eli
abil
i
tyfactor(Kr)
,temperat
urefact
or
(Kt)
,impactfact or(Ki)etc.whi chhasef fectont heendur ancelimitofamat eri
al.
Consideri
ngallt hesef actors,theendur ancel i
mitmaybedet er
mi nedbyusingthe
foll
owingexpressions:

 Fort
her
ever
sedbendi
ngl
oad,
endur
ancel
i
mit
,

σ'
e=σ Ksur.
eb. Ksz.
Kr.Kt.
Ki
3.
4.Compl
etel
yRev
ersedorCy
cli
cSt
resses:

19 AI
TAM
Considerar otati
ngbeam ofci r
cularcross- sect
ionandcarryi
ngal oadW,asshown
i
nFig.3. 6.Thi sloadi nducesstressesint hebeam whi charecycli
cinnat ure.Alittl
e
consi
der ationwi llshowt hatt
heupperf ibresoft hebeam (i
.e.atpointA)ar eunder
compr essivest ressandt helowerf ibr
es( i
.e.atpointB)areundert ensil
estress.
Aft
erhal far evoluti
on,thepointBoccupi est heposi
t i
onofpointAandt hepointA
occupiest heposi t
ionofpointB.Thust hepoi ntBisnowundercompr essivestress
andt hepoi ntA undert ensi
lest ress.Thespeedofv ar
iati
onoft hesest r
esses
dependsupont hespeedoft hebeam.

Fi
g.3.
6.Rev
ersedorcy
cli
cst
resses

From abov eweseet hatf

oreachrevolut
ionofthebeam,thestressesarer
ev er
sed
fr
om compr essi
vetot
ensi
le.Thest
resseswhichvar
yfrom onevalueofcompressi
ve
tot hesamev alueoft
ensi
l
eorv i
ceversa,ar
eknownascompl et
elyrever
sedorcycli
c
stresses.

Not
es:

1.Thestr
esseswhichvar
yfr
om ami ni
mum val
uetoamaximum v al
ueoft
hesame
nat
ure, (
i.
e.tensi
l
eorcompressi
ve)ar
ecal
l
edfluct
uat
ingst
resses.
2.Thestr
esseswhi
chv
aryf
rom zer
otoacer
tai
nmaxi
mum v
aluear
ecal
l
edr
epeat
ed
str
esses.
3.Thest r
esseswhichv ar
yfrom ami ni
mum v al
uetoamaxi mum val
ueoft he
oppositenature(
i.
e.from acertai
nminimum compressi
vetoacert
ainmaximum
tensil
eorfrom amini
mum tensil
etoamaximum compressi
ve)ar
ecal
l
edalter
nat
ing
stresses.
problem onfl
uctuat
ingstr
ess:Thevary
ing,fl
uct
uat
ingstr
essesshowntothebelow
aref oundatthecriti
callocat
ionofacomponent.Themat eri
alisst
eel,t
hefull
y
adjustedenduranceli
miti s22ksi,t
heul t
imat
est r
engt
hi s105ksi.Thefat
igue
strengthfr
act
ionisf=0.84.
1.Whati
stheaccumul
ati
vedamageoft
hispar
t
2.Whati stheli
feoft
heparti
nhoursifthi
s6secondst
resspat
ter
ncont
inuest
o
repeatf
ortheremai
nderoft
hepar
t’
sli
fe?

20 AI
TAM
 si
gma si
gma si
gma
n min si
gmamaxa m Not
ethatcy
cle1andcy
cle2ar
e

f
ull
yrev
ersi
ble
Cy
cle1 2 -
20 20 - -

Cy
cle2 3 -
60 60 - -

Cy
cle3 2 -
20 40 30 10

Sol
uti
on:Ascy
cle1i
sbel
owt
heendur
ancel
i
mit
,thenumberofcy
clesi
sinf
ini
te.
Ascy
cle2i
sful
l
yrev
ersi
ble,

Cycl
e3isf
luct
uat
ing,andtocalcul
atethenumberof
cy
cles,
asi
gmaequi v
alentisnecessar
y

21 AI
TAM
3.
4.GoodmanMet
hodf
orCombi
nat
ionofSt
resses:

Astrai
ghtli
neconnectingtheendur
ancel
imit(σe)andt
heul
ti
matest
rengt
h(σu),
as
shownbyl i
neABi nFig.3.
7,f
oll
owsthesuggesti
onofGoodman.AGoodmanli
nei s
usedwhent hedesignisbasedonulti
matestr
engthandmaybeusedforduct
il
eor
bri
tt
lemateri
als.

InFig.
3.7,l
ineABconnectngσeandσ
i ui
scall
edGoodman'sfai
lur
estr
essli
ne.Ifa
sui
tabl
ef actorofsaf
ety(
F.S.
)isappl
i
edt oendurancel
i
mitandult
imat
estr
ength,a
saf
est r
essl ineCDmaybedr awnparall
elt
ot heli
neAB.Letusconsi
deradesign
poi
ntPont heli
neCD

22 AI
TAM
 Fi
g.3.
7.Goodmanmet
hod

Nowf
rom si
mil
art
ri
angl
esCODandPQD,

Thisexpressiondoesnoti ncl
udetheeffectofstr
essconcentrat
ion.Itmaybenot ed
thatforducti
lemat eri
als,thestressconcentrat
ionmaybei gnoredunderst eady
l
oads.Sincemanymachi neandst r
uct
uralpartsthataresubj
ectedt ofat
igueloads
contai
nregionsofhighst r
essconcent
ration,t
herefor
eequati
on( i
)mustbeal tered
toincl
udet hi
seffect.I
nsuchcases,t hef ati
guestressconcentr
ationfactor(
Kf)is
usedt
omul
ti
plyt
hev
ari
abl
est
r σv)
ess( .Theequat
ion(
i)maynowbewr
it
tenas

(
1/ σm/σu)+(
FS)=( σv*kf)
/σe (
2)

23 AI
TAM
wher
e F.
S.=Fact
orofsaf
ety
,

σm =Meanst
ress,

σu=Ul
ti
mat
est
ress,

σv=Var
iabl
est
ress,

σe=Endur
ancel
i
mitf
orr
ever
sedl
oadi
ng,
and

Kf=Fat
iguest
ressconcent
rat
ionf
act
or

Consi
der
ingt
hel
oadf
act
or,sur
facef
ini
shf
act
orandsizef
act
or,t
heequat
ion(
2)
may be wr
it
ten as

Thegener altrendgi venbyt hegoodmanr el

ati
oni soneofdecr easingf ati
guelife
withincreasi
ngmeanst ressf oragi venlevelofalt
ernat
ingst r
ess.Ther elat
ioncan
beplottedtodet er
mi nethesaf ecycl
icloadingofapart;i
fthecoordinategivenbyt he
meanst ressandt heal t
er nat
ingstressliesunderthecurvegivenbyt herelati
on,t
hen
thepartwi l
lsurvive.Ifthecoor di
natedisabov ethecurve,thenthapar twi l
lfai
lfor
thegivenstresspar amet ers.

24 AI
TAM