JANUARY 2019

Brazing &
Soldering
Today
2018 FABTECH
Recap
PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
January 2019 • Volume 98 • Number 1 CONTENTS
FEATURES
32 The Peach State Welcomed FABTECH 2018
Attendees from around the world came to 32
network with other welding professionals, view
the latest product innovations, and experience a
wide array of educational opportunities
M. R. Johnsen et al.

BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY

44 Brazing 101: Induction Heating
The basics of this heating method, often used 44 56
as a step in the brazing process, are explained
W. A. Morrison

50 Filler Metal Control in Sinter Brazing

The ability to join two components while
sintering has enabled the industry to broaden
its capabilities — K. H. Bear et al.

54 Brazing with Photochemical-Etched Amorphous

Filler Metal Preforms
Amorphous brazing foils in a range of
thicknesses are ideal candidates for utilizing the
photochemical etching process to manufacture
preforms — W. Coughlan and E. Theisen

56 Resistance Microwelding Best Practices in

Braze Setup
Resistance microwelding can be a useful and
powerful tool in brazing setup operations
J. Kapur

WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT

1-s The Mechanical Performance of Sn-Pb Solder
Joints on LTCC Substrates
This study evaluated the properties of a thin-film
metallization layer deposited on low-temperature
co-fired ceramic base materials — P. Vianco et al.
14-s Corrosion Behaviors of CMT Spot-Joined
AA6022-T4 to Galvanized DC03
Postweld e-coating of cold metal transfer welded
aluminum to steel joints provide a high level of
corrosion protection — H. Y. Lei et al.

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 3

DEPARTMENTS
6 Editorial 64 Coming Events
8 Press Time News 67 Certification Schedule
10 International Update 68 Welding Workbook
12 News of the Industry 69 Society News
16 Business Briefs 70 Tech Topics
18 AWS 100 78 Section News
20 Stainless Q&A 92 Guide to AWS Services
22 RWMA Q&A 94 Personnel
26 Product & Print Spotlight 100 Classifieds
30 Point of View 101 Advertiser Index
Brazing & Soldering Today On the cover: Hand brazing an
60 Technology News aluminum evaporator coil
featuring Harris twin tips and
Aluxcor™ flux cored brazing rod.
(Courtesy of Harris Products
Group.)

OFFICERS WELDING JOURNAL

President Thomas J. Lienert
Consultant
Vice President Robert W. Roth
RoMan Manufacturing Inc.
Vice President W. Richard Polanin
WRP Associates
Vice President Dennis K. Eck
Praxair Distribution Inc.
Treasurer Carey Chen
Cincinnati Incorporated
Executive Director and CEO Matt Miller
American Welding Society
DIRECTORS
T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Welding North America
R. Ashelford (Dist. 13), Rock Valley College
J. R. Bray (Past President), Affiliated Machinery Inc.
T. Brosio (Dist. 14), Major Tool & Machine
J. Burgess (Dist. 8), General Electric
D. A. Desrochers (Dist. 1), Old Colony RVTHS
D. L. Doench (At Large), Hobart Bros. Co.
D. A. Flood (Past President), Tri Tool Inc.
K. Fogleman (Dist. 16), Consultant
P. H. Gorman (Dist. 20), Retired
M. Hanson (Dist. 15), Consolidated Precision Products
L. Heckendorn (Dist. 7)
R. L. Holdren (At Large), ARC Specialties
T. Holt (Dist. 18), Tech Corr USA Management
J Jones (Dist. 17), Harris Products Group
M. Krupnicki (Dist. 6), Mahany Welding Supply Co. Inc.
D. Lange (Dist. 12), Northeast Wisconsin Tech. College
S. Lindsey (Dist. 21), City of San Diego
S. M. McDaniel (Dist. 19), Big Bend Community College
D. K. Miller (At Large), Lincoln Electric
S. Moran (Dist. 3), American Hydro Corp.
R. Purvis (Dist. 22), Purvis Welding Inspection
S. Raghunathan (At Large), Saudi Aramco
H. Record (Dist. 5), Townley Foundry & Machine
M. Sherman (Dist. 10), SW&E LLC
L. E. Showalter (Dist. 4), Newport News Shipbuilding
M. Skiles (Dist. 9), Airgas Inc.
W. J. Sperko (At Large), Sperko Engineering Services
K. Temme (Dist. 2), Matrix NAC
P. I. Temple (Dist. 11), Retired
Publisher/Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Editorial
Sr. Editor Cindy Weihl
Features Editor Kristin Campbell
Associate Editor Katie Pacheco
Assistant Editor Roline Pascal
Peer Review Coord. Sonia Aleman
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Design and Production
Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Assistant Production Manager Brenda Flores
Manager of International Periodicals and
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
Advertising
Media Sales Executives Jeff Rhodes
and Kim Daniele
Production Specialists Megan Lebo
and Amy Gosen
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Sonia Aleman
saleman@aws.org
MARKETING ADVISORY COUNCIL
(MAC)
D. Doench, Chair, Hobart Brothers Co.
S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair, ESAB Cutting Systems
S. Samuels, Secretary, American Welding Society
D. Brown, AGONOW
C. Coffey, The Lincoln Electric Co.
D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg. Inc.
S. Fyffe, Astaras Inc.
L. Kvidahl, Ingalls Shipbuilding
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash Compressed
S. Moran, American Hydro
M. Muenzer, ORS Nasco
E. Norman, EDCO Industries LLC
R. Roth, RoMan Mfg. Inc.
F. Saenger, Consultant
M. Smickenbecker, Matheson
S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products
E. Stone, Weiler Corp.
A. Sepulveda, Hypertherm
D. Wilson, Wilson and Associates
T. Lienert, Consultant
J. Bray, Ex Officio, Affiliated Machinery Inc.
C. Chen, Ex Officio, Cincinnati Incorporated
M. Miller, Ex Officio, American Welding Society
aws.org
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and inclusion is essential to achieving excellence
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4 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019

EDITORIAL
AWS Members: We Value Your Feedback
Happy 100th birthday to the American
Welding Society (AWS)! As everyone surely
knows by now, 2019 marks the 100th year
anniversary of the founding of AWS. You will
see articles and other editorials on this topic
in future Welding Journal issues.
Now, let’s discuss the matter at hand. In
2016, AWS conducted a member survey
aimed at providing guidance for developing a
strategic plan for the 2017 to 2019 period.
The web-based survey involved questions on
the importance and performance of AWS
programs, opportunities, threats, and barri-
ers for growth. It was sent to various groups
of AWS stakeholders (~ 13,000), including
Section chairpersons, members of standing
T. J. Lienert and technical committees, welder members,
AWS President corporate members, student chapter advi-
sors, selected industry leaders, and AWS in-
ternational agents.
Members of the AWS board of directors
(BOD) and the Foundation board of trustees
were also included in the survey, as were
senior-level AWS staff. About 22% of all
stakeholders responded to the survey. Many
thanks to those who took the time to pro-
vide valuable feedback.
Results of the survey were subsequently
discussed by the AWS BOD and staff. Then,
we listened to you and used your feedback to
design improvements in several areas. More-
“In 2016, AWS over, many of the steps toward improvement
conducted a were incorporated into the strategic plan.
member survey One small detail that caught my eye in-
aimed at providing volved low scores by many respondents on a
question of the importance of the BOD in
guidance for helping AWS achieve its mission. Leadership
developing a strate- of the BOD interpreted this as a call to do a
gic plan for the 2017 better job in helping achieve our mission and
to 2019 period... to communicate more effectively with all
results of the survey members. In response, new and expanded
training courses have been developed and in-
were subsequently stituted for new BOD members, with a men-
discussed by the tor program for incoming members.
AWS BOD and staff. Survey responses involving issues related
Then, we listened to to customer service in certification and re-
you and used your newal were common. As a result, efforts are
feedback to design being made by AWS to improve testing, pro-
vide quicker turn around of exam results,
improvements in and broaden test accessibility through the
several areas.” implementation of a new IT system that has
the ability to submit and track certification
applications electronically. Moreover, migra-
tion to computer-based testing that will pro-
vide for more rapid grading, allow more con-
venient scheduling for tests, and will contin-
ue with the Certified Welding Inspector pro-
gram in 2019.
The shortage of properly trained welding
6 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
personnel was identified in the survey as one
of the top threats and barriers for growth for
AWS. The work by the staff and board of
trustees of the AWS Foundation in address-
ing this threat has been nothing short of
phenomenal. The number of scholarships
available to attract and retain students into
the welding field has exploded over the last
several years. By the end of 2018, the Foun-
dation will have awarded more than $1.2
million for that year alone. In addition, the
Foundation has initiated and awarded work-
force development grants.
Concerns over the level of exposure and
support of early career individuals were an-
other common theme from the survey.
These issues prompted developments in two
specific areas aimed at promoting greater en-
gagement of early career members with AWS
and the welding industry. The first involved
the formation of the AWS Diversity and In-
clusion Committee to ensure a diversity of
viewpoints reflective of the entire member-
ship, including early career members. The
second initiative is called the Future Leaders
Program. You may recall my recent editorial
on this topic in the September 2018 Welding
Journal. The program was begun to help de-
velop the next generation of AWS leaders,
and offers opportunities for early career
members of the welding community to inter-
act with members of the AWS BOD at their
board meetings. While only two participants
will be chosen for the program each year, we
envision the program will have a profound
and burgeoning effect on the participants
peers, colleagues, and coworkers back home.
So, why is this discussion pertinent? As I
write this editorial in late November, AWS
staff are preparing to send emails to each of
you with an invitation to participate in the
next member survey. This survey will now go
out to ~ 90,000 AWS members and stake-
holders (many more than the last one), and
several of the same questions used previous-
ly will be utilized again to allow direct com-
parisons with prior results. Findings of this
new survey will be used to gauge improve-
ments in areas discussed above (and others),
and will provide direct input to the revised
strategic plan (2020–2022). By the time you
read this editorial, “data crunching” will be
underway, and construction of aspects of the
new strategic plan will begin in February.
The takeaway message here is that AWS
values and appreciates your feedback, and is
using it to drive improvements at the Society
and the welding industry. We appreciate
your continued support. WJ
PRESS TIME NEWS
GM to Close Three Assembly Plants;
Change Product Development
On November 26, General Motors (GM) revealed plans to
accelerate its transformation for the future, building on the
strategy laid out in 2015 to strengthen its core business,
capitalize on the future of personal mobility, and drive cost
efficiencies. This includes reorganizing global product devel-
opment staffs, realigning its manufacturing capacity, and re-
ducing its salaried workforce.
“The actions we are taking today continue our transfor-
mation to be highly agile, resilient, and profitable, while giv-
ing us the flexibility to invest in the future,” said GM Chair-
man and CEO Mary Barra.
In the past four years, GM has refocused capital and re-
sources to support the growth of its crossovers, SUVs, and
trucks, adding shifts and investing $6.6 billion in U.S. plants
that have created or maintained 17,600 jobs. With changing
customer preferences in the United States, and in response
to market-related volume declines in cars, future products
will be allocated to fewer plants.
Assembly plants that will be closed in 2019 include the
Oshawa Assembly in Oshawa, Ontario, Canada; Detroit-
Hamtramck Assembly in Detroit, Mich.; and Lordstown As-
sembly in Warren, Ohio. To view more moves, visit gm.com.
These actions are expected to increase capacity utilization.
In addition, actions are being taken to reduce salaried
and salaried contract staff by 15%, which includes 25% few-
er executives; resources allocated to electric and au-
tonomous vehicle programs will double in the next two
years; and it intends to prioritize future vehicle investments
in next-generation, battery-electric architectures.
The automaker released the following statement on No-
vember 27: “GM is committed to maintaining a strong man-
ufacturing presence in the U.S., as evidenced by our more
than $22 billion investments in U.S. operations since 2009.
Yesterday’s announcements support our ability to invest for
future growth and position the company for long-term suc-
cess and maintain and grow American jobs. Many of the U.S.
workers impacted by these actions will have the opportunity
to shift to other GM plants, where we will need more em-
ployees to support growth in trucks, crossovers, and SUVs.
GM’s transformation also includes adding technical and en-
gineering jobs to support the future of mobility, such as new
jobs in electrification and autonomous vehicles.”
Welding Instructor at Delaware Area
Career Center Awarded $50,000
Delaware Area Career Center’s Welding Instructor Brad
DeMent has recently won second place in the 2018 Harbor
Freight Tools for Schools Prize for Teaching Excellence. He
earned his high school skilled trades program $50,000 as
part of $1 million awarded nationally.
“The creativity and hands-on projects that Mr. DeMent
and the other winning teachers bring to their classrooms is
an inspiration,” said Danny Corwin, executive director of
Harbor Freight Tools for Schools.
Three $100,000 first-place prizes were awarded to a weld-
ing teacher from Georgia, a building trades teacher from
8 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
Michigan, and
an industrial
diesel mechan-
ics teacher from
Ohio, with the
prize split be-
tween the indi-
vidual teacher
or team and
their high
Delaware Area Career Center North Cam- school skilled
pus Building Director Chad Williams (left)
trades program.
and Welding Instructor Brad DeMent pose
by an oversized check from Harbor Freight Fifteen sec-
Tools for Schools. ond-place win-
ners across the
country, includ-
ing DeMent, were also surprised with the news they and
their schools won the cash award. Because of Ohio’s state
policy regarding individual cash awards to public employees,
DeMent’s school will receive the entire prize.
Among his accomplishments, DeMent has grown the
welding program from six students to 45 with a waiting list.
By introducing pupils to job shadowing, multiple interac-
tions with industry leaders and practitioners, and insisting
they practice employability skills daily, 70% of his students
actively participate in job placement/internship programs.
“My goal every time I speak to parents and guardians is
for them to understand that this path can be the right
path...this industry changed my life and it can change theirs,
too,” DeMent said.
Lincoln Electric Acquires Inovatech
Engineering, Coldwater Machine, and
Pro Systems
Lincoln Electric Holdings Inc., Cleveland, Ohio, has ac-
quired Inovatech Engineering Corp., a privately held Ontario,
Canada-based manufacturer of robotic plasma cutting solu-
tions for structural steel applications, and related assets.
The company has also acquired Coldwater Machine Co.
LLC, a privately held Ohio-based flexible automation integra-
tor and precision machining and assembly manufacturer, and
Pro Systems LLC, a privately held Indiana-based automation
systems designer and integrator, and related assets. The com-
bined annual revenue is approximately $55 million.
Terms of these transactions were not disclosed.
3M Starts New Global Adhesive
Solutions Lab
3M has developed the Global Adhesive Solutions Lab to
provide one-on-one attention and individualized solutions
to advance its customers’ overall manufacturing processes.
Located in St. Paul, Minn., at the 3M global headquarters,
the lab encourages collaboration and engagement with live,
professional application engineers to support users in a per-
sonalized setting. On-site, automated dispensing equipment
and robotic cells from many manufacturers are also avail-
able. This space will serve as a useful tool for customers in-
terested in identifying solutions specific to their business. WJ
INTERNATIONAL UPDATE
Metal My Way Contest Winners Include
Dragon, Library Door, and More
Metal Supermar-
kets, Mississauga,
Ontario, Canada, a
small-quantity met-
als supplier, has an-
nounced the five
winners of the 2018
annual Metal My
Way contest. The
online contest show-
cased creative metal
projects from across
the United States,
Grand Prize Winner Damian Summer- Canada, and the
hayes, from Victoria, British Colum-
United Kingdom.
bia, Canada, impressed the Metal
My Way contest judges with his Here’s a list of the
fire-breathing dragon. award recipients,
along with their cate-
gories and projects:
• Grand Prize: Damian Summerhayes from Victoria,
British Columbia, Canada. His fire-breathing dragon was
made from round stock, sheet metal, and minimal tools, in-
cluding a grinder and welding machine, as well as expelled
real fire.
• Automotive and Vehicle Project: Bob Eyler of Alvin,
Tex., built a custom front-end loader using the chassis of an
old lawnmower and building out the frame using a variety of
metals.
• Around the Home Project: Brian Gingras of Woburn,
Mass., constructed a smoker trailer that featured two smok-
ers, a smoker/grill combo, hand sink with hot and cold run-
ning water, two-burner stove, folding stainless work table,
dry storage, and a propane fuel system.
• Industrial and Shop Project: Jacques Asselin-Kowalsky
from Ayr, Ontario, assembled an industrial heat exchanger for
a food processing plant. He used 306 Stainless Steel and other
high-pressure, high-heat stainless steels with processes includ-
ing gas tungsten arc welding, orbital welding with purging,
and acid treatment of welds.
• Art and Design Project: William Bush and John Miller
from Amsterdam, N.Y., fabricated an intricately designed li-
brary door. Created for the Carnegie Library, the door was
made using a 16-oz copper sheet, brass, and copper rods. It
was made entirely by hand.
The grand prize winner received a Weber Genesis II S-310
BBQ grill. The four category prize winners were each award-
ed a Lincoln Electric 180-A Weld-Pak® 180 HD gas metal arc
wire feed welding machines.
“We were thrilled with the response to this year’s contest
with a record number of projects submitted,” said Stephen
Schober, president and CEO of Metal Supermarkets. “We
love to see all the incredible projects people are working on
and think Metal My Way is a great platform to showcase
their work. We’re already thinking about how we can make
next year’s contest even bigger.”
Winning projects as well as hundreds of other submis-
sions can be seen on metalmyway.com.
10 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
EuroBLECH 2018 Attracts More Than 56,000
Visitors to Hanover, Germany
Digitalization set the tone at EuroBLECH 2018 with innovative
technologies for the sheet metal working industry.
The 25th International Sheet Metal Working Technology
Exhibition, EuroBLECH 2018, in Hanover, Germany, attract-
ed a total of 56,301 visitors from around the world to view
the latest innovations and digital technologies for sheet
metal working and to also invest in new manufacturing ma-
chinery. A total of 1507 companies from 40 countries exhib-
ited at the show. The theme of the exhibition was “Step into
the digital reality.”
“There was a noticeable technological advancement within
the last two years. Many exhibitors demonstrated how well the
industry is prepared for digitalization and how these new tech-
nologies can be used within a manufacturing environment,”
said Evelyn Warwick, EuroBLECH exhibition director.
A total of 58% of exhibitors were reported to come from
outside Germany at this year’s show. More than 70% of all
exhibitors stated that they intended to exhibit again at the
next EuroBLECH in 2020.
Southern African Institute Receives Robot-
Welding System from Yaskawa
Yaskawa Southern Africa, a Japanese automation and ro-
botic company, donated a complete robot welding system to
the Southern African Institute of Welding (SAIW) for its
new robot-welding training program. The program includes
the training of robotic-welding operators, skilled welders,
and welding engineers.
“What we are trying to achieve together with the SAIW is
to give students an opportunity to complete a basic welder
training course, whereafter those who obtain good marks in
their exams will be offered the opportunity to enroll in a ro-
botic welding course,” said Terry Rosenberg, Yaskawa South-
ern Africa chairperson and key account manager.
Rosenberg also mentioned that Yaskawa will train the
SAIW trainers, who, in turn, will train others. Upon gradua-
tion from robot welding school at SAIW, Yaskawa will offer
them an advanced course in robot-welding software
programming at its robotic academy in Longmeadow,
Johannesburg. WJ
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY

Air Liquide Opens Advanced Fabrication
Center in Delaware
Air Liquide and its U.S. subsidiary, Airgas, recently inau-
gurated the Advanced Fabrication Center at the company’s
Delaware Innovation Campus in Newark, Del. The center
will focus on helping industrial customers adopt new manu-
facturing technologies and more efficient and cost-effective
production processes.
The center features dedicated “R&D studios” equipped
for specialized research and staffed with experts who will be
devoted to key segments such as welding and cutting, digiti-
zation and visualization, additive manufacturing, cryo-
assisted manufacturing, as well as robotics and cobotics au-
tomation. Utilizing the expertise at the campus, the center
opens its doors to original equipment manufacturers
(OEMs) to test state-of-the-art equipment and will serve as
a collaboration space for end-users, OEMs, as well as aca-
demic and research institutes, to develop and optimize new
fabrication technologies.
The Delaware Innovation Campus is one of five such cen-
ters the company operates around the world. The largest is
in France; the others are in Japan, Germany, and China.
By concentrating on metal fabrication, “this new lab rep-
resents a new area for us,” explained Michael Graff, chair-
man and CEO, executive vice president and executive com-
mittee member, Air Liquide S.A. He called the center an “in-
novation ecosystem” and added that it was developed to
“meet the needs of customers today and anticipate needs for
later.” In describing the staff at the Delaware campus, Graff
noted that it employed about 140 individuals from 20 coun-
tries of whom 50% hold PhDs. There is “deep technical tal-
ent” here, he said.
Graff explained the company has grown in recent years to
where revenue in 2017 was between $23 and $24 billion.
The United States represents 40% of the revenue base and is
the largest metal fabrication market in the world.
Andy Cichocki, Airgas chief operating officer, noted the
center is “an excellent example of opportunities available
through the combination of Air Liquide and Airgas.” (Air
Liquide’s acquisition of Airgas, one of the largest welding
distributor networks in the United States, was finalized in
May 2016.) Cichocki mentioned the skilled labor shortage
and how the work done at the Advanced Fabrication Center
will be able to help customers cope with that shortage.
Dave Lambert of Miller Electric Mfg. Co./ITW, said, “We
have a unique relationship with Airgas. We are both a suppli-
er and a customer.” Through both relationships, he added, “I
have witnessed Airgas’s commitment to solving customer
problems.” The new center is another venue for doing so, he
noted.
“The Innovation Center will bridge the gap with cus-
tomers who don’t have the time or personnel for research
and development,” explained Pascal Vinet, Airgas chief exec-
utive officer and Air Liquide executive committee member.
“This is what Air Liquide has always been about,” Graff
said. “We don’t celebrate the date the company started in
1902; we celebrate Innovation Day, the people who have
done the most innovation over the past year.”
— Mary Ruth Johnsen, publisher

Air Liquide and its U.S. subsidiary, Airgas, inaugurated the Advanced Fabrication Center at the Air Liquide Delaware Innovation
Campus. Ceremonially cutting the ribbon to open the center are (from left): Ron Stark, Airgas sr. vice president, sales and market-
ing; Olivier Letessier, Air Liquide vice president, research and development; Francois Darchis, Air Liquide sr. vice president and ex-
ecutive committee member; Michael Graff, Air Liquide executive vice president and executive committee member; Pascal Vinet,
Airgas chief executive officer and Air Liquide executive committee member; Andy Cichocki, Airgas chief operating officer; and
Bertrand Masselot, president, Air Liquide Canada.

12 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019

Harris Products Group, Local
Communities and Businesses Join
Forces to Prepare Skilled Workforce
A Monogram Refrigeration employee uses a brazing system
from Harris Products Group in the company’s Selmer, Tenn.,
manufacturing facility.
A collaboration among communities, schools, and manu-
facturers to ensure a steady stream of trained and qualified
workers is taking place in McNairy County, Tennessee.
The Harris Products Group, a provider of brazing equip-
ment and alloys, is involved in this effort with the largest
employer in McNairy County, Monogram Refrigeration LLC,
a subsidiary of GE Appliances (GEA), a Haier company.
“We’ve had some tough economic times in the past, but
have proactively collaborated with our state, local, and fed-
eral officials and with GEA and Monogram to spur business
opportunities,” said Eddie Crittendon, CEO of McNairy
County Economic Development and Chamber of Commerce.
This commitment paid off in 2017 when GEA announced
a $9.3-million investment that expanded the facility to ac-
commodate two new production lines and doubled the num-
ber of employees. In 2018, the facility began producing
packaged terminal air conditioners with column-style
Monogram® brand refrigerator and freezer products. Braz-
ing is an integral process in the production of both lines.
McNairy County Economic Development was awarded a
skilled workforce grant from the State of Tennessee. Funds
were used to equip Adamsville High School and McNairy
Central High School technical education programs with
the same brazing equipment used by Monogram. The intent
was to train students so they have the skills for a good job
upon graduation and provide Monogram a well-prepared
workforce.
Monogram uses brazing equipment by Harris, including
Perfect Flame®, a system with torches, tips, flow-control
devices, and software. Staff from Harris provided McNairy
County High Schools with this equipment. According to Ray
Deming, vice president of Monogram, before implementing
the system, it was up to the operator to determine settings.
“Now, those things are controllable at the torch with the
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 13
 specific operator, so we take the variables out of the
process,” he said.
“Our students who are graduating with good technical
skills and the proper certifications have their choice of jobs,”
added Ronnie Teague, the district’s director of career and
technical education.

Westinghouse Utilizes Computerized

Plasma Transferred Arc Welding

The automated plasma transferred arc welding process by

Westinghouse uses powder instead of traditional solid rods.

Westinghouse Electric Co., Newington, N.H., has suc-

ceeded in the first application of its optimized process of ap-
plying hardfacing overlay for wear resistance through using
computerized plasma transferred arc welding.
The first two products that have been delivered were pro-
duced in one-third of the time it would take with conven-
tional methods, reducing the schedule to complete each by
several days. The automated plasma transferred arc welding
process uses powder instead of traditional solid rods and is
applied in consistent bands, which reduces the amount of
filler metal required, the need for postweld machining, and
the waste generated from both. The process can be applied
to many metals, including carbon and stainless steel, plus
nickel and cobalt alloys. In addition, it can be applied on
outside or inside surfaces on round products of more than
30 in. in diameter.

New $3-Million Program Could Help

Close Skills Gap in Advanced
Manufacturing
A skills gap that could leave as many as 2 million manu-
facturing jobs unfilled by 2025 is one of the driving forces
behind a program at Clemson University in South Carolina
that matches graduate students with technical college stu-

14 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019


Laine Mears, the BMW SmartState chair in automotive manu-
facturing, is leading a program that could help close the
skills gap in advanced manufacturing. (Credit: Clemson
University.)
dents on an assembly line built for research.
THINKER (Technology-Human INtegrated Knowledge,
Education, and Research) is claimed to be the first in the na-
tion to join graduate and technical college students in an ad-
vanced manufacturing program centered on education and
research. It is backed by $3 million from the National Sci-
ence Foundation and aimed at creating well-prepared lead-
ers who can help close the skills gap in advanced manufac-
turing. By going through the program, those leaders will un-
derstand the interaction of machines, people, and data, or-
ganizers said.
Laine Mears, the BMW SmartState chair in automotive
manufacturing at Clemson, said the THINKER team will be
creating a new national model for graduate education.
“We do that by putting students into a manufacturing en-
vironment and teaching them how people and technology
work together and how new technologies can emerge to sup-
port that vision,” he said.
For more details about this endeavor, visit clemson.edu.
Ivy Tech Community College Welcomes
Toyota Welding Lab
A donation from Toyota Industrial Equipment Manufac-
turing (TIEM) to Ivy Tech Community College Columbus in
Indiana, worth more than $350,000 in monetary and equip-
ment contributions, has paved the way for the grand open-
ing of the Toyota Industrial Equipment Welding Lab.
Renovations nearly tripled the size of the college’s lab at
the Columbus campus from 890 to 2450 sq ft. Featured are
20 metal welding booths with individual ventilation sys-
tems, precision/multiprocess welding machines, and many
accessories, including a virtual reality welding simulator.
The automaker’s gift covered more than half the cost of the
$492,900 project. The company also donated 19 engines.
— continued on page 95
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 15
BUSINESS BRIEFS
TRUMPF to Open Technology Center on the
West Coast
TRUMPF will open a 20,000-sq-ft technology center in Costa
Mesa, Calif. The facility will offer operator and programmer
training, machine demonstrations, and technology seminars
to users in the western United States.
During FABTECH 2018, TRUMPF Inc., a global manufac-
turer in fabricating machinery and industrial lasers, an-
nounced that it will open a 20,000-sq-ft facility in Costa
Mesta, Calif., in early 2019. The new technology center will
be located within close proximity to the John Wayne Airport
in Orange County.
At the new center, West Coast customers will have the
opportunity to attend operator and programming training,
machine demonstrations, and technology seminars; experi-
ence the manufacturer’s latest technology advancements
and Industry 4.0 solutions for sheet metal fabrication; as
well as learn about the company’s TruServices and TruCon-
nect solutions for their manufacturing processes.
A 13,000-sq-ft showroom will be equipped with six
TRUMPF machines and a 650-sq-ft training room will be set
up to optimize customers’ knowledge and skillset on the
company’s equipment and TruTops software. Additional
space will be occupied by employee offices and customer
meeting rooms.
New Hampshire Honors Hypertherm for
Excellence in Work-Based Learning
Hypertherm,
Hanover, N.H., an
industrial cutting
systems and soft-
ware manufacturer,
has been honored
with the Work-
Based Learning
Award. New Hamp-
shire Governor
Chris Sununu pre-
Hypertherm’s Barbara Couch (far sented the company
right), with New Hampshire Governor and President of
Chris Sununu (second from left) and Hypertherm Own-
representatives from Lebanon High ers’ Philanthropic
School and Hypertherm, pose for a Endeavors (HOPE)
photo.
Foundation Barbara
Couch with the
award during a ceremony in Concord, N.H.
Couch was recognized for her leadership in promoting
16 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
work-based learning across the state, for encouraging associ-
ates to volunteer, and sponsoring events through the HOPE
Foundation. Hypertherm was recognized for its science, tech-
nology, engineering, and math (STEM) internship program for
high school seniors, as well as its SHAPE for STEM initiative,
which includes sponsorships of STEM camps and clubs for
middle and elementary school students, respectively.
“We are humbled by this award...it is of great strategic im-
portance to us that upcoming generations are engaged and ca-
pable in all areas of science, technology, engineering, and math
(STEM) and programs like SHAPE for STEM, combined with
giving through the HOPE Foundation, and volunteering by
our associates is one way we can do that,” said Couch.
Louisiana-Based Metal Shark Acquires
Alabama-Based Horizon Shipbuilding
Shipbuilder Metal
Shark, Jeanerette,
La., has acquired Ala-
bama-based Horizon
Shipbuilding. Metal
Shark’s new Alabama
yard is situated just
minutes from the In-
tracoastal Waterway
with access to the
Gulf of Mexico.
Pictured is a steel tug built by Hori- With the acquisition,
zon Shipbuilding on the 660-ton the Lousiana-based
Travelift at Metal Shark’s newly ac- shipbuilder assumes
quired Alabama shipyard. (Photo ownership of a 35-
credit: Metal Shark.) acre shipbuilding fa-
cility in the Mobile
Bay region, with sepa-
rate east and west yards fronting a dredged deepwater inlet.
The facility boasts a total of nine assembly buildings, a
660-ton Travelift, multiple cranes, CNC plasma cutting
units, welding machines, and other fixtures supporting the
construction of steel and aluminum vessels up to 300 in. in
length and 1500 tons launch weight.
“This acquisition will dramatically expand Metal Shark, as
we add an impressive Alabama facility to our growing portfolio
of shipyards and leverage Horizon’s expertise in the construc-
tion of steel vessels,” said Metal Shark’s CEO Chris Allard.
CGW-Camel Grinding Wheels Becomes
CGW Abrasives
Camel Grinding Wheels (CGW), Niles, Ill., a producer of
vitrified grinding wheels since 1956, has changed its name
to CGW Abrasives. With more than 140,000 sq ft of manu-
facturing and distribution space, the company also produces
resin grinding and cutting wheels, flap discs, coated abrasive
belts, and paper sanding discs.
We changed our name to CGW Abrasives to tell everyone
what we’re all about — abrasives,” said Mike Sullivan, presi-
dent. He added the company is the place where quality, per-
formance, and value come together. WJ
AWS AT 100

In celebration of the American Welding Society’s 100th

anniversary, here are some historical highlights of the
Society and industry

1919 Electric arc welding was starting to be used in the field

to make repairs on costly equipment. In the below right
When the United States entered World War I, American picture, a welder used bare wire steel electrodes to make a
industry needed to produce war and transport ships quickly repair in a steam shovel dragline bucket. The bare electrode
and in quantity. Welding, which at that time was a newly remained the main tool for electric welding until the early
emerging metal joining process, was called upon to meet 1930s when it started to be replaced by the covered or
those needs. President Woodrow Wilson asked Harvard Pro- shielded manual arc electrode.
fessor Comfort Avery Adams to chair the Welding Commit-
tee of the Emergency Fleet Corp.
Welding performed well in the war effort. That success
motivated Adams to bring together industry leaders for the
purpose of merging the Welding Committee of the Emer-
gency Fleet Corp. and the National Welding Council into a
new organization, the purpose of which was to provide de-
pendable and objective information on the developing tech-
nology of welding. On March 28, 1919, the American Welding
Society (AWS) was born. Adams served as its first president,
and, by year’s end, the Society had grown to 217 members.
AWS published the first Journal of the American Welding
Society in October 1919. Because of cost factors, only the in-
augural issue was published.
1922
A pipe laying crew
sets out for a day’s
work. Pipeline activity
had undoubtedly been
triggered by the 1918
and 1919 discovery of
the Panhandle natural
gas field in Potters
County, Tex., and the
Hugoton field in south-
west Kansas. The Pan-
handle field contained
1.6-million acres. By
1920, the first commer-
cially produced pipe
having electric welded
1920s longitudinal seams
made its debut in the
In the early 1920s, the Pressure Vessel Committee of the marketplace.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers evaluated numer- The first issue of the
ous methods for testing tanks made in the shop. On some Journal of the American
tanks, hand hammers were used, as specified in the Code. In Welding Society, now
the upcoming left photo, the blows were struck 3 in. apart known as the Welding
and within 2 or 3 in. of the joint at the rate of 50 to 60 per Journal, was published.
min. A 12-lb sledge, with a 24-in. handle was used on some of It has been in continu-
the tanks. In the end, it was found that the hammer test was ous publication since
only effective on tanks having exceptional defective welds. that time.

18 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019

 Butt-joint welds and 1925
sleeve welds were used in
the fabrication of Philadel-
phia Electric Co.’s 2200-ft-
long steam line in 1922.
Electric welding was used
on 33 sleeve welds for the
flange joints, while the 92
butt joints were made using
oxyacetylene welding. The
entire line consisted of a
12-in.-diameter steam line
and a 3-in.-diameter water
return line.
The first AWS Welding Show was held in Boston, Mass.

1928

Code 1, Part A, was first

First AWS Education First AWS Annual Meet- published. This was the pred-
Committee established. ing held. ecessor of D1.1, Structural
Welding Code — Steel.

1924
The sign speaks for itself in this gathering of welding pro-
fessionals in 1924. The assemblage was about to board two
buses for tours of three facilities in Cleveland. The first was
the local utility where they witnessed oxyacetylene welding
of a 16-in.-diameter, high-pressure steam line. The next 1929
stop was a tour of the Collingswood Shops for the New York
Central Railroad. Third on the list was a visit to The Lincoln
Electric Co. The editor of the November 1924 Journal noted
the following: “This plant is taking its own ‘medicine’ in that
it is using welding wherever possible in the construction of
its motors and generators.”
In 1929, pipelines were
welded using the oxyacety-
lene process. The necessary
cylinders of oxygen and
acetylene are shown here be-
ing delivered by what could
very well have been one of
the earliest welding distribu-
tors in the United States.

Issuance of Welding and

AWS membership reached Nomenclature, Definitions and
the 1000 mark. Symbols. WJ

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 19

STAINLESS Q&A
Q: We have noted the publication
of AWS A5.9/A5.9M:2017 (ISO
14343:2009 MOD), Welding Con-
sumables — Wire Electrodes, Strip
Electrodes, Wires, and Rods for
Arc Welding of Stainless and Heat
Resisting Steels — Classification.
In the table of filler metal chemi-
cal composition requirements,
we note there are a lot of very
similar compositions on adjacent
lines. For example, the 308L
composition looks very similar to
the 19 9 L composition, and the
316L composition looks similar to
the 19 12 3 L composition. Are
there any significant differences
within these pairs of similar
compositions?
A: The American Welding Society
(AWS) states its mission is “to advance
the science, technology, and applica-
tion of welding and allied joining and
cutting processes worldwide.” By
adopting ISO 14343, the AWS A5D
Subcommittee on Stainless Steel Filler
Metals, of which I am the chair, be-
lieved that it was producing a more
globally relevant standard than its ISO
predecessor, AWS A5.9/A5.9M:2012,
Specification for Bare Stainless Steel
Welding Electrodes and Rods. The AWS
A5 Committee on Filler Metals and Al-
lied Materials and the AWS Technical
Activities Committee approved of this
approach. The 2017 version includes
all of the classifications from the 2012
version as well as classifications that
have been successfully used in parts of
the world outside of the United States,
particularly in Europe. This would al-
Table 1 — Composition Ranges Given in the 2017 Version of AWS A5.9/A5.9M
Alloy Designation
C Mn
ER308L 0.03 1.0 to
2.5
G 19 9 L 0.03 1.0 to
2.5
ER316L 0.03 1.0 to
2.5
G 19 12 3 L 0.03 1.0 to
2.5
20 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
low offshore fabrication projects being
made under AWS codes to source local-
ly available filler metals. That was the
thinking behind the adoption of the
ISO standard as part of AWS A5.9/
A5.9M.
Table 1 presents the chemical com-
position requirements of the 2017 ver-
sion of AWS A5.9/A5.9M for the clas-
sifications mentioned in the question.
I note there are no other classification
requirements, such as mechanical
properties, in the specification. The
traditional AWS A5.9/A5.9M designa-
tion begins with ER in the table, while
the corresponding ISO or European
designation begins with G. The re-
mainder of the ISO or European classi-
fication designation consists of digits
indicating the nominal Cr, Ni, and Mo,
in that order.
Considering first the ER308L vs.
the G 19 9 L composition require-
ments, the most notable differences
are in the Si and Cr columns. The max-
imum Si requirement is the same for
the two alloys. The ER308L requires
0.30% Si minimum, while the G 19 9 L
has no minimum requirement. Is this
significant? I think not. Steelmaking
practices simply do not provide 0% Si.
For example, the online datasheet for
Sandvik G 19 9 L indicates 0.4% Si as
typical, which also meets the ER308L
requirement.
The Cr range is lower for the G 19 9
L than for the ER308L, although there
is considerable overlap in the ranges.
Is this significant? First, I note that
the Cr range for E308L-XX covered
electrodes is 18.0 to 21.0%, which is
even lower than the Cr range of the G
19 9 L in Table 1. Once the weld metal
Chemical Composition, wt-% (single values are maximum)
P S Si
0.03 0.03 0.30 to
0.65
0.03 0.02 0.65
0.03 0.03 0.30 to
0.65
0.03 0.02 0.65
BY DAMIAN J. KOTECKI
is deposited, is the 308L weld metal af-
fected based on whether it was de-
posited by shielded metal arc or gas
metal arc welding (GMAW)? I think
not. Further, it is interesting to look at
commercial practice. Do producers of
ER308L provide mid-range composi-
tions? They do not. A typical ER308L
wire composition is 20% Cr and a bit
more than 10% Ni. Why? Because that
composition produces a ferrite level
that is easiest to convert from the as-
cast form into wire while still provid-
ing a reasonable ferrite content for the
weld metal (typically 6 to 10 FN) to
avoid solidification cracking. Corre-
spondingly, for example, the Sandvik
online datasheet for G 19 9 L indicates
20% Cr as typical. In other words,
there is no significant difference in Cr
between real commercial ER308L and
real commercial G 19 9 L.
The other differences between
ER308L and G 19 9 L are found in the
maximum allowable S, Cu, and Mo.
For all three of these tramp elements,
the limits for the G 19 9 L are more re-
strictive than for ER308L, so they all
fit within the ER308L composition
limits.
Most, if not all, European filler
metal producers list compliance
with AWS ER308L as well as G 19 9 L
in their datasheets. In reality, the
ER308L and the G 19 9 L are
interchangeable.
The story is not very different for
ER316L as compared to G 19 12 3 L.
Table 1 shows that the Cr and Ni
ranges are identical. There is no mini-
mum Si for the G 19 12 3 L while
ER316L requires 0.30% Si minimum,
but the practical situation is the same
Cr Ni Mo Cu
19.5 to 9.0 to 0.75 0.75
22.0 11.0
19.0 to 9.0 to 0.5 0.5
21.0 11.0
18.0 to 11.0 to 2.0 to 0.75
20.0 14.0 3.0
18.0 to 11.0 to 2.5 to 0.5
20.0 14.0 3.0
as for the G 19 9 L — the steelmaking
practice does not produce 0% Si. The
Sandvik online datasheet indicates
0.4% Si as typical for its G 19 12 3 L.
The Mo story is the main difference —
the ER316L Mo range is 2.0 to 3.0%
while the G 19 12 3 L Mo range is 2.5
to 3.0%, within the ER316L range. The
tramp element limits for S and Cu are
more restrictive for G 19 12 3 L than
for ER316L. Most, if not all, European
filler metal producers list compliance
with ER316L and G 19 12 3 L wire re-
quirements. I contend that real com-
mercial ER316L and real commercial G
19 12 3 L are interchangeable.
There is another difference be-
tween the traditional AWS A5.9/
A5.9M classification designations and
the ISO classification designations
that came into the 2017 version of
AWS A5.9/A5.9M. This difference is
the indication of the product/process.
The traditional AWS product/process
symbol is either ER for round products
(wires or rods) or EQ for strip prod-
ucts. But the new ISO classification
designations that came into A5.9/
A5.9M can carry any of the following
for the product/process symbol:
• G for gas metal arc welding
• W for gas tungsten arc welding
• P for plasma arc welding
• S for submerged arc welding
• B for submerged arc strip cladding or
electroslag strip cladding
• L for laser beam welding.
There are no differences in compo-
sition when the product/process sym-
bol is changed. Accordingly, a small di-
ameter wire can be interchangeable
given G, W, P, or L. Larger diameter
wire would be given S. Cut lengths
would be given W. Strip would be giv-
en B. For the comparisons I made
above, I chose G for the discussion vs.
the traditional ER because GMAW is
by far the dominant process in terms
of consumption of solid stainless steel
filler metal. Interestingly, for example,
the Sandvik online datasheets for 19 9
L and 19 12 3 L wires do not use the
product/process symbol at all.
Before deciding if an ISO or Euro-
pean classification is interchangeable
with a traditional AWS A5.9/A5.9M
classification, one should look not
only at the composition ranges for
the respective classifications in the
specification, but also at the commer-
cial practice. In many cases, the suppli-
er’s datasheet will indicate compliance
with both the traditional AWS classifi-
cation and the ISO or European
classification. WJ
DAMIAN J. KOTECKI is president, Damian
Kotecki Welding Consultants Inc. He is
chair of the AWS A5D Subcommittee on
Stainless Steel Filler Metals, and member
of the D1K Subcommittee on Stainless
Steel Structural Welding and WRC
Subcommittee on Welding Stainless Steels
and Nickel-Base Alloys. He is a past chair
of the A5 Committee on Filler Metals and
Allied Materials, past treasurer of the IIW,
and served as AWS president (2005–2006).
Questions may be sent to Damian J.
Kotecki c/o Welding Journal, 8669 NW 36
St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672, or via
email at damian@damiankotecki.com.
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 21
RWMA Q&A
BY ROGER HIRSCH

the circuit breaker setting for a rela-

Q: We started to install a new resistance welding machine that has a
tively long period of time.
built-in circuit breaker. The circuit breaker is marked 250 A. My electri-
Typically, a resistance welding ma-
cian says that the circuit breaker on our power panel that feeds this
chine uses a magnetic-only, high-
welding machine has to be at least 250 A. This seems very large for our
speed, trip-style circuit breaker. This
100-KVA welding machine operating on 440 V.
means that it will almost instantly trip
if the current going through it exceeds
A: The problem is that you are working panel that feeds this welding control is the breaker setting. It is designed to
with two different types of circuit a thermal type. This type of circuit protect the solid-state switch (SCR or
breakers. breaker is designed to trip (open) if IGBT contactor) from a catastrophic
The circuit breaker on your power the current going through it exceeds high-current short.
Typical setting of the magnetic-
only circuit breaker is three times
higher than the maximum expected
continuous current from the resist-
ance welding unit. This trip value is
set by turning a dial on the magnetic
trip circuit breaker. The 250-A rating
of this circuit breaker only says that
this circuit breaker’s mechanism can
sustain 250 A continuously, but does
not select what amperage will cause
the circuit breaker to trip.
One good sizing chart for resistance
welding machined is in the RWMA
Bulletin 16, Chart 1.7.15. This will se-
lect the appropriate fuse disconnect or
panel circuit breaker to back up a weld-
ing machine regardless of the magnet-
ic-only circuit breaker that is furnished
with the welding control.

Q: We just starting using our first

capacitive discharge (CD) resist-
ance welding machine. Does this
type of equipment require the same
water cooling as our standard spot
welding machines?

A: Capacitive discharge (CD) resistance

welding machines build a high-voltage
charge in a capacitor bank and then
dump this stored electrical energy
through the welding electrodes very
rapidly. Because of this, current con-
duction time is very short compared to
normal resistance welding. There is lit-
tle time to heat the actual electrodes.
As a result, many companies do not
use water to cool the electrodes. How-
ever, the secondary conducting com-
ponents should have some water cool-
ing. And if you are using very high cur-
rents, having some water cooling will
extend electrode life.
In addition, multiple CD welds can’t
be made as quickly since the capacitor
bank has to charge up between welds.
This allows more time for any heat
built up in the electrodes to dissipate.

22 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019

 One trick is to use an electrode
with a very large surface area that
allows heat to dissipate to the air more
efficiently.
during the weld sequence — Fig. 1.
This is the air pressure at the return
port of the air cylinder.
During the weld, the force produced
by the electrodes is
Top area of piston = π × 52 = 78.5 in.2
Bottom area = π × (5 - 1)2 = 50.3 in.2
With 50 lb/in.2 in the top port and
20 lb/in.2 in the bottom (bucking)
port:

Q: I just inherited a large welding Electrode force = (top piston area Electrode force = (50 × 78.50)
machine that has a function called × top lb/in.2) - (bottom area of piston - (20 × 50.3) = 2919 lb
forge delay. What is this and when × bucking lb/in.2)
is it used? Near the end of the welding se-
For example, on a welding machine quence, air on the bottom cylinder
with a 10-in.-diameter cylinder that port is quickly exhausted. The elec-
A: Chances are that if you are not pro- has a 1-in.-diameter shaft: trode force is now
ducing welds to AWS D17.1 Class A
standards, you will not need this weld-
ing function.
Forge delay is a resistance welding
machine function that provides a very
high electrode force typically near or at
the end of a welding sequence to forge
the weld nugget. This is often used
when welding some higher-strength
aluminum alloys to minimize thermal
crack in the nugget. This cracking is
caused by the rapid thermal expansion
and contraction in the molten center
of the nugget being formed. The forg-
ing action pushes the developing
cracks together under the higher force.
Forge delay also helps to minimize
or eliminate metal expulsion that oc-
curs at the very end of the nugget de-
velopment by pushing the cracks
forming in the cooling molten material
back into the nugget area. It ensures
that the weld nugget cross section is
virtually the entire nugget diameter to
produce the maximum tensile shear
strength of the weld.

Q: Our welding machine has a

pressure regulator marked bucking
pressure. What is this and how is
it used?

A: This question relates to the previ-

ous question of forge delay. The buck-
ing pressure is pressure put on the re-
turn side of the air cylinder piston

Fig. 1 — Typical welding machine air

cylinder.

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 23

Forge force = (50 × 78.50) = 3925 lb

Head weight: To either of these elec-

trode force numbers, you have to add
the dead weight of the moving welding
machine ram. This is the weight pro-
duced between the electrodes when all
air is removed from the machinery. For
larger welding machines, this can be
100 to 200 lb. The calculated value
should then match the actual force be-
tween electrodes during the weld and
forge portions of the sequence.

Q: We just built a welding machine

to weld filter bag frames (Fig. 2).
Twenty 18-in.-diameter wires form
the cage with rings spaced every 5
in. The first joining sequence is to
weld one end of each wire to the
inside of a drawn sheet metal end
cap. I have no problem welding the
rings, but securely welding the end
cap is a hit-or-miss proposition.
We are using a welding machine
with ten welding cylinders that are
in a radial positioning, and we weld
two opposite cylinders at a time
with an expanded mandrel on the
inside connected to one side of the
welding transformer. Each cylinder
welds two wires to the end cup
with the same electrode. The inside
expanding mandrel connects to the
other side of the welding trans-
former for direct welds.
Fig. 2 — Filter bag frame.
A: I looked at the drawing you sent
(Fig. 3) showing the ten welding guns
and electrode layout that joins two
wires per electrode. After discussing
the electrode geometry shown in 3A, I
found the first problem. If you look at
3A, you will see that the welding cur-
rent path is not directly from end cup
to wire but is through the surface of
the metal back to the wire. Change the
geometry of the electrodes to that
shown in 3B so that the current path
Fig. 3 — Weld gun arrangement.
is directly from cup to wire, and you
will see a major improvement in weld
strength and consistency.
Second, I was told that the firing
sequence has pairs of welding guns lo-
cated opposite of each other going for-
ward and welding at the same time.
For example, in Fig. 3, one weld se-
quence uses SV1 and SV6 guns at the
same time. By closing the electrodes
from opposite sides of the part, there
is no way to maintain full force be-
tween the inside of the end cup and
the wire. The end cup will not yield.
The answer here is to either close and
weld one electrode at a time or weld
two next to each other. This will allow
the end cup to float during the weld
sequence to keep full force between
the end cup and the wires.
Q: Our company just recently
changed over from arc welding of a
16-gauge cold rolled sheet metal
tool box to spot welding. Our first
100-kVA spot welding machine was
delivered, and we have not been
able to get good welds. The welds
either flash metal with deep holes
in the weld area, or they fall apart.
We made our own electrodes from
copper bar in our tool room and
think the shape is okay. Our weld-
ing schedule is the following:
3A 3B
Squeeze time = 60 cycles
Weld time = 49 cycles
Weld percent heat = 47%
Hold time = 25 cycles
Electrode force = 350 lb
A: You have two different problems.
First, electrodes have to be made from
special resistance welding alloy copper.
You are probably using C110 copper
rod. This copper does not have the al-
loyed material needed to maintain
shape under the high welding forces
and temperatures inherent in the re-
sistance welding process. Purchase
commercially available electrodes
made of RWMA Class 2 alloy for your
cold rolled steel welding.
The next problem is that your weld
time is way too long. You are trying to
melt the parts together. But by having
relatively low welding current from
the low heat % for a relatively long
time, you will just end up heating not
only the nugget area but also the met-
al around it. The resistance welding
process depends on high current for
the shortest possible time to create a
concentrated melt zone and good forg-
ing together of the two parts. You also
need enough electrode force to keep
the molten metal from blowing out
from under the electrode face (expul-
sion) and from between the sheets.

24 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019

 There are many good welding charts
you can use as a starting point. A good
one can be found in the RWMA Resist-
ance Welding Manual, fourth edition. It
has welding charts for many alloys and
different thicknesses. In this case, the
welding chart on page 7-6 of the manu-
al recommends the following values for
16-gauge (0.062 in.), low-carbon steel
to start your setup:
Electrode force = 800 lb
Weld time = 14 cycles
Welding current = 12,000 A
If the situation was reversed, you Interestingly, if a transformer was
could use a 230-V transformer de- designed for operation on 460 V, 60
signed for 50 Hz on a 230-V, 60-Hz Hz, you could use it on 385 V, 50 Hz
line with no problem. without any difficulty. WJ
ROGER HIRSCH is past chair of the Resistance Welding Manufacturing Alliance (RWMA), a
standing committee of the American Welding Society (AWS), an Elihu Thompson Resistance
Welding Award winner, and president of Unitrol Electronics Inc., Northbrook, Ill. Send your
comments and questions to Roger Hirsch c/o Welding Journal, 8669 NW 36 St., #130, Miami,
FL 33166-6672, or via email at roger@unitrol-electronics.com.

This will only work if you use elec-

trodes that match the shape shown in
this chart.
If your welding control does not
have the ability to set weld heat in
amps and only has % heat settings, set
the electrode force as shown, set the
welding time as shown, and then start
the weld heat % at about 50% and in-
crease until the weld strength and
appearance matches your company’s
requirements.
The squeeze time should be long
enough to allow the electrodes to close
and get up to full force.
The hold time should be set to
about three cycles. Any more hold
time just wastes production time and
does not add to the weld strength or
appearance.

Q: Our company is international. We

are located in Spain and just re-
ceived five spot welding machines
from one of our U.S. facilities. They
are marked 100 kVA, 220 V, 1∅, and
60 Hz. Our power is 230 V, 50 Hz. Is
there a problem using these weld-
ing machines here?

A: A transformer designed and rated

for 60-Hz line frequency will be greatly
derated when operated on a 50-Hz line
frequency. It will limit the welding
current you can safely get out of
the transformer before it saturates
and blows fuses or destroys the
transformer.
If this is a pedestal welding ma-
chine with a machine-type trans-
former, you can probably get away
with weld heat settings of up to 50%.
But the normal advice is to replace the
transformer with a 50-Hz version. If
the welding machine uses a fixture-
type transformer, I would not even
consider using it on 50-Hz power.

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 25

PRODUCT & PRINT SPOTLIGHT
Furnace Brazing Document
Offered for Free
Available for free on the company’s
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Based on a template issued by the In-
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provides all relevant information
needed to prepare for any correspon-
26 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
ding assessments. It includes topics on
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atmosphere (nonvacuum) equipment
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time, and print definition.
Kester®
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Handheld Brazing Machine Self-Monitoring System
Comes in Two Models Facilitates Compliance with
Heat Treatment Standards

easy to pick up and dump, especially if

using a forklift that has rotating forks.
The full depth of the legs also permits
the container to be stored on pallet The S.M.A.R.T. system helps ease
racking. The industrial, general- the stringent requirements of heat
purpose container showcases heavy, treatment standards like AIAG CQI9
corrugated steel sides and deck to and others that require data collection
The Perfect Flame® brazing machine maximize durability. Providing both as well as monthly or quarterly tests to
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handheld brazing applications. The bulk storage of parts. tures, belt and fan speed, along with
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erators can use the same or different
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MT unit. Both models include torches,
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quality and increase productivity.

Harris Products Group

harrisperfectflame.com
(800) 733-4043

Industrial Containers Boost

Storage with Roll-Over Legs
The round corner container fea-
tures roll-over legs that allow it to be
stacked four containers high while
loaded. Made of 1⁄4-in. steel, the univer-
sal stacking legs make the container

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 27

 to send text messages or emails to
maintenance or quality personnel. Re-
minders can be programmed for in-
strument calibration and annual ther-
mal uniformity tests. It also has the
ability to automate the system accura-
cy test and deliver the report via email.
Abbott Furnace Co.
abbottfurnaceco.com
(814) 781-6355
Pen-Sized Soldering Iron
Delivers Fast Heating
The portable and easy-to-use TS80
smart soldering iron provides accurate
temperature control and fast heating
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thermal ceramic heating core. Through
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tip. Its STM32 chip ensures smart con-
trol in the rise and fall of the tip tem-
perature. The pen-sized soldering iron
is equipped with a USB type-C power
jack, and can be directly powered by
power banks and a smartphone quick
charger. This makes it convenient
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Its controller is built with a CNC-
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e-Design
miniware.com.cn
(8620) 83720503
Report Forecasts Growth for
the Global Brazing Market
Global Brazing Materials Market
2018 by Manufacturers, Regions, Type
and Application, Forecast to 2023 posits
that this market is expected to grow at
a compound annual growth rate of
roughly 3.3% over the next five years,
reaching $1380 million in 2023. The
28 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
146-page report identifies end-user
industries as major drivers, such as
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marketstudyreport.com
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Report Analyzes the Global
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orionresearch.com
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Exothermic Cutting System
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The Arcair® Slice exothermic cut-

ting system showcases various im-
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spray when piercing. To extend striker
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Can We Talk?

The Welding Journal staff encourages an exchange of ideas with you, our
readers. If you’d like to ask a question, share an idea, or voice an opinion, you
can call, write, email, or fax. Staff email addresses are listed below, along with a
guide to help you interact with the right person.

Publisher/Editor Editor of Inspection Trends/

Mary Ruth Johnsen Editor of Welding Journal en
mjohnsen@aws.org, Ext. 238 Español/Manager of Electronic
General Management, Media
Reprint Permission, Carlos Guzman
Copyright Issues, Editorial cguzman@aws.org, Ext. 348
Content Inspection Trends, Spanish-
Language Content,
Sr. Editor Design and Production
Cindy Weihl
cweihl@aws.org, Ext. 256 Advertising
Section News, SPRAYTIME Jeff Rhodes and Kim Daniele
jeff.rhodes@mci-group.com, Ext. 332
Features Editor kim.daniele@mci-group.com, Ext. 335
Kristin Campbell
kcampbell@aws.org, Ext. 257 Subscriptions
Feature Articles, Industry Sonia Aleman
News saleman@aws.org, Ext. 329
Subscriptions Representative
Associate Editor
Katie Pacheco
kpacheco@aws.org, Ext. 275
Society News, New Products

Assistant Editor
Roline Pascal
rpascal@aws.org, Ext. 303
International News,
Personnel
Welding Journal Dept.
Production Manager 8669 NW 36 St., #130
Zaida Chavez Miami, FL 33166
zaida@aws.org, Ext. 265 (800) 443-9353;
Design and Production Fax (305) 443-7559

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 29

POINT OF VIEW
Welding Plasmas — Love Them or
Hate Them — Are Likely to Stay
While working at U.S. Steel Re-
search in Monroeville, Pa., in the early
1990s, my friends cheerfully divided
our colleague metallurgists into two
lines of alloying philosophers: carbon
lovers and carbon haters. Then we
further divided the carbon-hater re-
searcher group into vanadium lovers/
niobium haters and niobium lovers/
vanadium haters. This was during the
time of the development of microal-
loyed and thermo-mechanically con-
trolled processed (TMCP) steels.
In the same way, I became aware of
two extreme attitudes in the welding
industry: those with a vested interest
in using plasmas as a heat source vs.
those who only believe in solid-state
techniques and try to avoid plasmas
altogether. Imagine electroslag weld-
ing operators listening for all-damag-
ing arcing while holding a coffee cup
full of flux in their hand to pour it
over the accidental arcing of the resis-
tively heated slag. Then imagine resist-
ance welding operators panicking
when an arc appears inside the V of
high-frequency welding. Think also of
the inert gas blow used to suppress a
thermally induced plasma plume inter-
fering with the incoming beam in laser
beam welding.
Fact is, plasmas are relatively easy
to produce by electric arc discharge or
high-power-density beams impacting
the workpiece, yet are difficult to
maintain and control in all fusion
welding processes. As the fourth state
of matter, the superheated mix of posi-
tive and negative ions, electrons, and
neutral atoms are in a constant colli-
sion and interchange of energy as de-
scribed by Saha’s equation. This incred-
ible mix of dissociation and recombina-
tion of charged particles in the plasma,
however, can only exist and maintain
itself at tens of thousands of degrees
Fahrenheit, about ten times higher
temperatures than we actually need to
melt most metals for welding.
As I used to tell my students in a
simplified manner, a plasma can only
exist or it does not, as we encounter
30 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
A high-speed image of a welding plasma.
them in all arc welding or laser welding
processes (same with lightning). One
can’t turn its temperature down with a
rotary dial by one order of magnitude
to the thousands of degrees we really
need for melting most metals. So what
happens with the excess energy in gas
tunsten arc (GTA), plasma arc (PA),
shielded metal arc (SMA), gas metal
arc (GMA), laser beam welding (LBW),
and so on? We obviously lose it, even
though we try to capture it by covering
it with fluxes (submerged arc welding)
and hiding it in keyholes (submerged
GTAW), yet the remaining energy still
is able to burn our eyes, skin, and even
scare some youngsters away from the
welding industry.
On the other hand, electric arc plas-
mas can be cost-effectively produced
and transported because of the small
power source size needed to produce
them. High-frequency rectification
switching inverter technology made
possible the further downsizing of
power sources in the past decades.
Similarly, power beam joining tech-
niques such as laser and electron beam
welding can thank the thermally in-
duced plasmas during the impact of
photons and electrons for their ability
to vaporize metal and maintain a key-
hole during welding for low-heat-input
BY YONI ADONYI
welding. Our knowledge through mod-
eling to understand and control these
plasmas has never been greater than
today.
Their Potential
After studying arc plasma physics
during my graduate studies many
years ago, I also came to appreciate
their huge potential in “arky-sparky
welding” (as my dear colleague at Le-
Tourneau University, Prof. William
Kielhorn, used to jokingly call them),
but also the inconsistencies associated
with plasmas as a heat source. Tens of
thousands degree temperature gradi-
ents between the core and outside of
plasmas forced researchers to constrict
and stabilize them using high frequen-
cies and geometrical/electromagnetic
lenses. Even the term “cold plasmas”
became acceptable in this context.
Continuing with the negative per-
spective, the internal pressure created
by these plasmas can still create local
gas pockets in the weld pool and can
be entrapped in the rapidly solidified
weld as porosity (such as partial pene-
tration LBW). Similarly, welding arcs
can exert a significant pressure on the
surface of the pool, creating downward
forces depending on the constriction
of the arc (electrode tip geometry in
GTAW). The temperature gradients in-
side an electric plasma can cause sur-
face tension-driven fluid flow patterns
that can be detrimental to welding,
similar to the Lorentz forces associat-
ed with passage of the current in the
plasma into the weld pool.
Old and New Ideas
What if we got rid of electric arc
plasmas for some fusion welding
processes? We would have a less com-
plicated and safer process at our hands
if we simply poured molten metal be-
tween two abutting edges (see Elia
Levi’s idea at welding-advisers.com/
NewProcess.html). Could this ingenious
idea indeed result in much less energy
and time consumed? It would seem
quite possible to add just enough ener-
gy to the joint to make a weld and not
have to deal with excess energy. Or
what if we invested more in old tech-
niques like thermit welding, where the
chemical reaction alone is sufficient to
melt filler in a crucible as in the case of
rail welding? Surely these are cumber-
some and not very portable processes
and devices, but they would create
joints in applications where the high
heat input and coarse grain mi-
crostructure are tolerable.
I am not suggesting we turn back
the clock from low heat input, low
residual stress/distortion, and precise
laser welding-based 3D additive manu-
facturing to old-fashioned casting in
all cases, but surely there is room for
rethinking some old and proven tech-
niques to join advanced materials.
Modern titanium aluminides come to
mind, for example, which need hun-
dreds of degrees in preheats and pro-
duce coarse-grained welds anyway, so
maybe we should weld them using
proven or new and innovative plasma-
less techniques.
Personally, I continued to recognize
arc plasmas’ practical importance and
even coauthored a patent on a short-
circuit mode GMAW arc monitoring
and detection device. However, later in
life I moved my R&D interests toward
solid-state welding techniques, which
resulted in a microwave-joining con-
trol patent that attempts to avoid un-
expected arc discharges (plasmas) at
all costs.
What do you all think? As you can
see, I am still torn between a plasma-
lover and plasma-hater attitude after
four decades spent in the welding
industry.
If you have any comments for or
against plasmas in welding (and not
only in plasma arc welding), please
write to yoniadonyi@letu.edu. I’d love to
hear from you. WJ
YONI ADONYI, PhD, PE,
(YoniAdonyi@letu.edu) is a Fellow of the
American Welding Society and emeritus
professor, LeTourneau University, Longview,
Tex.
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 31
 The Peach State
Welcomed
FABTECH 2018

The FABTECH 2018 show floor gave attendees a glimpse into the technologies driving the future of the industry.

32 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019

FABTECH 2018 drew attendees from around the world to explore
the latest manufacturing innovations and an extensive lineup of
educational opportunities
BY MARY RUTH JOHNSEN, KATIE PACHECO, ROLINE PASCAL, AND CINDY WEIHL

F
ABTECH 2018 put the spark in
“Hotlanta” this past November
when it set exhibitor and atten-
dance records for a FABTECH Atlanta
show by welcoming more than 1500
exhibitors who occupied more than
650,000 net square feet of exhibit
space and 33,755 attendees from 75
countries. The show sprawled over all
three halls of the Georgia World Con-
gress Center, November 6–8, and of-
fered visitors opportunities to net-
work, become familiar with emerging
technologies, watch product demon-
strations, and participate in an exten-
sive lineup of educational offerings.
FABTECH is North America’s
largest metal forming, fabricating,
welding, and finishing event. Its spon-
sors are the American Welding Society
(AWS), the Chemical Coaters Associa- Fig. 1 — 2019 AWS President Thomas J. Lienert spoke about the future of AWS and
tion International, the Fabricators & welding as 2018 President Dale Flood looked on.
Manufacturers Association Interna-
tional, the Precision Metalforming
view of young people today.” and number of Sections, certifications,
Association, and SME.
He talked about the first century of and publications. He noted that the
AWS and how industry has changed AWS Foundation is expected to award
AWS Annual Business during that time period. “I wonder $1.2 million in scholarships this year
Meeting what the second century will be like, and how the Foundation impacted his
but if the young people I saw at own career since he was a fellowship
2018 President Dale Flood called the SkillsUSA become volunteers (for grant recipient.
99th annual AWS business meeting to AWS), then AWS and our industry will In talking about the future of weld-
order on November 5. Flood spoke be in good hands.” ing, Lienert mentioned that the cur-
about the presentations he made Following his symbolic installation rent workforce continues to age; use of
throughout the year to AWS Sections as president, Thomas J. Lienert spoke automation, sensors, and controls will
and other organizations around the about the past, present, and future of increase; more specialized training will
world, and discussed the importance of AWS and welding — Fig. 1. As of Jan- be needed; and that while steel will
the welding industry and that “people’s uary 1, Lienert began presiding over continue to dominate in terms of ton-
lives depend on our work each day.” AWS’s centennial year. nage, there will growth opportunities
One of the highlights of his presi- The Society began March 28, 1919, for other materials.
dential year, Flood said, was attending with Harvard Professor Comfort A. An opportunity Lienert is enthused
the national SkillsUSA competition. Adams as its first president. Since that about is the AWS Future Leaders Pro-
“Thousands of young people were time, Lienert recalled, technical suc- gram, which is for early career members
working in their disciplines and none cesses have included the development between 18 and 30 years old. They will
had a cell phone in their hand,” he re- of more than 100 different joining be able to interact with industry leaders
called. “They didn’t want to talk to us, processes, a large body of codes and and, as part of the program, two partici-
they just wanted to concentrate on standards, and a good understanding pants will attend the AWS board of di-
their work.” If you should attend, he of fatigue and fractures. He spoke rectors meetings and take part in the
said, “you’ll have an entirely different about the growth in AWS membership discussions.

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 33

Comfort A. Adams Lecture
Kazutoshi Nishimoto, a professor
emeritus of Osaka University, led the
2018 Comfort A. Adams Lecture,
which is named for AWS’s first presi-
dent. He said he was honored to deliv-
er the lecture titled “Science-Based Ap-
proaches to Repair Welding Technolo-
gy for Dissimilar Welded Joints in Nu-
clear Power Plants” — Fig. 2.
Prior to the Fukushima nuclear
power plant accident on March 11,
2011, there were 54 nuclear power
plants in Japan, he stated. After the
accident, some were forced to shut
down permanently, so 39 units re-
mained. Of those, because of increased
standards by the Japanese govern-
ment, currently only nine have been
restarted; the others are in the review
or preparation stages prior to restart.
All of the 39 units are facing issues re-
lated to age. “For long-term operation
of nuclear power plants, they have, of
course, to conduct continuous preven-
Fig. 2 — 2018 AWS President Dale Flood congratulated Prof. Kazutoshi Nishimoto on
delivering the Adams Lecture, which discussed repairs at nuclear power plants.
New Products
ABB featured live additive manufac-
turing utilizing an IRB 2600 robot and
arc welding equipment to produce
components with near net shapes. The
heart of the process is the RobotStu-
dio® simulation programming soft-
ware; the company has developed a
software enhancement, or add-in,
34 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
tive maintenance and repairing of the
plants,” he said. This includes replace-
ment and/or repair of steam genera-
tors, reactor vessel heads, heaters, and
turbines.
“Among aging issues in nuclear
power plants, stress corrosion cracking
in high-temperature water is a well-
known phenomenon, but still one of
the active issues,” he said. Nickel-
based Alloy 690 offers superior resist-
ance to postweld stress corrosion
cracking as compared to the more
commonly used Alloy 600; however,
Alloy 690 exhibits high susceptibility
to ductility dip cracking (DDC). The
following studies have been conducted
to enhance the reliability of repair
welding in aging nuclear power plants:
1) Microcracking behavior in multi-
pass weld metal of Alloy 690
2) Measures to prevent microcrack-
ing in dissimilar multipass welds of Al-
loy 690 and Type 316L stainless steel
3) Prediction of hardness in the
heat-affected zone (HAZ) of A533B in
specifically for additive manufacturing
applications. The add-in is independ-
ent of the process and welding equip-
ment. This provides an approach open
to a broad group of designers and
manufacturers. In principle, the CAD
model is imported into the software,
and based on the geometry of the CAD
component, the appropriate paths are
generated for the robotic process to
follow. ABB Robotics, new.abb.com
dissimilar welds with Alloy 690 by
temper bead welding.
The main conclusions obtained in
these studies were as follows:
1) Ductility-dip cracking suscepti-
bility in Alloy 690 can be reduced with
decreasing the content of phosphorus
(P) and sulfur (S) in the filler metal.
The amount of P+1.2S in the filler
metal should be lowered below 30 ppm
to prevent microcracking in the multi-
pass weld metal.
2) The main cause of DDC in Alloy
690 is attributed to grain boundary
embrittlement due to grain boundary
segregation of impurity elements such
as P and S.
3) Cracking susceptibility in dissim-
ilar welds of Alloy 690 and Type 316L
stainless steel can be significantly im-
proved by adding lanthanum (La) in
the range of 0.01–0.03 mass-% to the
weld metal.
4) The beneficial effect of La addi-
tion to improve DDC susceptibility can
be attributed to the scavenger effect of
La on P and S.
5) A new thermal cycle tempering
parameter, which can be used to
estimate the tempering effect during
the thermal cycle process, was pro-
posed by extending the concept of the
Larson-Miller parameter.
6) A neural network-based predic-
tion system for the HAZ hardness of
steels was developed using the experi-
mentally obtained hardness database
and theoretically calculated weld ther-
mal cycles.
7) By using this prediction system,
the hardness in the HAZ of A533B
steel welded with the temper bead
welding technique can be well predict-
ed, which proves the currently devel-
oped system is an expeditious method
to estimate the tempering effect in
temper bead welding.
The EXELTOP™ regulator for in-
dustrial gas cylinders offers precise
flow rates and stable pressure coupled
with enhanced security — Fig. 3. Its
design features an on/off lever for im-
mediate gas cutoff, as well as a gradu-
ated handwheel to change settings.
The regulator’s quick-connect system
works for all gases and connects with
a hose, while the permanent gauge
provides at-a-glance content monitor-
ing even when the flow is stopped. Ad-
ditionally, its residual pressure valve/
nonreturn valve function keeps mini-
mal pressure in the cylinder and pre-
vents backflow contamination. An
erogonomic and shock-absorbing cap
offers easy handling, simple access to
all functions, and reliable protection
for the valve and regulator. Airgas®,
airgas.com
Fig. 3 — The EXELTOP™ eliminates
exposure to high-pressure gas flow
while providing accurate outlet pres-
sure and flow rates.
The CP3550 series of pneumatic
tools includes the new angle grinders
(Fig. 4), available in different abrasive
capacities of 4, 4.5, and 5 in. (100 to
125 mm), offering users the ability to
select precisely the model that matches
their preferred abrasive. The tool is also
designed with a curve in front, allowing
users to see what they’re grinding at a
30-deg angle. Safety and comfort are
enhanced with sound and vibration-
dampening grips, and a streamlined,
glove-friendly safety lever for easy op-
eration. The grinders also feature a ro-
tating swivel to avoid air hose knots,
unique silencer where foam dampens
noise emissions down to 84 Db, insu-
lated sleeve and low diameter for com-
fortable handling, spindle lock feature
for fast abrasive replacement to reduce
tool downtime, and a 1.5-hp governed
motor that allows industrial perform-
ance in intensive material removal ap-
plications. Chicago Pneumatic Tool Co.,
cp.com
or aluminum), flux-cored arc weld
with gas- and self-shielded wires, and
shielded metal arc weld. The welding
system provides gas tungsten arc weld-
ing (GTAW) controls found on indus-
trial units. It also features 120 to 230
V primary power flexibility, compact
portability (weighs 49 lb), sMIG
(“smart MIG”) technology, five-handle
lift points, TFT LCD operator inter-
face, dual gas solenoid valves for con-
necting two different gases simultane-
ously, and a rugged steel housing. The
Fig. 4 — Chicago Pneumatic’s angle
grinder offers sound and vibration-
unit has a maximum output of 235
dampening grips, as well as a glove- A/26 V for gas metal arc/flux-cored arc
friendly safety lever for easy welding, 180 A/27.2 V for shielded
operation. metal arc welding, and 205 A/18.2 V
for GTAW. Combined with a four-
wheel wire feed system, with a handle
Donaldson Company Inc. previewed
and spare parts compartment, the
a web-connected technology that
machine can be lifted manually or
monitors industrial dust, fume, and
transported on a trolley to provide
mist collectors, and notifies owners to
mobility — Fig. 6. ESAB, esabna.com
take early, cost-saving maintenance ac-
tions. The program uses sensors and a
controller to gather real-time data
from a collector, apply analytics in the
cloud, and relay insights back to the
operator thorough a web-based dash-
board and email or text alerts — Fig.
5. It can be installed on existing or
new industrial dust and fume equip-
ment. The program is currently being
introduced to the company’s cus-
tomers as part of an early adopter pro-
gram and will be commercially avail-
able to all early this year. Donaldson Fig. 6 — The RebelTM EMP 205ic AC/DC
Co. Inc., donaldson.com offers hands-on GTAW of aluminum,
pulsed direct current GTAW, and gas
metal arc welding opportunities.
Hypertherm introduced the
XPR170, a new X-Definition™ class
plasma cutting system — Fig. 7. Like
the XPR300 before it, the debuting
model contains several new patent-
pending processes like Vented Water
Fig. 5 — Donaldson’s connected tech-
nology solution prompts timely main-
tenance and helps manage filtration
costs.
ESAB showcased the Rebel™ EMP
205ic AC/DC, a multiprocess,
Fig. 7 — In laboratory testing, the
portable, inverter-based welding sys-
XPR170 showed International Organiza-
tem, which enables users to gas tung-
tion for Standardization (ISO)-9013
sten arc weld with alternating and di- Range 2 cut quality on thin mild steel
rect current outputs, gas metal arc and extended ISO Range 3 cuts on
weld with solid wires (steel, stainless, thicker metal.
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 35
Injection™, plasma dampening, and
vent-to-shield technologies for squarer
cut edges, markedly less angularity,
AWS Honors 2018
and good surface finish on nonferrous
metals like aluminum and stainless
steel. It is suited for cutting thin to
Excellence in Welding
mid-range thickness metals. Addition-
ally, the system cuts faster and uses
power more efficiently than earlier
Award Winners
Hypertherm systems like the HyPer-
formance® HPR130XD®. Consumable
life and cut quality over the life of the
consumables get a boost from ad-
vances such as Cool nozzle™ and Arc
response technology™, the latter of
which protects consumables from the
negative impact of ramp down errors.
Hypertherm, hypertherm.com

Lincoln Electric featured the new

POWER MIG® 260 (Fig. 8) for gas
metal arc and flux cored arc welding in
light industrial shop fabrication, main-
tenance, and repair work. The compa-
ny’s patented ArcFX™ technology pro-
vides instant graphical feedback on
the user interface, illustrating how
wire feed speed and voltage affect the
weld outcome. The memory capability
enables users to load and save weld
settings, while its adjustable features The Excellence in Welding Awards recipients pose for a group shot during the cere-
allow for a customized welding ses- mony luncheon held at FABTECH 2018. From left are Jana Walmsley Nelson (distributor),
sion. It also features push-and-turn former AWS President Ernest Levert and Chelsey Morris (local Section), Scottie Smith
digital controls and a 7-in., full-color (educational facility), Ryan T. Eubank (educator), Samantha Farr (individual), Joshua J.
display guides users through the Welton (media), Tom Snow (small business), Ken Morris Sr. (veteran), and Joe Sabol
process to make setup and operation (large business).
simple. The unit comes with a Max-
trac® wire drive, Magnum® PRO 250L The American Welding Society (AWS) and WEMCO, an association of welding
equipment manufacturers, recently honored individuals and organizations at
their 16th Annual Excellence in Welding Awards held on November 7 at FABTECH
2018 in Atlanta, Ga.
Excellence in Welding Committee Chair Jeff Deckrow opened his speech by
welcoming attendees and recognizing the members of WEMCO’s executive com-
mittee for their efforts in selecting the winners. In addition to the trophy, each of
the winners will have their names added to an award plaque at AWS’s headquar-
ters in Miami, Fla.
The following is a list of the award recipients along with their categories.

Samantha Farr — Individual. Farr is the founder and lead instructor of

Women Who Weld, a nonprofit organization established in 2014 that teaches
women how to weld and find employment in the industry.
During her speech, Farr announced that ten women recently graduated from
the free-of-charge, six-week welding training program and have all landed full-
time jobs as welders in Detroit, Mich. As a two-person team, she related how the
foundation relies on grants and donations, and implored the audience to contact
her if they want to contribute.

Fig. 8 — The POWER MIG® 260 offers
many professional features for gas
metal arc and flux cored welding in
light industrial shop fabrication, main-
tenance work, and repair.
Ryan T. Eubank — Educator. Eubank has served the welding industry for 22
years as a welder and more than 16 years as an adjunct faculty member at Lincoln
Electric, Tech Prep high school programs, and Lakeland Community College
(LCC). He also assumed the position of industrial welding program coordinator at
LCC. He currently holds nine AWS certifications.

36 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019

 Northwest Florida State College — Educational Facility. Since its inception welding gun, quick storage accessories,
in 2013, Northwest Florida State College’s welding program has supplied more 10-ft work cable with clamp, gas regu-
than 100 skilled welders to the local industrial workforce. The college also estab- lator, and 10-ft power cable with plug.
lished Camp Glitter (Girls Learning Industrial Trades to Empower and Redefine) Additional features include a coil claw
in the summer of 2017 to introduce high school girls to the world of welding. for an organized work station, a side
Welding Instructor Scottie Smith accepted the award on behalf of the college, mounted tool holder, and an angled
administration, crew, and students. gun connection for improved feedabili-
ty. The unit also offers an easily acces-
T. J. Snow Co. — Small Business. Founded as a one-man business by Jim sible front-mounted 115-V power out-
Snow in 1963, T. J. Snow Co., Chattanooga, Tenn., has become a leader in the re- let along with gun connections. Lin-
sistance welding industry. The company now employs more than 100 people and coln Electric Co., lincolnelectric.com
manufactures and distributes all types of resistance welding machinery and sup-
plies. The company also offers resistance welding seminars. Metabo highlighted its new large
Tom Snow, CEO and chairman, accepted the award. During his speech, he per- angle grinder with safety brake (Fig.
sonally thanked David Hetzler (president), Mark Pepping (VP sales), and Sam 9). Offering a 7 and 9 in. version, the
Snow (vice president), who were present at the ceremony. safety brake grinders stop the wheel in
2 s of releasing the nonlocking paddle
Newport News Shipbuilding — Large Business. Newport News Shipbuilding, switch, significantly reducing the risk
in Virginia, is one of only two shipyards capable of designing and building nu- of injury in the event the operator los-
clear-powered submarines. It also has its own apprentice school, which was es control of the tool. Other safety fea-
founded in 1919. With a current enrollment of 815 students, the school develops tures include an electronic clutch,
the skills needed to build their products. which helps protect the user against
Joe Sabol, Newport News’ director of shipfitting, welding, and dimensional kick-back if the wheel binds; an elec-
controls operation accepted the award on behalf of the company’s “welders who tronic overload protection to keep the
spark an arc.” motor from overheating; and acciden-
tal restart protection, which prevents
Oxarc Inc. — Distributor. Founded in 1968 by Jerry and June Walmsley, the tool from restarting on its own in
Oxarc recently celebrated its 50th anniversary providing superior customer service the event of a power interruption.
to the welding industry. The company promotes the welding industry through ed- They are equipped with an advanced 3-
ucation. It operates two welding schools — Spokane and Pascal, Wash. — where position anti-vibration side handle and
students can earn their Washington Association of Building Officials certification a 3-position vibration dampened back
and AWS qualifications, as well as test to various codes. Oxarc President Jana handle. Metabo Corp., metabousa.com
Walmsley Nelson accepted the honor.

Joshua J. Welton — Media. Owner and operator of Brown Dog Welding LLC
Fabrication and Art Studio in Detroit, Mich., Welton is an established welder, fab-
ricator, teacher, artist, writer, social media influencer, podcast host, entrepreneur,
and automotive enthusiast. He is a contributing writer to thefabricator.com, The
Welder magazine, and dodgegarage.com. In 2017, he went to Iraq for three months
to weld battle-damaged Abrams tanks and was recognized for his contributions.
Alongside his wife, he is launching a community initiative called “Still Building
America,” which will promote awareness of jobs, training, and other skilled trade
opportunities.

Ken Morris Sr. — Veteran. Morris served in the Marine Corps from 1989 to
2003. After being discharged, he built a career as a welder, CWI, and CWS for
companies in both California and Texas. He held a three-year term as chair of the
AWS Sacramento Valley Section and currently serves on its board. He has also
taught welding at various Los Rios College District campuses as an adjunct and
substitute instructor.
Morris related how he fell in love with welding at 17 years old and how it set
him on his course to pass on the “knowledge, skills, and information” he has
gained to someone else.
Fig. 9 — The large angle grinder high-
AWS North Texas Section — Local Section. Established in 1949, with 1100 lights safety applications, including a
current members, the Section serves the Greater Dallas-Fort Worth area and sev- safety brake to stop the wheel in 2 s
eral counties outside of that region. Members offer several scholarships, including when releasing the paddle switch.
the Timothy Edward Hatten Memorial CWI Scholarship, Praxair Scholarship, and
Section Scholarships. They also host a canned food drive at every meeting, which
has resulted in 200–450 lb of food donated to the North Texas Food Bank. The Weld-Mask™ 2 from Miller is
North Texas Section Chair Chelsey Morris, along with AWS Past President designed for construction and ship
Ernest Levert (2002–2003), accepted the award for the Section. welders, and other operators who weld
in tight, nontraditional spaces — Fig.
10. The low-profile, sleek design is

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 37

40% lighter than a traditional auto-
darkening welding helmet. A large sin-
gular lens improves range of visibility,
and the close-fitting, soft eye covering
provides total darkness for precision
welding. The X-Mode™ technology
continuously detects the arc even
when sensors are blocked, making it
useful for out-of-position, outdoor,
and low-amp gas tungsten arc welding.
Additionally, the mask fits under a
hard hat without adapters. Flashlight
accessory frees both hands for weld-
ing. The LPR-100™ reusable respirator
and classic safety glasses fit under
the mask ensuring the operator is
fully protected. Miller Electric Mfg.,
millerwelds.com
Fig. 10 — The Weld-MaskTM 2 is de-
signed to access tight spaces while
addressing compliance issues within
industrial environments.
Norton has extended its QUAN-
TUM3™ (QN3) line to include Right-
Cut cut-off wheels and additional
sizes of combination wheels — Fig. 11.
For the cut-off wheels, the company
did a lot of work on the bonding tech-
nology and came up with a more
rounded grain. The rounded grains al-
low for faster cutting with less vibra-
tion, which reduces operator fatigue.
The wheels come in a 0.045 in. thick-
ness for fast cutting and a 1⁄16 in. thick-
ness for when longer life is needed.
They are available in 41⁄2-, 5-, and
6-in. sizes. Norton St. Gobain,
nortonabrasives.com
Octopuz showcased its Octopuz 2.1
program (Fig. 12), which includes the
company’s PathFinder suite of tools.
The new tool set allows the usage of
the PathAnalyzer feature to review the
toolpath and provide reports identify-
ing any limitations such as singulari-
ties, joint limits, unreachable points,
or collisions. The user then has the op-
portunity to solve the identified errors
themselves or choose the PathSolver
tool to resolve any identified issues
systematically. The PathFinder is tar-
geted at aiding users to easily and effi-
ciently create programs for their ro-
bots void of any errors. The suite also
features tools to aid in the optimiza-
tion of toolpaths including welding,
milling, and trimming. Octopuz,
octopuz.com
Fig. 12 — Octopuz 2.1 allows users to
review the toolpath and provides re-
ports indentifying any limitations such
as singularities, joint limits, unreach-
able points, or collisions.
to 22; sensitivity control to adapt to
work environments; grind mode for
grinding applications; comfort head-
band; and twilight function to protect
against lighting changes. Optrel®,
optrel.com
Fig. 13 — With its crystal lens technol-
ogy and 2.0 protection level, the crys-
tal2.0 welding helmet allows welders
to clearly see what is happening be-
fore, during, and after the welding
process.
Designed for fully automated
manufacturing, the ROBOTmaster
(Fig. 14) features a number of surface
finishing, drilling, and milling ma-
chine tools that can be mounted di-
rectly on a robot arm. The quick-
change tool system is compatible with
all robot manufacturers for applica-
tions ranging from automotive manu-
facturing to deburring operations, plus
stainless steel machining to drilling
and tapping operations. Some of the
tools’ features include programmable
touch forces of the active flange and
interactive surface tracking, which al-
low for the automation of operations
that were previously not suitable for
automation. It also offers programma-

The crystal2.0 welding helmet en-

Fig. 11 — QN3 RightCut wheels feature
a rounded grain that allows for faster
cutting with less vibration, which
helps reduce operator fatigue.
ables optical clarity before, during,
and after welding — Fig. 13. In the
light state, its crystal 2.0 lens technol-
ogy provides a 2.0 protection level
with 31% visible light transmission to
deliver a color spectrum that is the
same as looking through a glass win-
dow. In the dark state, it offers a high-
contrast, clear view of the weld pool. Fig. 14 — The ROBOTmaster quick-
The welding helmet’s other features change tool system attaches to a
include the sensor slide; heat-reflect- robot arm to perform drilling, grinding,
ing paint to keep welders cooler; au- filing, cutting, and deburring for fully
automated manufacturing.
topilot shade adjustments for levels 4

38 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019

ble process forces and balanced toler-
ances (shapes) to reduce programming
time for complex parts. Suhner Indus-
trial Products, suhner.com
Equipped with a solid-state TruDisk
laser, flying optics, and NC controller
and motion unit, TRUMPF’s TruLaser
Cell 5030 delivers a production in-
crease of more than 200% while saving
50% in operating costs — Fig. 15. The
system specializes in prototypes and
low-to-medium volume production
and comes with a TRUMPF disk laser
as standard, making it a rugged, low-
maintenance, and energy-efficient
choice. Flying optics keep the process
consistently accurate, regardless of the
weight and position of the part. The
TruTops Cell Basic software allows
users to modify design parameters
through the machine interface itself,
which reduces the time it takes to set
up the production process. The system
also includes numerous preset cutting
tables, X-Blast technology, and Fo-
cusLine function. The glass wall en-
sures job safety, and the 5-axis ma-
chine provides enough walking space.
TRUMPF, trumpf.com
Fig. 15 — The TruLaser Cell 5030
comes equipped with a solid-state
TruDisk laser, flying optics, and NC
controller and motion unit.
Plummer Lecture
Tim Baber presented the 2018 Plum-
mer Lecture titled “Integrating Robot-
ics into Today’s Welding Technology
Programs.”
Baber is a professor of welding tech-
nology and chair of the Department of
Welding Technology and Manufactur-
ing Technology at College of the
With its patented flux composition,
the line of WCM low-manganese elec-
trodes supplies the weld metal with
lower manganese content, thus de-
creasing manganese vapor emissions
by up to 50% in comparison to stan-
dard shielded metal arc welding elec-
trodes — Fig. 16. Exceeding the me-
chanical properties and requirements
of international standards, the elec-
trodes are characterized by a stable
and smooth arc, easy slag detachabili-
ty, and excellent weld bead appear-
ance. Packaged in a 10-lb, vacuum-
sealed, plastic container, these elec-
trodes are available in three AWS clas-
sifications (E-6011, E-6013, and E-
7018) and three sizes (3⁄32, 1⁄8, and 5⁄32 in.).
Weldcote Metals, weldcotemetals.com
Fig. 16 — The line of WCM low-
manganese shielded metal arc weld-
ing electrodes reduces manganese
emissions by up to 50%.
Yaskawa showcased its ArcWorld
1200 robotic arc welding workcell. The
preengineered cells come in single-
robot (ArcWorld 1000) and dual-robot
(ArcWeld 1299) configurations. They
are designed to offer small- to medi-
um-sized part production for medium
to high volumes. Both models feature
a six-axis AR1440 robot with a 12-kg
payload. It is faster than previous
models and features a contoured arm
design that allows easy access to parts
in tight spots and avoids potential in-
terference with fixtures. The robot is
controlled by the company’s new, com-
pact YRC1000 controller that features
Canyons (COC), Santa Clarita, Calif. He
is an AWS Certified Welding Inspector
(CWI), Certified Welding Educator
(CWE), and Certified Robotic Arc
Welding Technician (CRAW-T), and
he serves on several AWS technical
committees.
Baber began his presentation by ask-
patented multiple robot control with
coordinated motion between devices.
This allows both robots to be con-
trolled from a single teach pendant. All
ArcWorld cells now have a common
base and the backside of the cell has
been reduced in volume by two-thirds
— Fig. 17. The company has gone to
ethernet connectivity, which helped
permit the change in size, and the
transformer’s size was also reduced.
This makes the cell easy to customize,
set up, and control. Yaskawa, mo-
toman.com
Fig. 17 — The backside of Yaskawa’s
ArcWorld robotic welding cells has
been reduced in size.
Join Us This Year
FABTECH returns to Chicago’s Mc-
Cormick Place on November 11–14.
Registration will open this spring. For
more information about the exposi-
tion, visit fabtechexpo.com.
ing a key question, “Is there really a
shortage of skilled welders?” He re-
sponded by showcasing statistics con-
firming that with the retirement of
baby boomers, strength of the economy,
and attractiveness of the industry, there
is a skills gap and millions of manufac-
turing jobs will likely need to be filled.
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 39

Tim Baber presented the 2018 Plummer Lecture demonstrating the importance of
integrating robotics into current welding programs.
He stated that employers are looking at
implementing robotic welding to cope
FABx Inspires with Six Illuminating Talks
Adopting the concise format that
catapulted TEDx into popularity, the
FABx Tech Talks inspired a crowd of
FABTECH attendees with its lineup of
six brief, but captivating, keynote
speeches. With many years of experi-
ence in leadership roles, and repre-
senting various organizations, the
speakers shared their success stories
as well as how they continue to drive
innovation within their fields.
First up was Dennis Adamovich,
CEO of the College Football Hall of
Fame. Recounting how he helped vari-
ous companies (e.g., Cartoon Network,
The Coca-Cola Co., etc.) bolster their
relationships with customers,
Adamovich emphasized the impor-
tance of gaining key insights about
consumers and what matters to them.
He added that companies can use
those insights to provide consumers
with new, personalized, authentic, and
meaningful experiences that solidify
their relationship to the brand. “It’s
about how we connect with the con-
sumer,” he explained.
Highlighting the correlation be-
40 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
with the gap, leading to the necessity of
robotic programming training.
tween success and unconventionality,
Julia Crews, founder of Ignite Woman
Leaders, recounted how she was influ-
enced by her aunt, Dr. Bobbie Bailey,
who excelled in the manufacturing in-
dustry at a time when women were
hindered by gender stereotypes. She
urged attendees to think about a
leader who dared to be different, and
identify the leadership skills that
made him or her extraordinary. En-
couraging audiences to be original,
too, she concluded by saying, “It starts
with you. Be an uncommon leader.”
Charlie Covert, vice president of
customer solutions for the United Par-
cel Service (UPS), underscored the ne-
cessity of embracing new technology
to meet the unique demands of the
fourth industrial revolution, which is
characterized by empowered cus-
tomers, mass customization, and on-
demand manufacturing. Describing
the future of manufacturing as “agile,”
he identified new technologies that
are changing consumers’ expectations
for increased visibility in delivery and
shipping, thus driving supply chains to
Next, Baber acknowledged that stu-
dents do not know where to go to get
robotic training. He instructed the au-
dience on how to implement robotic
training into their current welding pro-
grams by first showcasing how COC ad-
dressed this issue.
The presentation highlighted the
college’s steps of introducing a robotics
program, from establishing a vision to
submitting a grant application. He also
highlighted faculty training, curricu-
lum, methods of instruction, and in-
dustry credentials.
Additionally, he covered students’
progression in the program, comparing
enrollments and completion rates.
Baber emphasized the importance of
managing enrollment to avoid cancella-
tion, in which students are unable to
continue their training.
At the end of his talk, Baber gave a
glimpse of the next steps for the col-
lege’s robotics program, such as devel-
oping a marketing plan and a new
course for online programming.
innovate to stay relevant. “Technology
allows even small manufacturing com-
panies to compete with anyone, any-
where,” he said.
Eric Wilson, head of global sales at
Delta Cargo, admitted that Delta used
to be a “bad company” several years
ago when it faced bankruptcy. Open
to change, the company adopted a
“people-centered” approach by focus-
ing on employee happiness and satis-
faction to ensure those same employ-
ees would, in turn, treat customers
well. According to Wilson, this new ap-
proach helped reinvent, and thus save,
the airline company. “Through a lot of
hard work and focusing on our people,
we have become a great company,” he
affirmed. “It’s essential to have a
people-focused organization, whether
you have 5 people, 100 people, or 500
people.”
Dan Kara, vice president of robotics
for WTWH Media, posited that 2017
was a robust year for industrial robot-
ics, citing the global shipment of
381,000 industrial robots. He identi-
fied the need to both reduce costs and
enhance flexibility as key attributes
for the increased use of robots and in-
telligent systems in various industries,
including e-commerce. Kara also
pointed out that the manufacturing
industry’s need to automate and move
goods quickly will continue to fuel the
use of robotics. Looking ahead, he list-
ed robotic exoskeletons as the future
of manufacturing, as “companies ex-
plore how to integrate human opera-
tors with the strength and endurance
of industrial robots.”
Aaron Kaufman, owner of Arclight
Fabrication autoshop and television
personality on Discovery Channel’s
Shifting Gears, concluded FABx with
anecdotes on how he began working in
manufacturing, as well as how he con-
tinues to strive in the industry. Ac-
cording to Kaufman, to be the best,
one must never become complacent, FABx Tech Talks inspired attendees with six motivational speeches on innovation.
but must always work to be better Pictured (from left) are FABx speakers Aaron Kaufman, Dan Kara, Eric Wilson, Charlie
than he or she was the previous day. Covert, Julia Crews, and Dennis Adamovich.
He also stressed fearlessness as an es-
sential attribute, always saying “yes” building cars, I was always in the same portunities for me,” he explained.
to new opportunities, and networking circle. When I got into racing, I met “There are advantages to meeting new
across various industries. “When I was new people and that opened new op- people who have more experience.”

Expert Panel Discusses Gen Z and the

Manufacturing Workforce
It’s a fact: Millennials will make up
the majority of the workforce in com-
ing years. FABTECH 2018 presented a
lively discussion with a panel of ex-
perts to share their perspective and
help companies understand how to
adapt and attract this new generation
of employees. Titled “Manufacturing
and the New Generation Workforce,”
topics covered included best practices
in areas such as creating a culture of
care, communication, engagement,
technology, and teamwork.
The panel of experts were David
Stillman, generations expert and best
selling author; Jacob Wilson, CEO,
Morrison Industries; and Lee Ann
(Schwope) Cochran, vice president of
sales and marketing, PRADCO; along
with Jonah Stillman, moderator and
Gen Z ambassador (see lead photo).
Jonah Stillman led the panel with
his first question: “What needs to hap-
pen to put the industry in the Gen Z
radar?”
Cochran responded that the first
organic step is to bring man (industry)
to the digital world. Wilson agreed
adding that companies need to be
good at PR and marketing because
“Gen Z is not reading the newspaper.”
He asserted how companies have had
success in employing young people by
using social media platforms such as
Facebook.
David Stillman asserted that de-
tailed communication is key. Essential-
ly, explaining what a typical day would
be like in the job’s position, from the
moment he or she clocks in until
clock-out stating, “Don’t just describe
what the job does, but what they [Gen
Z] will be doing on a daily basis.”
Another talking point was engage-
ment. What will it take to engage mil-
lenials? Wilson responded, “Don’t just
stick them to entry level. Show them
and make sure that they are part of
something important.”
Cochran believed that engagement
should be looked at differently to
make an impact for millenials. “En-
gagement is being excited to go to
work,” she said. “They should want to
get up and go to work everyday.”
The idea of figital, fear of missing
out from not being on a digital device,
was another topic of discussion. Jonah
Stillman explained Gen Z has been
categorized as digital natives and
asked the panel, “What is currently
the biggest trend in your industry that
will not work with Gen Z? Is there
anything you’ve heard of that is hap-
pening in your industry that will not
necessarily be appealing to the next
generation that is changing?”
Wilson used an example in the suc-
cess he has had in his company em-
ploying young people, while explaining
the new generation does not want to
simply “go through the motions” and
be “a number on a piece of paper.”
Cochran looked at the question
through a different perspective. She

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 41

 A panel of experts, led by (from left) Moderator Jonah Stillman, Gen Z ambassador; David Stillman, generations expert and best
selling author; Jacob Wilson, CEO, Morrison Industries; and Lee Ann (Schwope) Cochran, vice president of sales and marketing,
PRADCO, shared their perspective on how to adapt and attract this new generation of employees.
stated, “Even as a Gen X-er, we have
people that have been in industries for
a very long time. After you’re in it for
5, 10 years or so, you kind of start to
know everyone, and I think that’s go-
ing to change with Gen Z.” She went
on to explain that millenials will not
work in a specific marketplace for 5,
10, 15, or 30 plus years. They are go-
ing to want change, and they are going
to want to figure out how to solve dif-
ferent problems across marketplaces.
“It’s going to be important for us to
think about how that industry knowl-
edge is shared, how associations and
societies are growing because of that,
and making sure that data is accessible
to brand new members within a mar-
ket space or an industry or someone
that’s been there for a long time,” she
concluded.
David Stillman chimed in explain-
ing that although he does not work in
the industry, he has worked with the
industry long enough to know that in
manufacturing and family-owned
42 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
businesses, oftentimes he hears, “It’s
the way it’s always been done.” While
previous generations have been okay
with the response, as he goes on to
state, “We are going to have a genera-
tion that’ll say, ‘I don’t think this is go-
ing to work. Just because it’s not bro-
ken in their eyes doesn’t mean it can’t
be better.’” He added that industries
need to explain how it’s done and why,
but to also be prepared for a genera-
tion that might have some input,
whether they’ve been in the company
for two days or two years, and to wel-
come the input.
Afterwards, Jonah Stillman opened
the floor to questions from the audi-
ence. One individual brought up a con-
cern regarding the lack of industry ex-
posure in schools. He said, “Agricultur-
al arts is not given an option in high
schools. How can that be changed?”
Jonah Stillman wholeheartedly
agreed with the individual’s observa-
tion as he related his high school years
and the little to no exposure to agri-
cultural arts. Most schools place stu-
dents success on getting accepted into
a four-year college. “If you don’t go to
a four-year college, you’ve failed as a
high school student. The four years
was a waste,” he said. He went on to
implore companies to reach out to the
schools and have students go on tours,
career fairs, and so on. “It’s up to you
to go to the schools because the
schools won’t do it,” he ended.
A recurring message throughout
the session was communication. The
panelists agreed that the new genera-
tion can and will connect with the pre-
vious generation because they want to
learn. It’s up to the industry and the
new generation to be open to change,
technology, and understanding each
other’s points of view. WJ
MARY RUTH JOHNSEN (mjohnsen@aws.org)
is publisher, KATIE PACHECO (kpacheco@
aws.org) is associate editor, ROLINE PASCAL
(rpascal@aws.org) is assistant editor, and
CINDY WEIHL (cweihl@aws.org) is senior
editor of the Welding Journal.
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY

Brazing 101: Induction Heating

BY W. ADAM MORRISON
The basics of induction brazing are
provided to dispel common misconceptions

I
nduction heating is a well-estab-
lished heating method that many
still consider new technology. Al-
though induction heating technology
is approaching 100 years of commer-
cialization, questions and misconcep-
tions surrounding its application still
exist. For example, one common mis-
understanding is that induction heat-
ing will only heat magnetic compo-
nents. However, induction heating can
be used to heat any electrically con-
ductive material.
It is also important to consider
both brazing and induction heating as
separate and different processes to un-
derstand and apply them. Brazing is a
joining process, while induction heat-
ing is a heating process that is often
used as a single step of the brazing
process.
Numerous texts and studies have
been published about brazing and
other metal-joining techniques. It is
not the intent of this paper to present
all the details associated with brazing
processes. Instead, general rules of
thumb will be presented for a detailed Pictured is an induction coil with a brazed tube and flange.
discussion on induction heating tech-
nology. This article also addresses magnetic field is generated by an alter- key difference associated when heat-
common misconceptions of induction nating current (AC) being passed ing a magnetic part vs. a nonmagnetic
heating in relation to its brazing- through an electrical winding (coil/ part. Magnetic parts, such as iron,
related applications. inductor). Induction heating is a non- have magnetic particles within their
contact heating method that is ex- atomic structure called domains.
Induction Heating Defined tremely fast and efficient when com- These domains are like small bar mag-
pared to other heating technologies nets. The domains physically align
Induction heating is a thermal used for brazing. themselves with the polarity of the
process in which an electrically con- magnetic field applied to the part. As
ductive material is placed within a Hysteresis Heating the magnetic field reverses, the do-
varying magnetic field and heated via mains physically reverse direction.
hysteresis (magnetic materials only) Induction heating can heat any This constant reversing of direction
and/or induced electrical current (all electrically conductive material, mag- results in internal friction heating.
conductive materials). The changing netic and nonmagnetic. There is one This heating through magnetic do-

44 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019


Fig. 1 — Transformer effect between the inductor and heated part.
main switching is known as hysteresis
heating. Hysteresis only occurs in
magnetic materials and is the most ef-
ficient form of induction heating. It
can also exceed 90% efficiency.
Eddy Current Heating
When sufficiently heated, magnetic
materials will lose their magnetism.
This is called the Curie point (typically
around 1400°F for iron). Once a mag-
netic part reaches its Curie point, hys-
teresis heating stops. Without proper
frequency and/or power selection, the
heating will stall at approximately
1400°F. This is one reason some
novices believe induction heating will
not heat above 1400°F. With proper
frequency and power selection, it is
possible to heat to any temperature up
to several thousand degrees.
The heating that takes place beyond
the Curie point or in nonmagnetic ma-
terials is eddy current heating. This
type of energy transfer is the same as
what takes place inside electrical
transformers. The heating inductor is
the primary of the transformer circuit,
and the heated part is the secondary
winding — Fig. 1. The heat produced
is known as “I squared R losses” (P =
I2R), derived from Ohm’s law (V = I*R).
Eddy current heating is what allows
electromagnetic induction to heat any
electrically conductive material, includ-
ing gold, copper, silver, aluminum, and
many others. The efficiency of eddy
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
Fig. 2 — Frequency selection.
current heating will vary depending on
the alloy being heated from 50% to as
low as 5% conversion efficiency. The
term electrical eddy current is derived
from the description of small surface
currents that can be seen within larger
flows of water, such as streams and
rivers. In much the same way, induced
electrical eddy currents only circulate
on the surface of the part.
Reference Depth of Heating
The higher the frequency of opera-
tion (Hz), the shallower the eddy cur-
rents are. The depth at which the cur-
rent penetrates the surface is called the
reference depth and represents the
depth at which 63% of the induced cur-
rent is flowing. Most induction heating
systems for brazing operate between
10 and 50 kHz. Depending on magnet-
ic permeability and material resistivity,
the reference depth of heating can vary
between 0.01 and 0.20 in. (0.2 and
5 mm) within this frequency range.
It’s important to consider depth of
heating when choosing an induction
heating system. If the depth is exces-
sive, very little heating will occur due
to cancellation of eddy currents. Can-
cellation occurs when eddy currents
from opposing sides of the part en-
counter each other. As a rule, the
depth of current should be no greater
than one-half the thickness and/or di-
ameter of the part being heated.
Although frequency of operation is
the primary influencer of heating
depth, so too is the electrical resistivi-
ty of the part being heated and its
magnetic permeability. The formula
for calculating reference depth is
D = 3160*√(ρ/μf), where ρ is the elec-
trical resistivity of the material being
heated in micro-ohm inches; μ is the
relative magnetic permeability in
Henrys/meter; and f is the frequency
of operation in hertz. The formula
shows that the depth of heating in-
creases as the electrical resistivity in-
creases. Conversely, the depth decreas-
es as the magnetic permeability or op-
erating frequency increases.
Magnetic permeability is the ability
of a material to absorb and retain mag-
netic flux. The greater the ability to re-
tain flux, the higher the permeability.
Nonmagnetic materials have a perme-
ability of 1, while a good magnetic ma-
terial like iron has a permeability of
5000. Carbon steel has a relative mag-
netic permeability of 100. It is impor-
tant to consider the permeability at the
brazing temperature due to the Curie
point of some materials. Remember
that steel loses magnetism at approxi-
mately 1400°F, at which point its per-
meability changes from 100 to 1. This
would result in a 10× increase in the
depth of current penetration at tem-
peratures above the Curie point. If the
wrong frequency is selected, then heat-
ing will stall at the Curie point. Figure
2 provides recommendations for fre-
quency based on alloy and diameter.
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 45
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
Fig. 3 — Energy requirements.
The laws of thermal dynamics are
not avoided with induction heating.
The heat generated within the part is
not limited to the depth of current
penetration. The depth of heating will
increase via conduction. The addition-
al depth of heating resulting from
soak/heat time can be approximated
by the formula D = √0.0015t, where D
is the depth in inches, and t is the time
in seconds.
Due to the tendency of AC to collect
on the surface of a part, it is possible
to select a frequency that is too high.
An operating frequency that is too
high will cause the current to collect in
corners of parts, such as the corners of
a hex nut assembly. This will create lo-
calized hot spots that could melt the
base metal before the filler metal
melts. Frequency optimizes efficiency,
but it is power that gets the work
done.
Power Requirements
Power is the amount the energy
transferred over time. Most induction
heaters are rated by their ability to de-
liver power, typically rated in kilowatts
(kW). Power offerings for induction
heating power supplies vary widely. In-
dustrial grade induction power sup-
plies can be found from as low as 1 kW
to more than 20 MW (1000 to
20,000,000 W). For brazing applica-
tions, most brazing processes fall
within the 5 to 50 kW range, but sev-
46 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
Fig. 4 — Inductor geometry examples.
eral hundred kWs for larger applica-
tions are not uncommon.
Selecting the proper kW rating is as
important as proper frequency selec-
tion. A kW rating that is too low will
lack the power to achieve the brazing
temperature, take too long to braze,
and have an excessive heat-affected
zone (HAZ). A kW rating that is too
large will lack the necessary resolution
for stable process control, overheat
parts, and is a waste of capital re-
sources to acquire and maintain.
There are several factors in deter-
mining the required power for a braz-
ing process. Allowed heat time, target
temperature, starting temperature,
heated mass, and base metal alloy are
the primary factors. Heat time should
be sufficient for the flux to become ac-
tive, and for the alloy to flow into the
joint via capillary action. Excessive
heat times should be avoided due to
the limited active life of a heated flux.
Also, longer heat times allow for in-
creased formation of oxides while the
part is at elevated temperatures.
Base metals vary in density, specific
heat, electrical resistivity, and relative
magnetic permeability as well as other
defining characteristics, but these four
traits are the most important for cal-
culating power requirements for a
process.
As an example, consider two parts
of equal-heated mass, one made from
iron and one from copper. Copper is
one of the most difficult materials to
heat with induction in terms of effi-
ciency, while iron is one of the easiest.
Induction heating efficiency when
heating copper is typically 15%, while
iron is greater than 90%. To achieve
the same temperature in the same
time for the two parts, five times as
much power would be required for the
copper part. The difference in electri-
cal resistivity and magnetic permeabil-
ity are the main reasons for the differ-
ences in power requirements. The low-
er resistivity of copper requires signifi-
cantly more current to generate the
same I-squared-R losses as iron. Iron
also benefits from the greater magnet-
ic permeability, allowing it to be heat-
ed by hysteresis in addition to I-
squared-R heating.
Figure 3 provides estimates of ener-
gy requirements for common metals
heated with induction. The following
summarizes conversion efficiencies for
common base metals heated with in-
duction heating:
• Pure iron 95–98%
• Medium carbon steel 85–90%
• 316 stainless steel 45–50%
• Aluminum 35–40%
• Copper 5–15%.
Heating Inductors
A heating inductor (coil) is an elec-
trical winding in which AC is passed
for generating an electromagnetic field
with a specific pattern for heating an
electrically conductive object.

Fig. 5 — Quality inductor attributes.
When most people think of an in-
duction heating coil (inductor), they
envision a simple helical winding made
from copper tubing that surrounds the
part to be heated. Although this would
be one form of an inductor, there are
others to consider. Heating inductors
can be made from hollow copper tub-
ing, solid rod, flexible cable, and ma-
chined billet, as well as 3D printed
from powdered copper alloys. The
choice of inductor geometry is mostly
determined by the process require-
ments. Copper is the chosen material
for fabricating inductors due to its high
electrical conductivity (low power loss-
es), high thermal conductivity (easily
cooled with water), and relatively low
cost. Most inductors are water cooled
due to reflected heat from the part and
the amount of current flowing within
the inductor (1000 A is typical).
The heating inductor is the most
important component of an induction
heating system. Inductors can be in
many different configurations, such as
solenoid, hair pin, pancake, trans-
verse, inside diameter, channel,
clamshell, and machined/3D-printed
profile. Only the solenoid inductor
surrounds the part — Fig. 4.
It is a common misconception that
the inductor must surround the part.
However, an inductor can heat from
the outside, the inside, one side, two
sides, or three sides. Inductors are
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
Fig. 6 — Predicted heat profile from the FEA model.
generally profiled to the shape of the
part and/or the area of the part to be
heated. The style of the inductor influ-
ences efficiency. For example, an inter-
nal heating inductor requires approxi-
mately two times as much power as a
solenoid inductor. The joint clearance
between the heated part and the in-
ductor also influences efficiency. This
is called the coupling joint clearance.
As the coupling joint clearance increas-
es, efficiency decreases.
It’s important an induction heating
inductor expert be consulted early
during the process development phase
of an induction brazing process for the
greatest chance of process success. A
poorly designed inductor will use ex-
cessive power, have poor repeatability,
require postworking of the parts, or
may not work at all. The induction
heating process is only as good as the
inductor being used for the process.
Key design attributes of a quality
inductor (Fig. 5) are as follows:
• Allows for easy insertion and re-
moval of heated parts; Fig. 7 — Controlled atmosphere brazed
• Is compatible with the tooling part vs. mineral flux brazed part.
holding the heated parts;
• Has adequate copper size to ac- • Properly insulated to protect from
commodate the kW rating of the in- contamination and accidental contact
duction heater; with the parts being heated;
• Provides uniform heating of the • Low inductance leads for efficient
braze joint area; power transfer; and
• Retains its shape and position • Properly documented for
during use; duplication.
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 47
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
Fig. 8 — Basic joint configurations.
Process Controls and FEA
Modern day controls can be integrat-
ed throughout the induction brazing
process for accuracy and consistency.
Modern induction heating systems em-
ploy numerous microprocessors and can
provide data about the performance
characteristics of a process. Filler metal
volume measurements (e.g., minimum/
maximum temperatures, cooling rates,
quench flows, energy delivery, etc.) are
just a small sample of the data that can
be collected. Further, this data is easily
monitored from remote locations over
corporate networks and the internet.
Individual process data for completed
parts can be stored for later review. In-
dividual part processing and verification
along with extreme repeatability are
just a few of the hallmarks for induction
heating for brazing applications.
Using finite elemental analysis
(FEA) software and proprietary simu-
lation software packages, induction
original equipment manufacturers can
accurately predict heat patterns, tem-
perature rises, temperature distribu-
tion, stress, strain, and even metallur-
gical changes in parts before a single
part is physically heated — Fig. 6.
It is easy to see that induction heat-
ing offers benefits over other heating
methods, including precision, speed,
control, and energy efficiency. Howev-
er, induction heating is just one por-
tion of a brazing process. Despite the
heat control afforded by electromag-
netic induction, the brazing process
will only be as accurate and repeatable
48 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
Fig. 9 — Optimal fill joint clearance of heated parts.
as the ability to control the other vari-
ables of the brazing process, such as
part tolerance, part location, part
cleanliness, consistent flux applica-
tion, and filler metal.
Flux and Fluxless Brazing
Parts should be thoroughly cleaned
prior to heating to maximize alloying
of the base and filler metals. The
cleaned parts should be protected
from oxidation during the heating
process using a chemical flux or a con-
trolled atmosphere environment —
Fig. 7. Electromagnetic induction is
compatible with both traditional
chemical flux and controlled atmos-
phere brazing applications. Carbide
cutting tools often use traditional
mineral fluxes and silver-bearing filler
metals, while high-pressure automo-
tive fuel rails often use a copper filler
metal brazed within a vacuum or an
inert atmosphere. Under no circum-
stances should a flux or reducing at-
mosphere be relied upon to compen-
sate for poor part surface preparation
prior to brazing.
Braze and Joint Design
It would be easy to oversimplify
braze joint geometry. There are essen-
tially only two styles of braze joint
configurations: the butt joint and the
lap joint. All other joints are variations
of these two joint configurations —
Fig. 8. Joint design is influenced by in-
tended use, type of filler metal, flux,
and heating method. The main issue
to consider regardless of the joint con-
figuration is the joint and part geome-
try be consistent from part to part to
have a repeatable process. Induction
heating will deliver a consistent
amount of heat to the part cycle to cy-
cle, but variations in heat transfer and
joint strength can arise from varia-
tions in joint consistency.
The joint clearance between the two
parts will vary depending on the type
of filler metal, flux, and thermal ex-
pansion of the parts. Joint clearances
between components being joined can
range from a slight interference fit to
0.010 in. For most induction brazing
applications, the joint clearance will
range from 0.002 to 0.005 in., which is
the range for optimal joint strength —
Fig. 9. Smaller joint clearances and in-
terference fits are acceptable for flux-
less brazing applications, such as when
brazing in an inert atmosphere using a
copper filler metal.
Most induction heating processes
use a fixed geometry inductor. The
braze joint design should take in con-
sideration the geometry of the heating
inductor. The components should be
able to be assembled within the induc-
tor, and the finished brazement
should be able to be removed from the
inductor after brazing.
Part Fixture Design
Considerations
Significant investment has been
made in specifying the base metals,
 BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY

success of the process. Fixturing in re-

lation to the use of induction heating
for brazing processes should be non-
magnetic to minimize stray heating of
the fixture — Fig. 10.
Acceptable nonmagnetic materials
would be 300 series stainless steel as
well as aluminum. Stainless steel is
heat, chemical, and wear resistant. It
also has a relatively low thermal con-
ductivity, and provides good tough-
ness and wear resistance. Be sure to
consider thermal expansion of the
heated parts, during the brazing
process, when designing a holding
fixture. WJ

W. ADAM MORRISON (amorrison@

ajaxtocco.com) is the low-power products
manager at Ajax TOCCO Magnethermic
Corp., Warren, Ohio.

Fig. 10 — Automatic Ag-shaft brazing system with rotating stainless-steel tooling. This article is based on a presentation at
the 7th International Brazing and Soldering
Conference (IBSC) held April 15–18, 2018, in
filler metal, flux, joint geometry, and hold the parts during the brazing New Orleans, La.
heating method. Proper fixturing to process is also critical to the overall

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 49

BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY

Filler Metal Control in Sinter Brazing

BY KYLE H. BEAR, GLENN RISHEL,
This method is applied to control the flow BRIAN SMITH, AND
and retention of the filler metal at the STEPHEN L. FELDBAUER

sinter braze joint

S
inter brazing has become a sig-
nificant tool in the manufactur-
ing of many complex powder
metal components. Although the com-
paction technology has advanced sub-
stantially over the years, the ability to
bond two components while sintering
has enabled the industry to broaden
its capabilities and remain competitive
in many markets.
The primary issue with the brazing
of two powder metal components, in ei-
ther the green or sintered states, is the
competition between the capillary ef-
fect that draws the filler metal into the
Fig. 1 — Effect of surface contamination on wetting.
joint clearance and the capillary effect
produced by the porosity of the com-
pact, which results in the filler metal contact angle, and r is the radius of the that is stronger than the base metal.
being pulled away from the joint clear- capillary. The joint clearance, through which
ance and into the part. If this filler met- There are a few key steps that must the filler metal is pulled via the capil-
al is pulled into the part, the bond may be followed to produce a good braze lary force and is a strong function of
be compromised or not formed at all. joint, as detailed below. the r, must be 0.05 mm (0.002 in.) to
This article reviews the fundamen- 0.20 mm (0.008 in.) wide at the braz-
tals of brazing and applies them in a Surface Preparation ing temperature. This means that the
way that better controls the flow and
retention of the filler metal at the sin- When the filler metal melts, the Braze Filler Metal
ter braze joint. This is achieved by re- wetting of the filler metal is strongly
viewing key variables and their effect affected by the cleanliness of the sur-
on the wetting of the filler metal. The face — Fig. 1.
sintering atmosphere, flux content of Figure 1 shows the effect of a car-
the filler metal, and the density of the bon ring on the filler metal flow (AB-
components are all important to filler 72) on a carbon steel plate. If the sur-
metal control. face is not free of dirt, oxides, and oils,
the filler metal will not wet the base
Fundamentals of Brazing metal and will not be pulled into the
braze joint.
The fundamental driving forces for
the formation of a good braze joint are Braze Joint Design
the wetting of the base metal by the
filler metal and the capillary force that Proper braze joint design is critical
results and pulls the filler metal to achieving the desired strength in the
through the braze root opening, component. The total length of the
braze joint should be three times the Braze Joint Clearance
Capillary Force = 2γcosΘ/r thickness of the thinnest cross section
being joined — Fig. 2. This will ensure Fig. 2 — Proper braze joint design.
where γ is the surface tension, Θ is the that a good braze will result in a joint

50 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019


Fig. 3 — Effect of green density on the flow of filler metal into the compact.
Fig. 4 — Effect of flux and CO on filler metal infiltration into the compact.
thermal expansion of the components
must be considered when designing
the joint.
Furnace Atmosphere
All metals contain oxides on their
surface. If these are not removed, the
filler metal cannot alloy with the base
metal. Hence, the oxides must be re-
moved from the surfaces of the base
metal and filler metal prior to the filler
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
metal melting. This can be accom-
plished by using a flux (typically an
acid or other material that will re-
move/react with the oxide layer to
produce a clean metal surface) or a
reducing furnace atmosphere. Unlike a
flux, the reducing furnace atmosphere
will not leave a residue that must be
removed post brazing. Some typical
dew points of reducing atmospheres
are –51°C (–60°F) for stainless steels
and –35°C (–30°F) for carbon steels.
Time and Temperature
The time for a filler metal to flow
into a clean, properly designed braze
joint, and form a good braze, is 3 to 5
min at the brazing temperature that is
above the liquidous temperature of the
filler metal.
Sinter Brazing
Sinter brazing is a manufacturing
technique used to produce complex
shapes from powder metal that cannot
be produced directly from the com-
paction press. Multiple shapes are pro-
duced using current pressing technolo-
gy. These shapes are then assembled
in the green state, or some may be
presintered, and a filler metal is placed
in or near the adjoining surfaces of the
shapes to allow for brazing to occur si-
multaneously with the powder metal
sintering process.
Common to sintering and brazing,
the metal particles and surfaces must
be free of dirt and oils. The hydrogen
in the furnace atmosphere then re-
duces the oxides on the surface of
the metals to produce clean particles
and surfaces for sintering and brazing.
As the components continue to travel
through the sintering furnace and
heat up to the sintering temperature,
the filler metal melts and begins to
wet the surface of the component
surfaces; however, this is where the
most common issue related to sinter
brazing arises. Not only is the filler
metal able to wet the surfaces that are
to be brazed, but the pores within the
compacted components also compete
for the filler metal. The surface ten-
sion between the filler metal and the
base metal, along with the capillary ef-
fect produced by the small pores of the
compact, pull the filler metal away
from the braze joint and compromise
the bond. This compromise may be a
reduced amount of joint filling to no
bonding at all.
If the wetting characteristics of the
filler metal can be controlled, the reten-
tion of the filler metal at the brazing
joint can be maintained and an im-
provement in the bonding and overall
strength of the assembly may be maxi-
mized. For many years, manufacturers
have added sulfur to the compact mix
and manganese to the filler metal to re-
tard the wicking of the filler metal into
the pores of the compact. Unfortunate-
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 51
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY

ly, sulfur is not always a desired addi-

tive. For this reason, current tech-
niques use the addition of carbon
monoxide containing atmospheres as a
sintering atmosphere or as an addition
to the sintering atmosphere. The im-
pact of, and mechanisms associated
with the carbon monoxide addition,
were not clear; however, many believe
in this approach. In this article, along
with the influence of flux and density,
the impact of, and the mechanism asso-
ciated with the addition of the carbon
monoxide as it relates to controlling the
wetting of the filler metal and its reten-
tion at the braze joint, is investigated.

Experimental Procedure
Discs of F-0000 were compacted to
densities of 6.0, 6.2, 6.8, and 7.0 g/cc. Fig. 5 — Edge-to-center hardness and carburization variation due to the presence of
The discs had a dimension of approxi- carbon monoxide.
mately 7.62 cm (3 in.) in diameter by
2.54 cm (1 in.) thick.
Two filler metal chemistries were
pressed into 1.5-g pellets. One of the
chemistries was a standard AB-72 ma-
terial. The other filler metal chemistry
did not contain a fluxing agent.
The pellets were then placed on top
of the discs and sintered in two differ-
ent furnace atmospheres. One atmos-
phere contained hydrogen, nitrogen,
and carbon monoxide, and the other
contained only hydrogen and nitrogen.
The discs were then sectioned, pol-
ished, and etched with 2% Nital
etchant to reveal the infiltration of the
filler metal into the compact. ImageJ
software was used to measure the in-
filtration area.
Fig. 6 — Influence of density, flux, and carbon monoxide on the infiltration of the
filler metal into the compact.
Results
As can be seen in Fig. 3, increasing from the braze joint — Fig. 4. being pulled from the braze joint —
compact green density results in a de- As the powder metal compact exits Fig. 4. Figure 5 shows that although
crease in the amount of filler metal the preheat section of the furnace and this material is a F-0000 and contains
that flows into the powder metal com- enters the high-heat section of the fur- no carbon, the surface of the particles
pact. This is to be expected since there nace, the compact temperature is in along the very edge of the compact
is a 16.7% difference in the relative the range of 900°C (1650°F) and were carburized.
pore fraction when comparing a 7.2 1035°C (1900°F); carbon monoxide re- The particle hardness on the sur-
and a 6.0 g/cc compact. sults in the carburization of iron and face is higher and the microstructure
Flux is often added to the filler steel at these temperature. Since the shows the presence of carbon on
metal to help clean the surface of the amount of time that the product is in the surface of the particles.
base metal and enhance wetting; how- this condition is small, the carburiza- In comparing the overall impact of
ever, in this application, the flux not tion will be a small layer on the surface the variables (Fig. 6), an interesting
only cleans the braze joint surface but of the exposed particles on the surface phenomenon was observed. In the high-
also the particle surfaces inside of the of the material and inside of the pores. density region of the graph (purple), the
pores of the compact. The result is an This surface contamination reduces effects of the flux, carbon monoxide,
enhance wetting of the pore surfaces the wetting of the pores by the filler and density were consistent with what
and more filler metal being pulled metal and results in less filler metal was expected. In the lower-density sec-

52 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019

 BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY

References

1. Heat Treater’s Guide: Practices and

Procedures for Irons and Steels, 2nd Edi-
tion. 1995. ASM International: Materi-
als Park, Ohio, pg. 47.
2. Bear, K. H., et al. 2017. Applying
brazing fundamentals to the sinter
brazing process. Welding Journal 96(5):
44-s to 47-s.
3. Brazing Handbook, 5th Edition.
2007. American Welding Society:
Miami, Fla.
4. Bear, K. H., and Feldbauer, S.
2016. Fundamentals of brazing ap-
plied to sinter brazing. Presentation,
Special Interest Session, PowderMet,
Boston, Mass.
Fig. 7 — Surface tension vs. gravitational force as a function of pore size.
KYLE H. BEAR and GLENN RISHEL are with
tion of the graph (green), the control of pressing the compacts to a density Pennsylvania State University, DuBois, Pa.
the filler metal wetting was not influ- greater than 6.9 g/cc, removing the flux BRIAN SMITH and STEPHEN L. FELDBAUER
(sfeldbauer@abbottfurnace.com) are with
enced by the wettability of the filler from the filler metal, and adding car- Abbott Furnace Co., St. Marys, Pa.
metal on the base metal. bon monoxide to the sintering furnace
To better understand what is atmosphere, the capillary action of the This article is based on a presentation at
shown here, one must consider the re- pore can be reduced and the flow of the the 7th International Brazing and Soldering
Conference (IBSC) held April 15–18, 2018, in
lationship between the force due to filler metal at the joint can be con- New Orleans, La.
surface tension, which would want to trolled to produce a better bond. WJ
pull the filler metal into the pores of
the compact, and the force due to
gravity, resisting the movement of the
filler metal flow. Figure 7 illustrates
that as the pore size becomes larger,
lower density of compact, there reach-
es a point where the force due to gravi-
ty will cause the filler metal to fall and
not completely fill the pore. The result
is the influence of the altered surface
tension is reduced and limits the abili-
ty of the producer to influence the
wetting and flow of the filler metal
with flux or carbon monoxide. For this
reason, many producers find they have
more consistent results and better
quality of sinter brazed products that
are 6.9 g/cc and above.

Conclusion
The control of the filler metal at the
braze joint of a sinter brazed product
has significant impact on the quality
and yield of complex shapes that can-
not be produced by current convention-
al compaction technology. Maintaining
the presence of the filler metal at the
sinter braze joint is necessary, or the
components will not be bonded. How-
ever, the porosity of the powder metal
compact results in capillary forces that
tend to wick the filler metal away. By

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 53

BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY

Brazing with Photochemical-Etched

Amorphous Filler Metal Preforms
BY WILLIAM COUGHLAN
Examination of the edge condition and its AND ERIC THEISEN
impact on wetting stainless steels, as well as
benefits and considerations, are explored

B
razing filler metal preforms have
been used in various industries
for many years. Preforms using
powders include tapes and presintered
powders. Rolled and amorphous braze
filler metal sheets can be stamped into
preforms or laser cut to size. While
each of these offers a different set of
advantages, the growth of more cus-
tomization has led filler metal suppli-
ers to look for alternative ways to add
value for their customers. Photochem-
ical etching or photochemical machin-
ing was developed in the 1960s as a
rapid manufacturing process to quick-
ly design and manufacture complex
shapes out of thin sheets (less than
0.06 in.) (Ref. 1). Amorphous brazing
foil thicknesses range from 0.00078
to 0.003 in., which make them ideal
candidates for utilizing the photo-
chemical etching process to manufac-
ture preforms.
can be very cost effective, tooling
can be expensive (typically $5000–
$20,000) and requires regular redress-
ing due to the high hardness of the foils
(Ref. 2). Laser cutting does not require
tooling; however, there will be some re-
cast areas that can impact stackup tol-
erance and melting characteristics.
Photochemical etching utilizes a
photo tool that operates like a stencil
by masking the area to remain after
the etching process. Ultraviolet (UV)
light is used to develop the image,
which hardens the area exposed to the
UV light. The softer photoresist left
behind is washed away, leaving only
the exposed metal to be chemically re-
moved. The sheet is then sprayed with
a heated acid etchant from both sides
to dissolve the unwanted metal. Final-
ly, the photoresist is stripped away and
rinsed multiple times to ensure there is
no remaining etchant (Ref. 3). Figure 1
shows a schematic depicting the
process when etching from one or both
sides of the filler metal. Note that the
edge condition is typically not perfectly
straight due to the nature of the acid
dissolving through the preform.
Figure 2 is an example of the intri-
cate shapes that can be developed for
amorphous brazing filler metal pre-
forms using the etching process. The
small holes at the edge of the samples

Discussion
One of the major advantages of us-
ing amorphous brazing filler metals in a
joining process is the ability to preplace
the filler metals in only the areas that
are required. This gives the designer
the versatility of utilizing complex
shapes, which are specifically used in
heat exchanger applications and allows Fig. 1 — Schematic of the etching process from one or both sides of the filler metal.
optimal flow path designed to maxi-
mize heat transfer. Another benefit is
the ability to automate product assem-
bly while minimizing waste as the total
known volume can be tightly controlled
with the geometry of the preform.
Nickel-based amorphous brazing
filler metal preforms are typically
stamped or laser cut to size. While
stamping offers a robust process that Fig. 2 — Example of a detailed filler metal after the etching process.

54 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019

 BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY

washed away, and there is no phase

change in the preform. WJ
Acknowledgments

Fig. 4 — Example of a simple-shaped

preform that can be manufactured
using photochemical etching.
stamping or laser cutting. In large-
volume production of simple pre-
forms, stamping is likely to be more
cost effective. Shapes such as circular
washers are commonly produced using
stamping of the filler metal.
Conclusions
Photochemical-etched amorphous
brazing filler metal preforms give
manufacturers the option of a process
with inexpensive tooling, rapid pro-
duction timing, and ease of automa-
tion. The edge condition of these pre-
forms is consistent, with no impact on
stackup tolerance, as there are no
burrs or recast layers. This also has no
impact on wetting vs. the virgin filler
metal because all of the etchant is
A special thanks to Conard Corp.,
Glastonbury, Conn., for its assistance in
photochemical etching technology.
References
1. Allen, D. M. 2004. CIRP Annals
53(2): 559–572.
2. Rabinkin, A. 2004. Brazing with
(NiCoCr)-B-Si amorphous brazing
filler metals: Alloys, processing, joint
structure, properties, applications. Sci-
ence and Technology of Welding and
Joining 9(3): 181–199.
3. Conard Corp. The Comprehen-
sive Guide to Photo Chemical
Machining.
WILLIAM COUGHLAN (william.coughlan@
metglas.com) and ERIC THEISEN are with
Metglas Inc., Conway, S.C.
This article is based on a presentation at
the 7th International Brazing and Soldering
Conference (IBSC) held April 15–18, 2018, in
New Orleans, La.

Fig. 3 — Example of complex shapes

that can be manufactured using pho-
tochemical etching under increasing
levels of magnification.

are perforations that are left on the

sheet. An automatic process can then
remove each preform and place them
where required in the assembly.
Scanning electron microscope im-
ages of the etched preform are shown
in Fig. 3. The higher levels of magnifi-
cation show that the edge cut is slight-
ly beveled. However, the edge condi-
tion of the filler metal preform on this
small length scale is rarely significant
in the brazing process. General toler-
ances are ± 15% of the base material
thickness and a ± 0.001-in. location
tolerance.
Most brazing processes do not re-
quire the level of complexity shown in
Figs. 2 and 3. Larger shapes are need-
ed more often, such as the image of
the preform with a triangular section
removed in Fig. 4. This type of braze
preform is also ideal for chemical etch-
ing, as it provides an alternative to

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 55

BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
Resistance Microwelding Best
Practices in Braze Setup
Ball tack, poke tack, and honeycomb tack
welding processes are discussed
R
esistance microwelding is a pow-
erful and useful tool in brazing
(and also in some welding) setup
operations. Due to its high energy and
low heat input, there is no heat-affect-
ed zone (HAZ) or oxidation created.
Because of this, there are many advan-
tages over gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW). In addition, the process is
easy to implement, which can free up
valuable resources and skilled welders
from performing simple tack welding
operations. Resistance microwelding
can also replace mechanical fastening
and positioning methods such as stak-
ing and strapping. The resistance mi-
crowelding process is much faster than
Fig. 1 — Selected properties of common metals.
56 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
these methods and ensures minimal
movement of the parts in the fixture.
This article will discuss best prac-
tices on the following resistance mi-
crowelding processes: ball tack, poke
tack, and honeycomb tack welding.
Applications
Just about any brazed part is a can-
didate for resistance tack welding.
Parts induction or furnace brazed are
even better candidates because of the
handling, which takes place prior to
the braze operation. Components that
are commonly tacked prior to brazing
include tube assemblies, manifolds,
BY JAY KAPUR
fuel nozzles, injectors, sensors, tur-
bine vanes, honeycomb seals, brackets,
and fuel control systems. These com-
ponents are used across a wide range
of industries, including aerospace, au-
tomotive, power generation, medical,
and thermal management. Resistance
tack welding can improve productivity,
reduce scrap, and increase the repeata-
bility of the braze process.
The fundamentals of the resistance
welding process are dictated by Joule’s
first law:
P = I²R(t)
where P = power (energy per unit

Fig. 2 — Types of current waveforms created by common welding power supplies.
time), I = current (welding current),
R = resistance (ohms), and t = time
(ms).
Figure 1 shows the selected proper-
ties of some common metals.
Metals with low resistivity, such as
copper and aluminum, are not ideal
candidates for the resistance welding
process due to the low differential be-
tween the resistivity of the materials
being joined and the grounding fixture
(typically copper). However, most fer-
rous and nickel-based alloys are excel-
lent candidates, as well as titanium.
There are also different types of re-
sistance welding power sources, which
can be an important factor in the type
Fig. 3 — A sample of a weld cycle developed with inverter technology.
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
and quality of the weld. Figure 2
shows the type of waveform created by
common welding power supplies.
The most common type of resist-
ance welding power supply is capacitor
discharge, where internal capacitors
are charged and store energy until dis-
charged. This type of power supply is
most commonly used on single-point,
repetitive welds. There is little control
over the waveform other than peak
welding current and discharge time.
Newer technology power supplies
use medium-frequency direct current
(MFDC), which is commonly referred
to as inverter technology. With MFDC
(inverter) current, there is full control
over the waveform, including the
upslope, peak welding current,
downslope, and time. Additional steps
can also be created within the limits of
the weld cycle. This can be extremely
useful for complex geometries, such as
honeycomb, or when integrating with
automation and external controls.
Figure 3 shows an example of a weld
cycle created using inverter technology.
Ball Tack Welding
Ball tack welding is a relatively new
concept that is gaining widespread
acceptance across all industries. In the
ball tack welding process, a small di-
ameter ball is used to tack weld two
details together. The surface of the
ball creates a very small weld nugget at
the mating surface of each compo-
nent. The ball acts as a filler metal, ef-
fectively replacing the function of
welding wire. Since the balls are fabri-
cated directly from wire, just about
any material that is available in wire
form can be made into tacking balls. In
addition, the balls can be certified to
the same industry specifications as the
wire that they were made from.
With the ball tack welding process,
typical equipment used includes a ca-
pacitor discharge or inverter power
supply, a special vacuum welding pen,
a vacuum pump, and a grounding plate
or fixture. The vacuum pen is connect-
ed to the vacuum pump, which enables
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 57
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
Fig. 4 — Ball tack welding a tube to a detail.
Fig. 6 — Shown are ball tacked turbine vanes.
a ball to be picked up with a hollow
electrode. The ball is then positioned
against the mating surfaces of the de-
tails, and the weld current fuses the
ball to the parts — Fig. 4. The process
typically takes less than 10 ms.
Best practices include selecting a ball
material compatible with the base mate-
rials; choosing the minimum size balls
that will hold the parts together (typi-
cally between 0.032 and 0.080 in. diam-
eter); ensuring that the ground plate or
fixture is located close to the point of
welding; using copper as a ground mate-
rial; and ensuring good contact between
the ball and mating surfaces.
As shown in the scanning electron
micrograph (SEM) in Fig. 5, a good ball
tack weld will have no visible HAZ and
will show good grain structure of braze
filler metals (BFM) around the welded
58 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
ball and faying surfaces. Figures 6 and
7 show additional examples of com-
mon aerospace components that are
ball tacked.
Poke Tack Welding
Poke tack welding is a single-point
tacking method that is used to directly
tack two parts together. No ball or
joining material is used, and the parts
simply bond together with the weld
nugget that is created by the process.
In braze setup operations, poke
tacking is often used to tack brazing
foil or presintered braze preforms into
position, or to tack multilayered com-
ponents together. As with ball tacking,
poke tacking requires a good copper
ground fixture or electrode, which is
located close to the point of welding.
Fig. 5 — A SEM micrograph of a ball
tacked braze joint.
Fig. 7 — A nozzle assembly ball tacked
and brazed.
In cases where it is not practical to use
a grounding fixture, or when the parts
are only accessible from one side, a
“shunting” tool can be used to join the
parts. In this case, the current “jumps”
(or shunts) between two parallel elec-
trodes, creating a weld nugget on the
parts beneath them. Electrode design
and part manipulation are the most
common factors in ensuring quality
welds. Capacitor discharge or inverter
power supplies can be used for this
process.
Poke tacking best practices include
selecting an electrode configuration
that is compatible with the part geom-
etry; identifying the electrical resistiv-
ity of the parts being tacked; selecting
the minimum amount of weld current
needed to secure the parts; ensuring
good contact between mating surfaces;
and having the return current or
ground fixture located close to the
point of welding.
Honeycomb Tack Welding
Honeycomb tack welding is com-
monly used in aerospace and industri-
al gas turbine components to tack
weld honeycomb onto rings or seg-
ments. The honeycomb acts as a sacri-

Fig. 8 — Preparation of a honeycomb
prior to tack welding and brazing.
(Photos courtesy of Dan Kay.)
ficial sealing surface, which is brazed
to the mating component. Due to its
complex variations and geometries,
special care is required to tack weld
and successfully braze honeycomb.
Honeycomb brazing involves honey-
comb, which is preloaded with brazing
tape. When manually loading tape into
the honeycomb, special care must be
given to expose the metallic cells prior
to tack welding. A metallic straight
edge can be used to scrape excess
braze tape from the surface of the
honeycomb cells. Oxide abrasive me-
dia should not be used, as these can
create a stop-off effect, preventing the
flow of BFM. Figure 8 shows proper
preparation of a honeycomb prior to
tack welding.
Equipment used for honeycomb
tack welding should always include an
inverter power supply, specially de-
signed welding electrodes, a welding
head with force control, and an appro-
priate ground fixture — Figs. 9, 10.
The MFDC inverter power supply is
critical to ensure control over the
waveform and its many parameters,
JAY KAPUR (jkapur@aimtek.com) is vice president, operations, Aimtek Inc., Auburn, Mass.
This article is based on a presentation at the 7th International Brazing and Soldering Conference (IBSC) held April 15–18, 2018, in New Orleans, La.
Photos courtesy of Soudax Équipements (soudax.com), except where noted.
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
Fig. 9 — Honeycomb welding electrodes.
Fig. 10 — Honeycomb tack welding
ground fixture.
such as docking, squeezing, upslope,
flat welding, downslope, and forging.
The time for each parameter can also
be varied, depending on the surface
area and size of the honeycomb. In ad-
dition, precise control of weld head
pressure is needed to prevent the
crushing and burning of the honey-
comb throughout the welding process.
Best practices include designing an
electrode that spans the entire width of
the honeycomb; overlapping the welds
as the honeycomb is indexed across the
weld fixture; controlling the force of the
electrode against the honeycomb; de-
signing the electrode and ground fixture
around the contour of the parts; and se-
lecting a weld current and schedule that
takes into account the surface areas of
the electrode and honeycomb. Copper
braid or conductive silicone can be used
as a barrier between the solid copper
welding electrode and the replaceable
copper strip that makes contact with
the part. Figure 11 shows a cross sec-
Fig. 11 — Cross section of a brazed
honeycomb segment.
tion of a successfully welded and brazed
honeycomb segment.
Summary and Future
Advances
As described in this article, there
are many design factors and considera-
tions to ensure high-quality, repeatable
resistance tack welds. The primary ad-
vantages of the process are to elimi-
nate the formation of oxides at the
braze joint and to produce fast, repeat-
able welds. Advances in equipment
technology have enabled all of the
aforementioned processes to be auto-
mated. Integration with semiautomatic
controls and robotics is becoming more
commonplace, especially with the pro-
ductivity demands of today’s manufac-
turing climate. Working with a good
service provider and specialist can help
you reduce costs and rework in your
brazing operation. WJ
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 59
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
Brazing of Niobium by
Clad Foil Ti-35Ni-15Nb
Refractory metals are widely ap-
plied in different industries, including
alternative power sources, aerospace,
and electronics. This is due to their
typically high creep and corrosion re-
sistances. However, the most optimal
filler metals have still not been found
for reliable brazing.
Niobium bars were brazed by clad
foil Ti-35Ni-15Nb (wt-%) in vacuum
5 × 10–3 Pa, and the resulting brazed
joints were tested and evaluated at Na-
tional Taiwan University, Taipei, Tai-
wan (Ref. 1).
The filler metal has a melting range
of 934°–1020°C. Brazing was per-
formed for 180 s at 1000°–1150°C
with increments of 50°C, that is, in-
side of the recrystallization tempera-
ture range of niobium 985°–1150°C.
All specimens with the joint area
15 × 3.5 mm brazed above 1050°C
broke in the niobium body. The shear
strength of the joint brazed at 1000°C
reached 134–188 MPa. The joint con-
sisted of Ti2Ni, TiNi intermetallic
phases, and globular (β-Ti, Nb) parti-
cles, because the Nb-Ti phase diagram
is a contiguous sequence of solid solu-
tions. The local existence of brittle
Ti2Ni phase lowers the strength of
brazed joints. However, the amount of
this phase decreased with the increas-
ing of the brazing temperature, prima-
rily due to the active dissolution of ti-
tanium in globular (β-Ti, Nb) grains.
Hot Corrosion of Nickel
Superalloy IN738 after
Brazing
The effect of brazing on hot corro-
sion of cast Inconel® 738 was studied
by scientists from the University of
Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada (Ref. 2).
The gas-atomized powder Amdry
775 (BNi-9) was used as a filler metal. It
contained 30% of one of three additive
powders, including IN738, Haynes®
282®, and Nicrogap™ 108. Hot corrosion
was tested by immersing the resulting
brazed joints in a 25% NaCl + 75%
Na2SO4 salt mixture at 900°C, for
10–110 h in 20-h increments.
Brazed joints made by pure 100%
BNi-9 filler metal exhibited weight
loss up to 90 mg/cm2. Application of a
60 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
composite powder mixture, consisting
of superalloy additive powders, en-
hanced the hot corrosion resistance of
brazed articles; the weight loss went
down to 65 mg/cm2.
This effect is available, however, only
if the additive powders are not com-
pletely melted. Elemental micro-segre-
gation during solidification of the joint
metal containing completely melted
powder mixture results in increased for-
mation of chromium-depleted zones
that reduce the hot corrosion resistance
of the whole brazed article. This means
that it is critical to braze IN738 at the
temperature below the complete melt-
ing of the additive powders.
Alternative Design
Prevents Failure of Brazed
Fuel-Injection Lines
Fractured fuel lines manufactured
from thin-wall stainless steel tubes
can cause an in-flight fire. Engineering
analysis of the fatigue failure of these
tubes near the brazed joint was made
and reported by McSwain Engineer-
ing, Pensacola, Fla. It is also proposed
to use an alternative design to resolve
the problem (Ref. 3).
The fracture mechanism was likely
to be fatigue due to vibrations. Other
factors contributed to the failure, such
as an inappropriate braze repair and
incorrect bend radius and location di-
mensions. The electron microscopy of
the fracture surface showed that some
austenite grain boundaries are deco-
rated with carbides near the braze.
While 10 mm away from the braze, the
austenite grain boundaries are basical-
ly clean. Overall, the contributing fac-
tors may have acted synergistically. It
is likely that fatigue crack initiation
and growth was caused by preexisting
cracks in the intermetallic, and these
were formed by the braze repair, cou-
pled with residual assembly stress due
to bending.
Considering that the problem of
cracking fuel lines has caused multiple
fatalities over the past 45 years, it
would be reasonable to use alternative
designs. Also, alternative materials se-
lections could be considered, since 300
Series (austenitic) stainless steels are
more susceptible to stress corrosion
cracking and fatigue crack initiation
than some other alloys.
TECHNOLOGY NEWS
The Galvanic Behavior of
Silver Brazed Ti6Al4V-
Ceramic Joints
Advanced transparent ceramic ma-
terials are used for optical windows,
sensors, or gas-tight components for
marine applications. These compo-
nents are often integrated into exist-
ing metallic structures by brazing.
The corrosion resistance of Ti6Al4V-
YAG ceramic brazed joints made by sil-
ver at 1050°C or silver-copper eutectic
alloy at 850°C was studied at CNR-IC-
MATE, DITEN, and DICCA, Genoa, and
CNR-ISTEC, Faenza, Italy (Ref. 4).
Two test sessions lasting four
weeks each were performed in natural
seawater. During the first, the AgCu
brazed joint showed Cu selective de-
pletion from both the interlayer and
the diffusion zone. Meanwhile, the Ag
brazed one appeared intact.
Active-passive alloys are well
known to undergo an important open
circuit potential positive shift induced
by the biofilm growth, commonly re-
ferred to as ennoblement. Hence, dur-
ing the second test session, the possi-
bility of galvanic effects between
Ti6Al4V and Ag was investigated in
parallel to the 254 SMO/Ag system,
acting as control for ennoblement. The
obtained results indicated that Ag
could be successfully used as a brazing
material in Ti6Al4V joints.
The Ti6Al4V alloy did not ennoble
exhibiting a cathodic strength limited
to its self passivation, up to open cir-
cuit potentials slightly nobler than Ag.
The conclusions are that although
the interlayer integrity can actually
be threatened by brazing with an
ennobling active-passive alloy, the
Ti6Al4V alloy is a suitable base materi-
al in Ag brazed joints in case there is a
risk of ennoblement.
Wetting and Brazing
of SiC Ceramic by
Al-Ti Alloys
Silicon carbide is often used as a
matrix or reinforcing phase in ceramic
matrix composites, especially in high-
temperature applications. Examples of
its usage include the aerospace and au-
tomotive industries, nuclear plants,
gas turbines, and heat exchangers.

Authors from the National Re-
search Council (CNR)-ICMATE and Po-
litecnico di Torino-DISAT, Italy, inves-
tigated two approaches to joining SiC
to SiC: 1) infiltration of the opening
between adjoining materials by Al3Ti,
and 2) placing a 50-μm Ti foil between
the SiC surfaces coated with an Al3Ti
paste (Ref. 5).
Wetting of SiC by Al-3 at.-% Ti, Al-
25 at.-% Ti, and Al-46 at.-% Ti was
studied at 1500°C. All the studied sys-
tems exhibited good wetting; the con-
tact angles ranged from 10 to 14 deg,
and the kinetics lasted < 100 s. In con-
tact with SiC, the liquid Al3Ti formed a
well-bonded Ti3Si(Al)C2 interfacial lay-
er. The Al-C-Si-Ti phase diagram
demonstrated that the liquid Al-25
at.-% alloy (Al3Ti) formed some inter-
facial Ti3Si(Al)C2.
Interest in this particular phase is
largely explained by its unique combi-
nation of metallic and ceramic proper-
ties, such as its high melting point and
oxidation, wear, and irradiation resist-
ance. Moreover, its lattice matching to
SiC at basal and nonbasal planes
makes its presence appealing in the
brazed joint; and also because of its
lattice matching to SiC at basal and
nonbasal planes.
In addition, Ti3SiC2 has a unique
high-temperature plastic deformation
behavior at temperatures above 1200°C,
which can help to release thermal
stresses. Single lap offset tests showed a
relatively high shear strength of 296 ±
20 MPa for the joints manufactured by
capillary infiltration.
In-Situ Investigation of
Microwelding and Brazing
Aluminum Cast
A large chamber scanning electron
microscope (LC-SEM) was developed
as a tool suitable for the study of large
technological parts, so they would not
have to be sectioned. This approach
also allowed visual inspection and con-
trol of any micromechanical manufac-
turing, assembling, or the observation
of processes. Examples of this include
formation and solidification of the
melt of a tin-copper brazing filler on
an aluminum cast alloy, and laser mi-
crowelding of stainless steel, both
done at RWTH Aachen University,
Germany.
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
It was possible by encapsulation in
a LC-SEM, for the first time, to ob-
serve in in-situ wetting experiments
all the stages of melting and wetting
of an aluminum alloy, that is, includ-
ing the removal of the alumina layer
directly in the electron microscope
(Ref. 6).
Subsequent analytical studies
would provide an accurate insight
regarding the composition of the
individual phases and their local
distribution.
The wetting experiments were as
follows: melt-spinned 78Sn22Cu
(wt-%) braze ribbons were placed on
an Al7Si0.3Mg (wt-%) aluminum cast
alloy. This was done at thixotropic
temperatures. At temperatures above
250°C, the shape of the soldering tape
began to shrink. This happens due to
sufficiently high surface tension. After
shrinking, the braze ribbon deformed
more and more into a partially liqui-
fied sphere, and this without wetting
the base metal. A probable reason for
the liquid filler metal not wetting the
aluminum in this context may be due
to the alumina layer on top.
At 380°C, the braze ribbon sudden-
ly began to flow on the substrate sur-
face. The braze material was almost
completely spread out at 390°C. There
it remained virtually unchanged dur-
ing the holding time of 30 min. The
SEM-energy-dispersive x-ray spec-
troscopy element maps revealed
that the tin spreads beyond the braze
point. It goes along the silicon-
enriched grain boundaries of the base
metal.
A New Method for
Bonding Alumina to TZM
A titanium-zirconium-molybdenum
(TZM) alloy in the form of polished
discs was joined, with alumina by an
unconventional and much shorter
process than brazing, at the University
of Limoges, Limoges Cedex, France
(Ref. 7).
The alloy was first preoxidized in a
furnace at 795°C in air for 30 min.
Then, it was hot pressed with alumina
at 1700°C in argon under pressure
(~ 22 MPa) for 3 h with heating and
cooling rates of 0.25°C/s. During the
first step of preoxidation, molybde-
num oxide attacked and sufficiently
roughened the alumina and TZM sur-
face such that the resulting irregulari-
ty, even without an interlayer, pro-
duced sufficient adherence after hot
pressing.
Because secondary phases, primari-
ly of the MoO2 type, penetrated into
both materials, holding them together
as if one was nailed to the other, the
resulting joints had relatively signifi-
cant adherence (> 45 MPa).
Typically, brazing is used for joining
these materials. In that case, ceramics
are coated with a layer, and possibly
with other layers, until a layer suitable
for joining with the metal part is top-
most. The issue is the cost of this
method, even if it produces relatively
high-strength joints. If joining as com-
monly done, the resulting assembly
cannot be used at high temperatures
because molybdenum trioxide has a
melting point at 795°C. That excludes
it from many important prospective
applications.
Something different was sought for
high-temperature applications where
good adherence is also necessary. The
TZM has a much higher 2620°C melt-
ing point, and the carbides of Zr and
Ti behave such that they increase the
recrystallization temperature of the
assembly. It also has thermal expan-
sion close enough to alumina. Molyb-
denum oxide attacked and sufficiently
roughened the alumina surface such
that the resulting irregularity, even
without an interlayer, produced suffi-
cient adherence. The fewer, simpler
steps involved make the process re-
duce typical industrial production
costs, but the hot-pressing use limits
the applications to flat pieces.
Thermal Fatigue on W-W
Brazed Joints for Divertor
Components
Plasma facing divertor components
of the DEMO fusion reactor are ex-
posed to thermal loads and neutron ir-
radiation. Therefore, brazed joints
should be tested accordingly to with-
stand the same conditions. The effect
of steady-state loads on the quality of
tungsten brazed joints by exposure to
different thermal loads was explored
by Rey Juan Carlos University,
Madrid, Spain, and Forschungscen-
trum Jülich, Germany.
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 61
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
Fe-14Ti powder mixture in the
form of transfer tape 250 μm thick
was used as the filler metal at brazing
temperature 1350°C. After brazing,
tungsten joints were brazed on top of
a copper cooling system by
Ag28Cu2Ge0.2Ni wt-% braze alloy at
850°C (Ref. 8). A high-heat flux test
was carried out by applying scanning
electron beam heating to the surface
of samples, while at the same time,
water was used as a coolant of the
cooling structure. Tested samples were
monitored with an infrared camera
during 100–1000 cycles.
The W-W joints exhibited 1000°C
surface temperature as a heat limit in
the DEMO reactor. The microstructure
of brazed joints was stable for all heat-
ing cycles, while the shear strength
dropped from 43 MPa after brazing to
26 MPa after 100 cycles and was not
deteriorated by further heat cycling.
Interfacial cracks appeared only during
heating to 1250°C, after 100 cycles.
62 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
This resulted in a significant drop of ting of SiC by Al-Ti alloys and joining by in-
strength down to 8 MPa. WJ situ formation of interfacial Ti3Si(Al)C2.
J. of the European Ceramic Society 38:
References 3727–3734.
6. Aretz, A., Ehle, L., Haeusler, A.,
Bobzin, K., Öte, M., Wiesner, S., Schmidt,
1. Lin, C.-Z., and Shiue, R.-K. 2018.
A., Gillner, A., Poprawe, R., and Mayer, J.
Vacuum brazing niobium using the clad
2018. In situ investigation of production
50Ti-35Ni-15Nb foil. Int. J. of Refractory
processes in a large chamber scanning elec-
Metals & Hard Materials 71: 206–210.
tron microscope. Ultramicroscopy 193:
2. Esmaeili, N., and Ojo, O. A. 2018.
Analysis of brazed effect on hot corrosion
151–158.
7. Berkouch, R., Valette, S., Absi, J., and
behavior of a nickel-based aerospace. Met-
Lefort, P. 2018. A new method for bonding
allurgical and Materials Transactions B 49B:
alumina to the alloy titanium-zirconium-
912–918.
molybdenum. J. of European Ceramic Society
3. Kral, M. V., Maher, C. M., and Mc-
38: 2462–2466.
Swain, R. H. 2018. Failure analysis of a
8. de Prado, J., Sanchez, M., Wirtz, M.,
brazed, stainless steel fuel injection line.
Pintsuk, G., Du, J., Linke, J., and Ureña, A.
Engineering Failure Analysis 88: 54–62.
2018. Impact of thermal fatigue on W-W
4. Benedetti, A., Gambaro, S., Valenza,
brazed joints for divertor components. J. of
F., Faimali, M., Colli, M., Hostasa, J., and
Materials Processing Technology 252:
Delucchi, M. 2018. Ag and AgCu as brazing
materials for Ti6Al4V-Y3Al5O12 joints: Does
211–216.
ennoblement affect the galvanic behavior
in seawater? Electrochemical Acta 283: Information provided by ALEXANDER E.
SHAPIRO (ashapiro@titanium-brazing.com)
155–166.
and LEO A. SHAPIRO, Titanium Brazing Inc.,
5. Valenza, F., Gambaro, S., Muolo, M. Columbus, Ohio.
L., Salvo, M., and Casalegno, V. 2018. Wet-


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COMING EVENTS
U.S., CANADA, MEXICO EVENTS
National Robotic Arc Welding Conference. June 3–5. Mil-
waukee Area Technical College, Oak Creek, Wis. This three-
day event is a platform to learn what it takes to implement
robotic arc welding in industries ranging from automotive to
shipbuilding. The conference will include tours of manufac-
turers utilizing innovative robotic arc welding as well as a
tour of Miller Electric; topics ranging from advanced robotic
plasma arc welding, 3D printing, collaborative robotic arc
welding, and more; and a vendor display of robots and pe-
ripheral arc welding equipment. Contact Sue Silverstein at
(414) 840-9935 or silverss@matc.edu.
AMPM2019 Additive Manufacturing with Powder Metal-
lurgy. June 23–26. Sheraton Grand, Phoenix, Ariz. This
event brings together industry professionals and decision
makers from around the world to network and learn from
each other about the latest developments and innovations
in metal powder technology. The conferences addresses
powder metallurgy parts and products, metal injection
molding, and metal additive manufacturing. Visit
ampm2019.org.
64 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
Advanced Fundamentals & Brazing by Design. Philadel-
phia, Pa. Two-and-a-half days of classes covering the essen-
tial theoretical aspects of brazing technology combined with
real-life applications and case studies. Visit
lucasmilhaupt.com.
Amada Miyachi Educational Resources/Training. Person-
alized training services on resistance and laser welding fun-
damentals, laser marking, custom programs, material selec-
tion and joint design, and more. Visit amadamiyachi.com, or
call (626) 303-5676.
ASME Section IX Seminar. Learn how to use ASME Section
IX quickly and cost-effectively. This three-day ASME-spon-
sored course is scheduled for the following dates and loca-
tions: Portland, Ore., April 8–10; and Houston, Tex., June
10–12. Contact Marion Hess, hessm@asme.org, (212) 591-
7161, or register at asme.org/products/courses/bpv
-code-section-ix-welding-brazing-fusing.
The Atlas of Welding Procedure Specifications. The
AWS Connecticut Section is hosting a three-day seminar/
workshop on developing welding procedure specifications,
procedure qualification records, and welder qualification
records. This event, scheduled for March 25–27 in Simsbury,
Conn., will provide instruction and the rationale for devel-
oping qualified and prequalified welding procedures that
meet AWS and ASME standards. In-class exercises cover the
process of writing prequalified WPSs and the mechanics of
qualifying WPSs by testing. The welding documents devel-
oped are applicable to AWS, ASME, NAVSEA, and other mil-
itary standards, and commercial welding standards. Contact
Albert Moore, workshop leader, for more information at
amoore999@comcast.net.

Business Electronics Soldering Technology. Classes held

in Chicago, Ill.; Detroit, Mich.; Minneapolis, Minn.; Cleve-
land, Ohio; and Huntsville, Ala., or can be coordinated on-
site at your facility. Contact BEST at (847) 797-9250 to
register.

CPCC NDE Continuing Education Courses. Central Pied-

mont Community College presents the following courses:
Online: Introduction to NDE, Jan. 14–May 10; NDE Visual
Testing Level I & II, Jan. 14–May 10. Classroom: Magnetic
Particle Testing Level I & II, Jan. 14–Feb. 11; Level I & II

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 65

Penetrant Testing, March 18–April 1; Ultrasonic Testing
Level 1, Jan. 23–Feb. 27; Ultrasonic Testing Level 2, March
18–April 24. To register, visit cpcc.edu/cce/register-now.
CWB Online/Classroom Courses. Courses in NDE disci-
plines to meet certifications to Canadian General Standards
Board or Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission. The Canadi-
an Welding Bureau; (800) 844-6790; cwbgroup.org;
info@cwbgroup.org.
CWI Exam Prep Course. American Institute of Nondestruc-
tive Testing offers a 40-h online CWI exam prep course.
Part A covers the fundamentals of welding technology; part
C provides in-depth training to the welding code portion of
the exam; part B consists of extensive practical hands-on
techniques and will be held at the Houston Marriott North
in Houston, Tex. Contact Jeff LeTourneau, instructor@
trainingndt.com, (855) 313-0325, or visit trainingndt.com.
CWI/CWS Inspector Training. Welder Training & Testing
Institute is hosting the following endorsement and CWI/
CWS prep course seminars: Bolting Endorsement: Jan. 30
and July 31; ASME Section IX/B31.1/B31.3: Jan. 31, Feb. 1;
May 9, 10; Aug. 1, 2; and Nov. 21, 22; D1.1/D1.5/API En-
dorsement: Feb. 7, May 16, Aug. 8, and Dec. 5; CWI: Feb.
4–9, May 13–18, Aug. 5–10, and Dec. 2–7; CWS: March 4–8
and Sept. 16–20. To register, go to wtti.com.
E-Courses in Destructive and Nondestructive Testing of
Welds and Other Welding-Related Topics. Online video
courses taken at one’s own pace offer certificates of comple-
tion and continuing education units. Contact Hobart Insti-
tute of Welding Technology; (800) 332-9448; welding.org/
product-category/online-courses/.
ESAB Welding and Cutting Instructor-Led Training. Year-
round training at Denton, Tex.; West Lebanon, N.H.; Tra-
verse City, Mich.; Hanover, Pa.; and Salt Lake City, Utah.
Online e-Learning training is available. Email trainingteam@
esab.com; training.victortechnologies.com.
Hypertherm Cutting Institute Online. Includes video tuto-
rials, interactive e-Learning courses, discussion forums, we-
binars, and blogs. Visit hypertherm.com; hyperthermcutting
institute.com.
Industrial Laser Training. Technical training and support
offered for users of industrial lasers in manufacturing,
education, and research. Regularly scheduled classes in laser
welding, laser cutting, and drilling. HDE Technologies Inc.;
(916) 714-4944; laserweldtraining.com.
Laser Safety Training Courses. Laser training courses for
personnel in research, industrial, and medical laser facilities.
Courses based on ANSI Z136.1, Safe Use of Lasers. Orlando,
Fla., or customer’s site. Laser Institute of America;
(800) 345-2737; lia.org.
66 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
Laser Vision Training Seminars. Two-day classes, offered
monthly and on request, include tutorials and practical
training. Presented at Servo-Robot Inc., St. Bruno, QC,
Canada. For schedule, cost, and availability, email info@
servorobot.com.
NDE Classes. Moraine Valley Community College, Palos
Hills, Ill., offers NDE classes in PT, MT, UT, RT, radiation
safety, and eddy current, as well as API 510 exam prep and
weld inspection. (708) 974-5735; ccce@morainevalley.edu;
morainevalley.edu.
NDT Classroom Training and e-Learning Course. Offer
courses in UT, RT, MT, PT, eddy current, and remote visual
inspection. Onsite training also available. (855) 232-7470;
geinspectionacademy.com; inspection.academy@ge.com.
NDT Courses and Exams. Brea, Calif., and customers’ loca-
tions. Level I, II, and III refresher courses in PA, UT, MP, ra-
diation safety, radiography, visual, etc. Test NDT LLC;
(714) 255-1500; testndt.com.
Online Education Courses. Topics include Introduction to
Die Casting (free), Safety (free), Metal Melting and Han-
dling, Product Design, Energy Training, Dross Training,
Managing Dust Hazards, and more. North American Die
Casting Assoc.; diecasting.org/education/online;
(847) 808-3161.
OSHA Training Courses. Rockford, Ill. Rockford Systems
has added OSHA-authorized health and safety courses to its
training curriculum: OSHA 10-Hour General Industry
Course, OSHA 30-Hour General Industry Course, OSHA
1910.1200 Hazard Communication Course, and an ongoing
2½-day Machine Safeguarding Seminar. Contact
(800) 922-7533; rockfordsystems.com.
Preparation for AWS® — CWI®/CWE® Examination. Troy,
Ohio. This two-week class offers nine days of instruction
with the test being administered on the tenth day. Includes
a backpack for the convenience of carrying your books and
other study materials. Contact Hobart Institute of Welding
Technology; (800) 332-9448; welding.org.
Protective Coatings Training and Certification Courses.
At various locations and online. The Society for Protective
Coatings; (877) 281-7772; sspc.org.
Veterans Goodwill Weld Training Program. South Burling-
ton, Vt., and Eagle River, Wis. AWI and Veterans of
Foreign Wars (VFW) have partnered to offer veterans
complimentary two-day training at AWI facilities. Contact
(802) 660-0600, (715) 337-0122, or awi.edu. WJ
CERTIFICATION SEMINARS, CODE CLINICS, AND EXAMINATIONS CERTIFICATION SCHEDULE

Note: The 2019 schedule for all certifications is posted online at 9-Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI
aws.org/w/a/registrations/prices_schedules.html. For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education re-
quirements without taking the exam. The exam can be taken
at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
Location Seminar Dates Exam Date Location Seminar Dates
Charlotte, NC Jan. 13–18 Jan. 19 Miami, FL Jan. 20–25
Dallas, TX Jan. 13–18 Jan. 19 Houston, TX Feb. 10–15
Denver, CO Jan. 20–25 Jan. 26 San Diego, CA Feb. 17–22
Long Beach, CA Jan. 20–25 Jan. 26 New Orleans, LA March 10–15
Houston, TX Jan. 27–Feb. 1 Feb. 2 Dallas, TX March 24–29
Milwaukee, WI Jan. 27–Feb. 1 Feb. 2 Seattle, WA April 7–12
Los Angeles, CA Feb. 10–15 Feb. 16 Denver, CO May 5–10
Pittsburgh, PA Feb. 10–15 Feb. 16 Miami, FL May 19–24
Orlando, FL Feb. 17–22 Feb. 23 Pittsburgh, PA June 23–28
Seattle, WA Feb. 17–22 Feb. 23 Charlotte, NC July 21–26
New Orleans, LA Feb. 24–March 1 March 2
San Diego, CA Feb. 24–March 1 March 2
Atlanta, GA March 3–8 March 9 Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Salt Lake City, UT March 10–15 March 16 Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Annapolis, MD March 10–15 March 16 Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Houston, TX March 10–15 March 16 Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Chicago, IL March 17–22 March 23
Phoenix, AZ March 17–22 March 23
Boston, MA March 24–29 March 30 Certified Welding Sales Representative
Portland, OR March 24–29 March 30 (CWSR)
Miami, FL March 31–April 5 April 6 CWSR exams are given at Prometric testing centers. More
Minneapolis, MN March 31–April 5 April 6 information at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-welding-
Dallas, TX April 7–12 April 13 sales-representative.
Las Vegas, NV April 7–12 April 13
Bakersfield, CA April 28–May 3 May 4
St. Louis, MO April 28–May 3 May 4 Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
Baton Rouge, LA May 5–10 May 11 CWS exams are given at Prometric testing centers. More infor-
Detroit, MI May 5–10 May 11 mation at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-welding-supervisor.
Denver, CO May 19–24 May 25
Nashville, TN May 19–24 May 25 Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
Birmingham, AL June 2–7 June 8 The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
Kansas City, MO June 2–7 June 8 exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification. More in-
Pittsburgh, PA June 9–14 June 15 formation at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-radiographic-
Spokane, WA June 9–14 June 15 interpreter.
Beaumont, TX June 16–21 June 22
Hartford, CT June 16–21 June 22
Location Seminar Dates Exam Date
Newark, NJ June 23–28 June 29
Dallas, TX April 1–5 April 6
Omaha, NE June 23–28 June 29
Las Vegas, NV June 3–7 June 8
Louisville, KY July 7–12 July 13
Pittsburgh, PA July 29–Aug. 2 Aug. 3
Phoenix, AZ July 7–12 July 13
Houston, TX Sept. 30–Oct. 4 Oct. 5
Nofolk, VA July 14–19 July 20
Milwaukee, WI July 21–26 July 27
Orlando, FL July 21–26 July 27 Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
Cleveland, OH July 28–Aug. 2 Aug. 3 OTC Daihen Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800, ext. 218
Los Angeles, CA July 28–Aug. 2 Aug. 3 Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-4723
Denver, CO Aug. 4–9 Aug. 10 Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7667
Philadelphia, PA Aug. 4–9 Aug. 10 Milwaukee Area Technical College, Milwaukee, WI;
Chicago, IL Aug. 11–16 Aug. 17 (414) 456-5454
San Diego, CA Aug. 11–16 Aug. 17 College of the Canyons, Santa Clarita, CA; (651) 259-7800,
Salt Lake City, UT Aug. 11–16 Aug. 17 ext. 3062
Charlotte, NC Aug. 18–23 Aug. 24 Ogden-Weber Applied Technology College, Ogden, UT;
Sacramento, CA Aug. 18–23 Aug. 24 (800) 627-8448

IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Please verify your event dates with the Certification Dept. to confirm your course status before
making travel plans. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the seminar/exam or exam. Applications received after that time will be assessed a
$250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application deadline dates by visiting our website at aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. For information on AWS seminars
and certification programs, or to register online, visit aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars.

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 67

WELDING WORKBOOK
DATASHEET 386

Introduction to Torch Brazing

Torch brazing is accomplished by heating the assembly
with a fuel-gas flame, using one or more gas torches. De-
pending on the temperature and the amount of heat re-
quired, the fuel gas (e.g., acetylene, propane, or natural gas)
can be burned with air, compressed air, or oxygen. Addition-
al information on torch brazing is presented in the Ameri-
can Welding Society (AWS) Standard C3.4.3, Specification for
Torch Brazing.
Manual torch brazing, totally without automation, repre-
sents the simplest brazing technique — Fig. 1. While torch
brazing is labor intensive and low in productivity, it has
some practical and economic justification. First, the braze
joint is visible to the operator, who adjusts the process based
on observation. Second, heat is directed only to the joint
area. This is an important consideration when energy costs
represent a large fraction of the cost of a brazed joint.
Equipment
torch brazing require fluxes. For certain applications, even
the self-fluxing copper-phosphorus filler metals require
added flux.
The brazing filler metal can be preplaced in the joint as
the joint is prepared for brazing and fluxed before heating,
or it can be face-fed into the joint. Heat is applied to the
joint first to melt the flux, then continuing until the filler
metal melts and flows into the joint. Overheating of the
base metal and brazing filler metal should be carefully avoid-
ed, as it may cause dropthrough, undesirable sagging, or
surface irregularity. Natural gas is well suited for torch braz-
ing because its relatively low flame temperature reduces the
risk of overheating.
Brazing filler metal can be preplaced at the joint in the
form of rings, washers, strips, slugs, or powder, or it can be
fed by hand, typically in the form of wire or rod. It should be
noted that silver filler metals do not diffuse in iron. In any
case, proper cleaning and fluxing are essential.

Of the torches used in brazing, air-natural gas torches Techniques

provide the lowest flame temperature and the least heat.
Acetylene under pressure is used in the air-acetylene torch
with air at atmospheric pressure. Both air-natural gas and
air-acetylene torches can be used on small components and
thin sections.
Torches that use oxygen with natural gas or other gases
(such as propane or butane) produce higher flame tempera-
tures. When properly applied as a neutral flame or a slightly
reducing flame, excellent results are obtainable for many
brazing applications.
Oxyhydrogen torches are often used for brazing alu-
minum and nonferrous alloys because they operate at lower
temperatures, which reduces the possibility of overheating
the assembly during brazing. An excess of hydrogen pro-
vides the joint with additional cleaning and protection.
Specially designed torches with multiple tips or multiple
flames can be used to increase the rate of heat input; howev-
er, local overheating must be carefully avoided. This can be
accomplished by constantly moving the torch relative to the
assembly to disperse the heat. Fig. 1 — Generic setup for manual torch brazing. (Photograph
For manual torch brazing, the torch can be equipped with courtesy of Fusion Inc.)
a single tip that provides either a single flame or multiple
flames. Manual torch brazing is particularly useful on as-
semblies involving sections of unequal mass. When the vol- Torch brazing techniques with oxyfuel gas welding equip-
ume and rate of production warrants, mechanized opera- ment differ from those used for oxyfuel gas welding. Opera-
tions can be set up using torches. One or more torches tors experienced only in welding techniques may require in-
equipped with single- or multiple-flame tips may be an ac- struction in brazing techniques. It is good practice, for ex-
ceptable option. Machines can be designed to move either ample, to prevent the inner cone of the flame from coming
the workpieces or the torches, or both. For premixed natural in contact with the joint, potentially causing overheating.
gas-air flames, a refractory type of nozzle or tip is used. Overheating could result in the melting of the base metal
Torch heating for brazing with filler metal rods can be and dilution with the filler metal. This may increase its liq-
accomplished with flux-covered or -cored rods. Only copper- uidus temperature and cause the flow to stop or be more
phosphorus filler metals are self-fluxing; they are used for sluggish. In addition, the flux may become overheated and
brazing in air without flux. With the exception of these thus lose its ability to promote capillary flow, and the low-
copper-phosphorus filler metals, all other filler metals for melting constituents of the filler metal may evaporate. WJ

Excerpted from the Welding Handbook, Ninth edition, Volume 2, Welding Processes, Part 1.

68 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019


National and District Officers Nominated for 2019
The American Welding Society
(AWS) has elected national and Dis-
trict officers to serve terms beginning
January 1, 2019.
Thomas Lienert, elected to serve as
president, was formerly a technical
staff member and a R&D engineer 4 at
Los Alamos National Laboratory for
more than 16 years. He is also an ac-
tive member and officer of several
national-level committees, has served
as chairman of the AWS New Mexico
Section, and has been named an AWS
Fellow.
Robert Roth, elected to serve as
vice president, is a member of the
AWS Executive and Finance Commit-
tees, WEMCO, and RWMA. He is pres-
ident and CEO of RoMan Manufactur-
ing Inc., an AWS sustaining member
company. He also serves on the boards
of various organizations and nonprofit
corporations.
Richard Polanin, elected to serve as
vice president, is a retired professor and
program chair of the manufacturing en-
gineering technology and welding tech-
nology programs at Illinois Central Col-
lege. He is currently coprincipal investi-
gator for Weld-Ed and chair of the AWS
Peoria Section. He is also an active
member of several AWS committees.
Thomas Lienert Robert Roth
president vice president
Walter Sperko Sayee Raghunathan
director­at­large director­at­large
SOCIETY NEWS
Dennis Eck, elected to serve as vice
president, is general sales manager for
Praxair in the greater Houston area.
He has been involved with the AWS
Houston Section for 27 years, serving
as chairman, first and second vice
chairman, treasurer, and secretary. He
was also a part of the Membership
Committee for seven years.
Carey Chen, elected to serve as
treasurer, is president, CEO, and board
vice chairman of Cincinnati Incorpo-
rated, and currently serves as treasur-
er on the AWS Board of Directors and
the Foundation Board of Trustees. He
is also a member of the AWS Audit and
Compensation Committees, as well as
chair of the Finance Committee.
Walter Sperko, elected to serve as
director-at-large, is president of
Sperko Engineering Services Inc. He
has been involved with the AWS Car-
olina Section since the 1970s, serving
as chair several times, and is currently
an officer of that Section. He is also a
member of the D10 Committee on
Piping and Tubing as well as vice chair
of the Technical Activities Committee.
Sayee Raghunathan, elected to
serve as director-at-large, is an engi-
neering specialist at Saudi Aramco in
Saudi Arabia. He was the chair of the
Richard Polanin
vice president
Douglas Desrochers Lynn Showalter
Dist. 1 director Dist. 4 director
AWS Saudi Arabia Section and credited
with reinvigorating that Section,
which is 200 members strong. He is
also the Fellow of seven institutes. He
has worked for TWI Ltd. in Cambridge,
UK; J. Ray McDermott Middle East
Inc. in Dubai; and Advani-Oerlikon
Ltd. in India.
Douglas Desrochers, elected to
serve as Dist. 1 director, has worked as
a welding instructor at Old Colony Re-
gional Vocational Technical High
School for 23 years. He is also an AWS
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) and
an AWS Certified Welding Educator
(CWE). An AWS member since 2000,
he has served as the chair, secretary,
treasurer, and technical representative
of the AWS Central Massachusetts/
Rhode Island Section.
Lynn Showalter, elected to serve as
Dist. 4 director, is a welding engineer 4
with Newport News Shipbuilding, a di-
vision of Huntington Ingalls Indus-
tries. He has served on the AWS Tide-
water Section since 1992, with two
terms as chairman and six years as the
District’s deputy director. He has also
been an AWS CWI test supervisor for
26 years.
Howard Record, elected to serve as
Dist. 5 director Aug. 31–Dec. 1 follow-
Dennis Eck Carey Chen
vice president treasurer
Howard Record
Dist. 5 director
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 69
SOCIETY NEWS
Mike Sherman Ronald Ashelford
Dist. 10 director Dist. 13 director
ing the resignation of former director
J. T. Mahoney, will begin his first full
term January 1, 2020. He is currently
an engineering manager for Townley
Foundry & Machine, Candler, Fla.
Record has held several AWS posi-
tions, including chair of the North
Central Florida Section and Secretary
of the East Texas Section. Through his
committee work, he helped develop
the G2.3M/G2.3:2012, Guide for the
Joining of Solid Solution Austenitic
Stainless Steels.
Larry Heckendorn was elected to
serve as Dist. 7 director. Bio and photo
are currently not available.
Mike Sherman, elected to serve as
Dist. 10 director, is the owner of a full-
service welding/fabrication facility. He
has served two terms as the Cleveland
Section chair and one term as the first
vice chair, as well as one term as the
second vice chair of the Northeast
TECH TOPICS
Standards for Public
Review
AWS was approved as an accredited
standards-preparing organization by
the American National Standards In-
stitute (ANSI) in 1979. AWS rules, as
approved by ANSI, require that all
standards be open to public review for
comment during the approval process.
This column also advises of ANSI ap-
proval of documents.
A3.0M/A3.0:20XX, Standard Terms
and Definitions Including Terms for Ad-
hesive Bonding, Brazing, Soldering,
70 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
Karl Fogelman Shawn McDaniel
Dist. 16 director Dist. 19 director
Pennsylvania Section. He also served
as the contract welding supervisor on
the ARES project for the NASA Glenn
Research Center.
Ronald Ashelford, elected to serve
as Dist. 13 director, is a retired 40-
year member of Ironworkers LU-498,
Rockford, Ill. He is currently a welding
instructor at Rock Valley College as
well as a member of the Welding Advi-
sory Committee. He has served as
chair of the Blackhawk Section for
four years, as well as secretary for 24
years.
Karl Fogelman, elected to serve as
Dist. 16 director, has been Section
chairman twice, second vice chairman
once, treasurer five times, Awards
Committee member three times, sec-
retary twice, and deputy district direc-
tor four times during his 34-year
tenure with AWS. He has also served
on several AWS D1.1 committees.
Thermal Cutting, and Thermal Spraying.
Revised Standard. $86.00. ANSI public
review expires 1/14/19. Contact: S.
Borrero, sborrero@aws.org, ext. 334.
C3.8M/C3.8:2011 (R2018), Specifi-
cation for the Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Ex-
amination of Brazed Joints. New Stan-
dard. $34.00. ANSI public review ex-
pired 12/31/18. Contact: K. Bulger,
kbulger@aws.org, ext. 306.
D10.17M/D10.17:20XX, Guide for
Welding Tubular Steel Vehicle Structures.
New Standard. $34.00. ANSI public
review expired 12/24/18. Contact:
S. Borrero, sborrero@aws.org, ext.
334.
Robert Purvis
Dist. 22 director
Shawn McDaniel, elected to serve
as Dist. 19 director, is a welding in-
structor at Big Bend Community Col-
lege, as well as an AWS CWI and CWE.
He has served as chairman of the
Puget Sound Section, and is involved
with the Inland Empire and Spokane
Sections. For his dedication, he has
been awarded various District and
Section awards.
Robert Purvis, elected to serve as
Dist. 22 director, is employed as an
AWS CWI and CWE for the California
Department of Corrections and Reha-
bilitation at Folsom State Prison. Pre-
viously, he worked as an ironworker/
welder with the Local 433 in Los Ange-
les. He has also served as chairman of
the Sacramento Valley Section, where
he is still a member of the Executive
Board. WJ
Technical Committee
Meetings
All AWS Technical Committee
meetings are open to the public. Con-
tact staff members listed below or call
(800/305) 443-9353 for information.
Jan. 30. International Standards
Activities Committee. Miami, FL. Con-
tact: A. Davis, adavis@aws.org, ext.
466.
Jan. 30, 31. Technical Activities
Committee. Miami, FL. Contact: P.
Portela, pportela@aws.org, ext. 311.
 SOCIETY NEWS
Outgoing Tech Papers Committee Members Honored

Three members of the Technical Papers Committee were honored for their years of service. The Technical Papers Committee over-
sees the Professional Program at FABTECH as well as the peer review system for the Welding Journal Research Supplement.
Shown during FABTECH are Todd A. Palmer, Patrick Hochanadel, AWS 2018 Vice President Thomas J. Lienert, and Matthew Sinfield.

Ironworkers Assemble for CWI Seminar at Apprenticeship Building

Attendees gathered Nov. 4–9 at the Field Ironworkers Apprenticeship in Sacramento, Calif., for the AWS Certified Welding Inspector
Seminar.

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 71

SOCIETY NEWS
MEMBERSHIP ACTIVITIES
New AWS Supporters Northern Machining and Repair
1701 N. 26 St. AWS Member Counts
Escanaba, MI 49829 December 1, 2018
Sustaining Company Sustaining.................................596
Members Rocky Mountain Metal Works Inc. Supporting ...............................358
8118 W. Sims Creek Educational...............................865
Arcosa Inc. Casper, WY 82604 Affiliate.....................................659
Ross Tower Welding Distributor ...................68
500 N. Akard St. TRK Legacy Holdings LLC, Total Corporate .........................2546
Dallas, TX 75201 Condor Welding
1863 Wadsworth Rd. Individual ...........................57,604
Broadwind Towers & Heavy Norton, OH 44203 Student + Transitional ...........12,419
Industries Total Members .....................70,023
101 S. 16 St. Weifang Highlight Tapered Steel
Manitowoc, WI 54221 Tube Co. Ltd.
West of Tengfei Rd., South of Walpar LLC
Dongfeng West 4200 Jefferson Ave. SW
Comau LLC
Weifang, Shandong 261031 Birmingham, AL 35221
2100 Telegraph Rd.
Southfield, MI 48033 China

Fincantieri Bay Shipbuilding Weld Pro NDT LLC Educational Institution

605 N. Third Ave. 202 Campus St. Members
Sturgeon Bay, WI 54235 Lake Mills, WI 53551
Carpenters International Training
Fought & Company Inc. USA Sanlaser Co. Fund
14255 SW 72 Ave. 342 Broad St. 212 Carpenters Union Way
Tigard, OR 97223 Fitchburg, MA 01420 Las Vegas, NV 89119

Kellon Gordon Central Valley Opportunity Center

68 Grants Way, Twickenham Heights Supporting Company
Spanish Town, St. Catherine, Jamaica
Members
Patriot Steel Fabrication Inc. Buffalo Magnetic
1959 Church Creek Rd.
31827 Decker Industrial Dr.
Church Creek, MD 21622 Pinehurst, TX 77362
Cast Aluminum Solutions
Affiliate Company Members 1310 Kingsland Dr.
Batavia, IL 60510
Accuracy Machine Inc.
201 Stange St. Dedienne Aerospace LLC
Merrill, WI 54452 2500 NW 74 Ave.
Miami, FL 33122
Despl
E 44/45/46 Phase Iv, Epip Zone Metal Shield Industries Inc.
Manjusar Gidc, Savli Rd. 1781 SW 7 Ave.
Vadodara, Gujarat 391775 Pompano Beach, FL 33060
India
Rockwell Carbide Powders Ltd.
Darok Steel Inc. Unit 4, 70 Gibson Dr.
1730 Santana Markham, ON L3R4C2
Arecibo, Puerto Rico 00612 Canada
Inc.
P.O. Box 1389
Winton, CA 95388
College of Central Florida — Jack
Wilkinson Levy Campus
15390 NW Hwy. 19
Chiefland, FL 32626
Indian Trail High School & Academy
6800 60th St.
Kenosha, WI 53144
Industrial Technology Welding
School
113 Industrial Education Bldg.,
Herbert St.
Mississippi, MS 39762
Kennesaw State University — S.
Polytechnic College of Engineering
MD#9070
1100 S. Marietta Pkwy.
Marietta, GA 30060

Kwan Wo Ironworks Inc. Texas Steel Processing Montcalm Community College

31628 Hayman St. 5480 Windfern Rd. 1325 Yellow Jacket Dr.
Hayward, CA 94544 Houston, TX 77041 Greenville, MI 48838

72 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019

 SOCIETY NEWS
New Oxford High School A-Member Campaign. The campaign
130 Berlin Rd. ran from Jan. 1 to Dec. 31, 2018.
New Oxford, PA 17350 Members received 5 points for each In-
dividual Member and 1 point for every
Rantoul Township High School, Student Member they recruited.
Dist. 193 For campaign rules and a prize list,
200 S. Sheldon please see page 81 of this Welding Jour-
Rantoul, IL 61866 nal. Standings as of Nov. 8. For more
information, call the AWS Membership
Sabin Schellenberg Center Dept. at (800) 443-9353, ext. 480.
14211 SE Johnson Rd. J. W. Morris, Mobile — 106
Milwaukie, OR 97267 M. D. Box, Pascagoula — 103
D. S. Beecher, San Diego — 72
Scurry Rosser High School M. Krupnicki, Rochester — 60
8321 S. State Hwy. 34 F. A. Cea, Columbus — 60
Scurry, TX 75158 A. D. Dillon, Detroit — 59
M. A. Centeno, Nevada — 59
Southern Crescent Technical J. P. Theberge, Boston — 48
College B. M. Williams, West Michigan — 46
501 Varsity Rd. M. J. Lannom, Long Beach/Orange
Griffin, GA 30223 County — 43
R. Riggs, Tulsa — 41
The Engineers EDGE Institute of NDT B. Newcomb, Madison-Beloit — 39
(KSC) W. L. Harris, Pascagoula — 36
SF. No. 12/36-D(4), Sree Kailas C. Cosentino, Pittsburgh — 35
Towers, 1st Fl. H. H. Hughes, Wheeling — 35
Civil Areodrome Rd. & Post, C. Ribardo, Houston — 30
Sitra Coimbatore V. Craven, Pascagoula — 30
Tamil Nadu, India 641014 B. P. Brandmeir, Lehigh Valley — 29
M. D. Stein, Detroit — 29
A. M. Young, Detroit — 27
S. P. Siviski, Maine — 24
Member-Get-A-Member O. N. Boylan, Cleveland — 23
Campaign R. H. Stahura, Niagara Frontier — 23
D. R. Jacobs, NW Penn. — 20
Listed here are the members who G. L. Gammil, NE Mississippi — 20
participated in the 2018 Member-Get- C. A. Donnell, Northwest Ohio — 19
Member Anniversaries Recognized at FABTECH
Celebrating 50 years of service to the Society are (second from left) Sanford Tribble, Robert Meierhoff, Thomas Mustaleski, and
Edward Bohnart. Dale Flood, AWS 2018 president, is to the far left.
G. D. Wentland, Sacramento — 18
T. A. Harris, Johnstown-Altoona — 18
M. J. Jones, Saginaw Valley — 18
D. P. Thompson, SW Virginia — 17
R. K. McClure, Los Angeles/Inland
Empire — 17
D. A. Saunders, Lakeshore — 16
R. Young, Iowa — 16
D. Melton, Greater Huntsville — 15
J. L. Stokes, Dayton — 15
S. Toops, Central Texas — 15
C. A. Renfro, Chattanooga — 14
O. Serrano, Ecuador — 14
B. M. Scherer, Cincinnati — 13
B. A. Cheatham, Columbia — 12
G. T. Rolla, Los Angeles/Inland
Empire — 12
E. R. Krestakos-Fromson, Indiana —
11
S. Smalley, Mid-Plains — 11
AWS Membership Drawing
Winners
A special membership promotion
was held at the AWS booth during the
FABTECH show in Atlanta, Ga. Those
who joined or renewed their member-
ship for two years or more were auto-
matically entered in a drawing to win a
$100 VISA gift card.
The following are the winners of
the drawing:
• Jason Sharp, Beaver Dam, Ky.
• Barry Curtis, Fort Valley, Ga.
• Rob Saltzstein, Coral Springs, Fla.
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 73
SOCIETY NEWS

Life members with 35 years of service to the Society included Larry Barley, Ralph Bowman, William Deluca, Rodney Deming Jr.,
Paul Denney, Robert Doan, Phillip Fuerschbach, Michael Haggard, James Harris, Allan Holst, David Kiilunen, Spencer Luke, Roger
Miller, Anna Petroski, John Pummer, Charles Robino, Joseph Rolince, Mark Rotary, Raymond Thompson, and Steven Whitney. Not
everyone is pictured.

74 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019

SOCIETY NEWS

Silver members celebrat-

ing 25 years of member-
ship included Clifton
Adams, Allen Clifford,
Jeffrey Dave, Andrew
Davis, Colister Dickson III,
Wayne Engeron Jr., Terry
Etzelmueller, Thomas
Hartley, Blake Hobson,
Bart Hoelle, Frank Jablon-
ski, Joel Johnson, Rex
Jones, William Lockwood,
David Lynnes, Warren
Miglietti, Anatoly Ney-
man, Peter Pletcher, Fred-
erick Schweighardt,
Joseph Smith, and Elaine
Waters. Not everyone is
pictured.

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 75

SOCIETY NEWS
AWS Taiwan Section Holds CWI Conference
By Chon-Liang Tsai, AWS-Taiwan chairman

The number of American Welding
Society (AWS) Certified Welding In-
spectors (CWI) in Taiwan surpassed
1000 in 2018. The AWS Taiwan Inter-
national Section (AWS-Taiwan) has
been actively working with the AWS
Taiwan agent, International Welding
Technology Research Laboratory
(IWTRL), to provide various services
to this unique indistrial segment in
Taiwan.
For the past two decades, AWS-
Taiwan and IWTRL have developed
several platforms for open communi-
cations within the welding communi-
ty, as well as dialogues with other pro-
fessional societies. The CWI reunion
conference is one of these platforms to
retain the enthusiasm of the CWIs and
their belief in the AWS certification
system. The first CWI conference was
held in Taipei (northern Taiwan) in
2011.
The second conference was recently
held Oct. 28 and 29, 2018, in Kaohsi-
ung (southern Taiwan). The theme of
the conferences was to address the op-
portunities and challenges for AWS
CWIs actively participating in Taiwan’s
fast-growing offshore wind farm de-
velopment projects. Taiwan’s strategic
energy goal is to achieve a distribution
of 20% in renewable energy in 2025,
with a targeted offshore wind power
of 5.5 GW. Welding quality control/
assurance is a critical requirement for
offshore wind power projects in all
phases from initial construction to op-
erational repair and maintainance.
These AWS CWIs are expected to play
an important role in the quality as-
pect, although the European quality
systems have been advocated fiercely
within Taiwan’s offshore developer
circle.
With more than 220 people in at-
tendance, the conference included
three keynote speeches, four plenary
speeches, and nine technical presenta-
tions by CWIs and Senior CWIs.
The keynote speakers included Jin-
sheng Su, secretary general, Bureau of
Energy; Robert Tseng, president,
CSBC Taiwan Shipbuilding Corp.; and
Prof. Dong-Sub Kim, head of the Insti-
tute for the 4th Industrial Revolution
at Ulsan National Institute of Science
and Technology, Korea. The plenary
speakers were Conghua Chen, chair-
man, Yushan Energy; Jeff Hufsey,
AWS representative; Seung-Kwan
Kang, executive director, Korea Weld-
ing Industry Cooperative; and Profes-
sor Chon-Liang Tsai, AWS-Taiwan
chairman.
The discussions held on the second
day addressed two topics: AWS certifi-
cations for Taiwan’s offshore wind
farm industry, and the current welding
inspector certification system in
Taiwan.
Postconference discussions contin-
ue on how to meet the challenges from
fierce advocation of European certifi-
cations (IIW IWE, ISO 3834, ISO
9712, ISO/IEC 17024 ) in Taiwan
among CWIs. Additionally, thoughts
on integrating the AWS and ISO certi-
fication systems were discussed for
Taiwan’s offshore wind farm develop-
ment programs. A new front of coop-
eration between AWS-Taiwan and
AWS certifications might be an emer-
gent task in the near future.

More than 200 people attended the AWS-Taiwan CWI Conference held Oct. 28 and 29 in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. The conference ad-
dressed the opportunities and challenges of AWS CWIs taking active part in Taiwan’s fast-growing offshore windfarm development
projects.

AWS Celebrates Its Past by Focusing on the Industry’s Bright Future

The Welding Journal is celebrating its centennial by look-
ing to the future and showcasing the welding industry’s
young professionals. From January to December, 2019, So-
ciety News will profile AWS members under the age of 40
from each AWS District.
Barb LeGeyt and Daniel Filippelli are profiled on the foll-
lowing page.
To nominate an AWS member, contact Katie Pacheco at
kpacheco@aws.org.

76 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019


AWS District 1 Member Profile
Barb LeGeyt
Enjoying an idyllic upbringing on a
180-acre farm in Connecticut, Barb
LeGeyt envisioned a career working
with horses. She was introduced to
welding through competitions held by
the Future Farmers of America (FFA),
wherein she served as her high
school’s chapter officer.
“I tried welding for the first time in
my sophomore year,” she recalled. “At
first I thought I was going to set the
shop on fire, but I fell in love with it.”
AWS District 2 Member Profile
Daniel Filippelli
A fast learner, Daniel Filippelli
picked up welding at 14 with the help
of his friend’s older brother.
“We built four wheelers and trucks,
and played around with custom sus-
pension and bumpers,” he recalled.
Filippelli honed his talents in his
high school’s vocational technical pro-
gram, where he also helped start an
AWS student chapter.
“We would have the Philadelphia
Section come down every other month
for a meeting,” he said. “It was really
SOCIETY NEWS
Not getting her mother’s approval
to pursue a career as a barn manager
or a horse trainer, LeGeyt set her
sights on welding.
“I chose welding because it seemed
interesting, and it was deemed a career
where I could make a lot of money and
be able to travel,” she said. “I want to
break down stereotypes of welders and
women in welding.”
Combining her interests, LeGeyt
welds custom horseshoe art as a hob-
by. She also sees plenty of opportuni-
ties for welding within agriculture.
To sharpen her skills, LeGeyt is cur-
rently working toward a bachelor’s de-
gree in welding fabrication engineer-
ing technology at the Pennsylvania
College of Technology.
“With this degree, I am learning
both the hands-on shop part and the
science on how welding works,” she ex-
plained. “Being a well-rounded engi-
neer is a great asset to companies.”
In addition to being a student,
LeGeyt is an officer in her college’s
AWS student chapter. She is proud of a
Halloween-themed welding lab the
cool because we got to talk to guys
who had been welding for 20–30
years, and even hear about jobs.”
Living on the Maryland coast, Filip-
pelli turned his hobby into a small ma-
rine fabrication and repair business
with his friend.
“We started off by making fishing
rod holders, and after a few we got
pretty good at it. People would ask
where we got it, and we would build
them one. After a while, we got busier
and busier,” he said. “It wasn’t a true
business, but it turned into good side
money for someone as young as us.”
Not wanting to work in an office,
Filippelli embraced welding as a career
and enrolled in the Pennsylvania Col-
lege of Technology’s two-year pro-
gram, but then switched to a bache-
lor’s in welding, fabrication, and
engineering.
“At the time, I didn’t see myself sit-
ting at a computer,” he explained. “The
more my instructors spoke to me
about being 50 and laying on my back
in a ditch somewhere, I realized that
even if I don’t use an engineering de-
gree now, I can move up and give my-
self more options when I’m older.”
chapter created to attract interest.
“We’re trying to get people to come
to meetings, keep coming, and get in-
volved,” she said. “It’s about building
relationships and job connections.
These are the people you’re going to be
out in the field with.”
LeGeyt is also a recipient of the
AWS Elizabeth Fray Women in Weld-
ing Scholarship, Dist. 1 Scholarship,
and Foundation Scholarship.
“It gives me a sense of pride to have
them recognize me,” she said. “Even
though I didn’t come from a life of
welding, receiving these scholarships
shows me that I have a track record
that can stand up with the rest.”
LeGeyt’s dreams for after graduation
highlight her pure love of the craft.
“I just want to be in a fabrication
shop environment and be able to weld,”
she affirmed. “I want to see what I can
make and see how it impacts industry.”
LeGeyt also included teaching in her
future plans. Selected to be an instruc-
tor at her college’s makerspace, she will
be teaching different welding processes
and techniques in the spring.
Continuing his relationship with
AWS, Filippelli is a member of his col-
lege’s AWS chapter, and has received
two AWS scholarships, including one
from the Philadelphia Section.
“When people see that you’ve re-
ceived a scholarship, it shows them
you put a little effort forward and you
have people who back you up,” he said.
“It gets your name out there.”
Slated to graduate this year, Filip-
pelli hopes to secure a job in off-road
fabrication.
“I want to push toward companies
that mass produce off-road bumpers
and lift kits,” he said. “It takes a little
more thought to figure out not only
how to make something, but how to
make thousands of them.”
A car enthusiast, he lists his Jeep as
his most prized welding project.
“Building an entire suspension and
figuring out the body lines, roll cage,
and bumper...making all those major
things work together is difficult,” he
affirmed. “But when you’re done, it’s
cool to see that you can put something
that big with that many moving parts
together and have it actually move the
way you want.”
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 77
SECTION NEWS
District 1
Douglas A. Desrochers, director
(508) 763-8011
dadaws@comcast.net
CONNECTICUT
November 14
Location: Elks Lodge, Groton, Conn.
Presenter: Albert J. Moore, president,
Marion Testing & Inspection
Summary: Moore served as the guest
speaker for a joint meeting of the Sec-
tion and the ASNT Connecticut Yan-
kee Section. There were 43 guests in
attendance to hear Moore’s presenta-
tion on the responsibilities of the
welding inspector, including a review
of the body of knowledge the inspec-
tor is expected to master with empha-
sis on welding and nondestructive ex-
amination symbols and weld defects.
The highlight of the presentation was
the discussions that ensued regarding
READING — October meeting attendees included Jack Yengo, 2nd vice chair; Lisa Davis, secretary; Craig Davis, 1st vice chair; Hugo
Garcia, chair; Merilyn McLaughlin, publicity; Karl Machamer, member at large; David Hibshman, treasurer; and students from Lan-
caster County Career & Technology Center.
YORK-CENTRAL — Participants of the ESAB Technology Center tour posed for a group photo.
78 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
training and differences in terminolo-
gy used by different welding
scholarships, members at large, cur-
rent statistics, and the Section welding
standards. competition and banquet. It was de-
cided the welding contest would be
held on March 16 (March 23, if the
16th is a snow day) at Lebanon Career
District 2
Ken Temme, director
(856) 264-8377
kenneth.temme@gmail.com
District 3
Sean Moran, director
(717) 885-5039
sean.moran@ahydro.com
READING CONNECTICUT — ASNT Connecticut
October 19 Yankee Section Chair Rachel Taylor
Location: Johnny and Hons, (right) presented Guest Speaker and
AWS Connecticut Section Vice Chair
Robesonia, Pa.
Al Moore with an ASNT jacket.
Summary: Members met to discuss
Section business, including bylaws,
SPARKING CONNECTIONS –
2019 AWS MEMBERSHIP CHALLENGE
WHAT IT IS:
Be the spark that ignites the people you know to join
AWS, and get rewards.

HOW IT WORKS:
Build up points throughout the year
for each AWS Member you recruit:
5 Points per Individual Membership
and 1 Point per Student Membership.

WHAT YOU GET:

The top point-earner will receive a $500 gift
card, and all other participants earning over
10 points will get AWS branded merchandise
based on points accrued throughout 2019.

The Fine Print: All AWS members in good standing may participate and are eligible to receive rewards based on points
accrued January 1 – December 31, 2019. Participant eligibility is determined at the sole discretion of AWS program
administrators. AWS staff members and administrators of commercial or educational packages that include AWS
memberships in the pricing structure are not eligible to participate. For more information, visit aws.org/be-the-spark
 AWS MEMBERSHIP APPLICATION
Join or Renew: Mail: Form with your payment, to AWS Call: Membership Department at (800) 443-9353, ext. 480
Fax: Completed form to (305) 443-5647 Online: www.aws.org/membership 8669 NW 36 St, # 130
Miami, FL 33166-6672
CONTACT INFORMATION Telephone (800) 443-9353
FAX (305) 443-5647
q New Member q Renewal Visit our website: www.aws.org

q Mr. q Ms. q Mrs. q Dr. Please print • Duplicate this page as needed Type of Business (Check ONE only)
A q Contract construction
Last Name:_______________________________________________________________________________
B q Chemicals & allied products
C q Petroleum & coal industries
First Name:___________________________________________________________________ M.I:_______
D q Primary metal industries
E q Fabricated metal products
Birthdate: _____________________________ E-Mail:____________________________________________
F q Machinery except elect. (incl. gas welding)
G q Electrical equip., supplies, electrodes
Cell Phone ( )__________________________ Secondary Phone ( )______________________
H q Transportation equip. — air, aerospace
Were you ever an AWS Member? q YES q NO If “YES,” give year________ and Member #:____________________ I q Transportation equip. — automotive
J q Transportation equip. — boats, ships
Company (if applicable):___________________________________________________________________ K q Transportation equip. — railroad
L q Utilities
Mailing Address:_________________________________________________________________________ M q Welding distributors & retail trade
N q Misc. repair services (incl. welding shops)
_______________________________________________________________________________________ O q Educational Services (univ., libraries, schools)
P q Engineering & architectural services (incl. assns.)
City:_____________________________________State/Province:__________________________________ Q q Misc. business services (incl. commercial labs)
R q Government (federal, state, local)
Zip/PostalCode:_____________________Country:______________________________________________ S q Other

Œ Who pays your dues?: q Company q Self-paid  Sex: q Male q Female Job Classification (Check ONE only)
01 q President, owner, partner, officer
Ž Education level: q High school diploma q Associate’s q Bachelor’s q Master’s q Doctoral
02 q Manager, director, superintendent (or assistant)
q Check here if you learned of the Society through an AWS Member? Member’s name:_______________________Member’s # (if known):________ 03 q Sales
04 q Purchasing
q Check here if you would prefer not to receive email updates on AWS programs, new Member benefits, savings opportunities and events.
05 q Engineer — welding
20 q Engineer — design
INDIVIDUAL MEMBERSHIP 21 q Engineer — manufacturing
06 q Engineer — other
è Please check each box that applies to the Membership or service you’d like, and then add the cost together to get your Total Payment. 10 q Architect designer
q AWS INDIVIDUAL MEMBERSHIP (One Year)......................................................................................................$88 12 q Metallurgist
13 q Research & development
q AWS INDIVIDUAL MEMBERSHIP (Two Years) SAVE $25 New Members Only....................................$151 22 q Quality control
07 q Inspector, tester
q New Member Initiation Fee ...........................................................................................................................................$12
08 q Supervisor, foreman
14 q Technician
OPTIONS AVAILABLE TO AWS INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS ONLY: 09 q Welder, welding or cutting operator
A.) OPTIONAL Book Selection (Choose from 12+ titles; up to a $192 value; includes shipping & handling) 11 q Consultant
15 q Educator
q Individual Members in the U.S..................................................................................................................................$35
17 q Librarian
q Individual Members outside the U.S (includes International shipping)...........................................................................$85 16 q Student
18 q Customer Service
ONLY ONE SELECTION PLEASE. For more book choices visit https://app.aws.org/membership/books 19 q Other
q Jefferson’s Welding Encyc.(CD-ROM only) q Welding Metallurgy q Welding Inspection Handbook
Technical Interests (Check all that apply)
Welding Handbook Selections: q WHB (9th Ed., Vol. 5) q WHB (9th Ed., Vol. 4) q WHB (9th Ed., Vol. 3) q WHB (9th Ed., Vol. 2) q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 1) A q Ferrous metals
B.) OPTIONAL Welding Journal Hard Copy (for Members outside North America) B q Aluminum
C q Nonferrous metals except aluminum
q Individual Members outside North America (note: electronic delivery of WJ is standard)..........................................$50
D q Advanced materials/Intermetallics
E q Ceramics
INDIVIDUAL MEMBERSHIP TOTAL PAYMENT..................................................................................$_____________ F q High energy beam processes
NOTE: Dues include $17.30 for Welding Journal subscription and $4.00 for the AWS Foundation. G q Arc welding
H q Brazing and soldering
I q Resistance welding
STUDENT MEMBERSHIP J q Thermal spray
K q Cutting
q AWS STUDENT MEMBERSHIP (with digital Welding Journal magazine)................................................$15 L q NDT
M q Safety and health
q AWS STUDENT MEMBERSHIP (with hard copy Welding Journal magazine)..............................................$35
N q Bending and shearing
Option available only to students in U.S., Canada & Mexico.
O q Roll forming
P q Stamping and punching
PAYMENT INFORMATION Q q Aerospace
R q Automotive
Payment can be made (in U.S. dollars) by check or money order (international or foreign), payable to the American Welding Society, or by credit card. S q Machinery
q Check q Money Order q AMEX q Diners Club q MasterCard q Visa q Discover q Other T q Marine
U q Piping and tubing
CC#:____________ / ____________ / ____________ / ____________ Expiration Date (mm/yy) ________ / ________ V q Pressure vessels and tanks
W q Sheet metal
X q Structures
Signature of Applicant:_________________________________________ Application Date:_______________________
Y q Other
Z q Automation
OFFICE USE ONLY Check #:_______________________________ Account #____________________________________ 1 q Robotics
Source Code: WJ Date:_________________________________ Amount:_____________________________________ 2 q Computerization of Welding
REV. 11/18

& Technology Center. The awards
luncheon/banquet will be held on
April 27 at 1:00 p.m. at Osgood’s in
Robesonia, Pa.
YORK-CENTRAL
October 25
Location: ESAB Technology Center,
Hanover, Pa.
Summary: Section members partici-
pated in a tour of the new ESAB Tech-
nology Demonstration Center and
consumables plant.
October 26
Summary: The Section participated in
Welding Career Day at York County
School of Technology. Educational and
career paths for students entering the
welding industry were discussed. Air-
gas and OTC Daihen arranged to have
a welding demonstration truck on site
for students to engage in hands-on
participation.
YORK-CENTRAL — Welding students explored the OTC Daihen demonstration truck.
ATLANTA — Section members and welding students gathered for a photo during the October meeting.
SECTION NEWS
District 4
Mr. Lynn Showalter, director
(757) 848-8029
lynnshowalter@gmail.com
District 5
Howard Record, director
(352) 816-0835
howard@rtdtools.com
ATLANTA
October 10
Location: Acworth, Ga.
Presenters: Wayne Engeron Jr., Tech-
niweld; Barry Johnson, Techniweld;
and Tim Brown, Marrietta College &
Career Academy (MC&CA)
Summary: During a lunch meeting,
Engeron and Johnson delivered a tech-
nical presentation on new technolo-
gies in welding helmets and the pros
and cons associated with selecting the
right helmet. Brown spoke about the
new welding program at MC&CA. In
addition, the Section gave away five
new student memberships and raffled
off two bags of welding equipment
students need in class. A plaque was
presented to Ryan Blythe, director of
the Georgia Trade School. The meeting
was attended by 20 members and 55
students. Lunch was catered by Hen-
ry’s Louisiana Grill.
CENTRAL FLORIDA-ORLANDO
October 16
Location: Valencia College, Kissimmee,
Fla.
Presenter: Jack Armstrong, MagneGas
Summary: Armstrong gave a presenta-
tion on his company’s proprietary cut-
ting fuel. All members present were
able to participate and use the alterna-
tive fuel source to cut steel utilizing
the oxyfuel cutting process.
District 6
Michael Krupnicki, director
(585) 705-1764
mkrup@mahanyweld.com
NIAGARA FRONTIER
October 24
Location: Tonawanda, N.Y.
Presenter: Junjie Ma, Praxair
Summary: The Section hosted a laser
cutting/welding process demonstra-
tion at the Praxair laser lab in
Tonawanda, N.Y., conducted by Junjie
Ma. Ma demonstrated the latest tech-
nology in laser cutting, welding, and
hybrid laser welding.
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 79
SECTION NEWS
NORTHERN NEW YORK
October 6
Location: Tech Valley Center of Gravi-
ty, Troy, N.Y.
Presenter: Daniel Falkenstrom, facili-
ties specialist, Tech Valley Center of
Gravity
Summary: Members had the opportu-
nity to tour Tech Valley Center of
Gravity, a makerspace, creative com-
munity, prototyping center, and man-
ufacturing business incubator. Falken-
strom showed attendees the space’s
3D printers, industrial sewing ma-
chines, laser cutting unit, electronics,
wood and metal working facilities,
weld shop, and prototyping. Attendees
were also treated to pizza and chicken
wings.

NIAGARA FRONTIER — Section trustee

CENTRAL FLORIDA-ORLANDO — Students (from left) Miguel Mata, Eric Sheller, Jesse Shawn Woodward (left) presented a
Rigel, Cody Padron, and Mark Siddens received free AWS student memberships speaker’s gift to Junjie Ma of Praxair.
sponsored by the Section.

CENTRAL FLORIDA-ORLANDO — Section members and Valencia College students are seen at the October meeting.

NORTHERN NEW YORK — Makerspace tour attendees included (from left) Daisy Canaan, Christopher Lanese, Ralph Viola, Connor
Meehan, Dan Falkenstrom, Dave Parker, Tori Rodriguez, Max Faulkner, Brandon Brenno, and Erich Haun.

80 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019


ROCHESTER
September 26
Location: Rochester, N.Y.
Summary: AWS 2018 President Dale
Flood and his wife Svetlana visited
with District 6 members. The Floods
toured Paley Studios, Protech Sno
Pushers, Paul and Christine
Knoblauch’s studio, Feldmeier Equip-
ment’s new manufacturing facility,
Corning Community College’s Welding
SECTION NEWS
Technology Department, Cameron COLUMBUS
Manufacturing & Design, and U. A. October 23
Local 773. Location: The Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio
Presenter: Darrin Orr, project and stu-
District 7 dent coordinator, The Ohio State Uni-
versity, Center for Automotive
Larry Heckendorn, director Research
(614) 292-1220 Summary: Members toured The Ohio
heckendorn.4@osu.edu State University’s Center for Automo-
tive Research (CAR). The facility is the

ROCHESTER — AWS 2018 President Dale Flood and his wife, Svetlana, posed with the staff of Protech Sno Pushers following a
tour.

COLUMBUS — Tour Guide Darrin Orr (second from left) explained the Venturi Astrolab solar powered car.

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 83

SECTION NEWS
preeminent research center in sustain-
able and safe mobility in the United
States and an interdisciplinary re-
search center for the university’s col-
lege of engineering. Under the direc-
tion of Giorgio Rizzoni, CAR involves
more than 40 visiting scholars, 45
staff members, 56 undergraduate stu-
dents, 42 CAR-affiliated faculty, and
100 graduate students who carry out
more than $8 million of research proj-
ects annually.
PITTSBURGH
November 1
Location: Luciano’s Brick Oven
Restaurant, Mars, Pa.
Presenter: Nick Burdette, P. E., HDR
Engineering; and Ralph “Bucky”
Croushore, general manager, Amelie
Construction
Topic: 2016 Liberty Bridge repairs
Summary: Members listened to a pres-
entation by Burdette and Croushore
on the September 2, 2016, closing of
the Liberty Bridge following a fire dur-
ing construction work. The bridge was
closed for 24 days after intense heat
from the burning plastic piping caused
a 30-ft steel beam (compression
chord) to buckle. Burdette discussed
the damages, challenges, engineering
studies, and solutions for the multi-
million dollar repair. Croushore was in
charge of implementing the repair
plan and described how the solutions
were implemented as the crew worked
18-h shifts to make the repairs.
District 8
D. Joshua Burgess, director
(931) 260-7039
djoshuaburgess@gmail.com
AUBURN-OPELIKA — Participants of the SL Alabama Tour gathered for a group photo.
84 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
District 9 amination company’s perspective.
They addressed common errors ob-
served in both the technician and the
Michael Skiles, director supervisor. There was also an
(337) 501-0304 overview of the older methods of eval-
michaelskiles@cox.net uation vs. using the chemistry of the
material.
AUBURN-OPELIKA
October 25
Location: Alexander City, Ala.
Presenter: Sue Webb, SL Alabama
Summary: Members toured SL Ala-
bama where headlights for Kia and
Hyundai are manufactured.
BATON ROUGE
November 15
Location: Baton Rouge, La.
Presenters: Mark Robert, technical
rep, Intek; and George Fairbanks,
owner/general manager, Fairbanks In-
spection & Testing
Summary: Robert and Fairbanks ad-
dressed the history and development PITTSBURGH — Section Chair Ray
of spectrometers and the changes in Knobbs (center) presented apprecia-
CE. They also addressed the differ- tion plaques to guest speakers Bucky
ences in XRF and OES. Fairbanks did a Croushore (left) and Nick Burdette.
checklist from the nondestructive ex-
BATON ROUGE — Pictured (from left) at the November meeting are Dale Delaville,
Kevin Strzynski, Blake Hewitt, Speakers Mark Robert and George Fairbanks,
Markkevin Spencer, Leonard Jenkins, and Tom Shelton.

NEW ORLEANS
October 16
Location: Copland Towers & Confer-
ence Center, Metairie, La.
Presenter: Matthew Howerton, region-
al sales engineer, Lincoln Electric Co.
Summary: The meeting was sponsored
by Plumbers & Steamfitters UA Local
60. Local 60 Business Manager Curtis
Mezzic and AWS District 9 Director
Mike Skiles were in attendance and
presided over the meeting. Howerton
gave a presentation on using a modi-
NEW ORLEANS — Guest speaker
Matthew Howerton (center) is seen
with Section Treasurer Travis Moore
(left) and Section 1st Vice Chair Bruce
Hallila.
SECTION NEWS
fied short-circuit welding process.
Door prizes for attendees were donat-
ed by Lincoln Electric and a 50/50 raf-
fle was held with proceeds dedicated
toward Section student activities. The
Section’s officers are thankful that
Skiles took the time to travel and par-
ticipate in the meeting.
District 10
Mike Sherman, director
(216) 570-9348
mike@shermanswelding.com
District 11
Phillip Temple, director
(734) 546-4298
nwcllc_ptemple@att.net
PINCKNEY COMMUNITY HIGH
SCHOOL STUDENT CHAPTER
October 4
Location: Pinckney, Mich.
Summary: Student Chapter Advisor
and Welding Instructor Mark Stein
took welding students to visit local
manufacturers C&B Machinery, Flexi-
ble Metal, and TG Fluid Systems.
District 12
Dale Lange, director
(715) 732-3645
dale.lange@nwtc.edu
MADISON-BELOIT /
BLACKHAWK TECHNICAL
COLLEGE STUDENT CHAPTER
October 7
Location: Stoughton, Wis.
Summary: The Blackhawk Technical
College AWS Student Chapter attend-
ed Zalk Josephs Fabricators’s Manu-
facturing Day events at its facility. Ac-
tivities included a tour and demon-
stration stations set up by American
Bolt Co. and Lincoln Electric. Local
vendors provided food and drinks for
all attendees.
District 13
Ronald Ashelford director
(815) 218-8766
r.ashelford@rockvalleycollege.edu

Pinckney Community High School Student Chapter — Welding Instructor Mark Stein and his students toured TG Fluid Systems as
part of annual Manufacturing Day celebrations.

MADISON-BELOIT / Blackhawk Technical College Student Chapter — Student Chapter Advisor Dan Crifase (far left) and his weld-
ing students toured Zalk Josephs Fabricators LLC.

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 85

SECTION NEWS
CHICAGO
October 10
Location: Bohemian Crystal Restau-
rant, Westmont, Ill.
Presenters: Robert Hay and Mike
Chiappetta, Flood Testing Labs Inc.
Summary: In a combined meeting with
the ASNT Chicago Section, Guest
Speakers Hay and Chiappetta dis-
cussed the testing and inspection of
structural steel; touching on rebar, alu-
minum, stainless, bridges, and bolting.
$1500 scholarship. District and Sec-
District 14 tion awards were also presented.
Tony Brosio, director
(765) 215-7506 LEXINGTON
tbrosio@yahoo.com November 15
Location: Lexington, Ky.
INDIANA Presenters: Rod McClure and Aaron
November 14 DeBord, American Welding & Gas Inc.;
Location: J. Everett Light Career Cen- and Doris Bonomini, Camel Grinding
ter, Indianapolis, Ind. Wheels
Summary: The Section held its annual Summary: American Welding & Gas
Awards Night. Ivy Tech Community Inc. hosted the Section at its Newtown
College Student Lee Rohrer received a Pike location. McClure led a discussion

CHICAGO — The Chicago Sections of AWS and ASNT held a joint October meeting.

INDIANA — Section award recipients included (from left) Jason Staples, Section Meritorious; Martina Miller, Section Educator;
Charles Cessna, District Meritorious; Eric Cooper, District Educator; and Gabriella Bettegnies, Section Meritorious.

LEXINGTON — Members posed for a group photo while visiting American Welding & Gas Inc.

86 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019


about the welding industry and De-
Bord performed a demonstration us-
ing the swift-cut plasma table. Bono-
mini spoke to members about grinding
wheels.
ST. LOUIS
August 25
Location: Bommarito Automotive
Group 500 Gateway Motorsports Park,
Madison, Ill.
Summary: Section members helped
their local Boy Scouts of America troop
promote the science, technology, engi-
neering, and mathematics (STEM)
fields at the Indy car race. With the
help of Lewis and Clark Community
College’s mobile welding truck, mem-
bers were able to help the children
build a small eagle that they were able
to take home.
September 19
Location: GRP Mechanical, Bethalto,
Ill.
Summary: Members participated in a
facility tour of GRP Mechanical, the
largest mechanical contractor and pipe
fabricator in the Metro East, with
clients such as hospitals, institutions,
industrial projects, refineries, modular
units, utility power plants, and com-
press air manufacturing facilities. GRP
President Tom DeClue III led the tour
ST. LOUIS — Section members are seen during a tour of GRP Mechanical.
ST. LOUIS — Members are shown during a facility tour of L. E. Sauer Machining.
SECTION NEWS
through the 21,600-sq-ft facility that Summary: Attendees of the October
is equipped with the latest in welding meeting participated in a facility tour
technology. Members are thankful to of Federal Steel & Erection Co., a full-
DeClue and his staff for showing them service structural steel, fabrication,
around the building. and erection company specializing in
industrial, petrochemical, steel mill,
October 18 refining, and commercial projects. Its
Location: L. E. Sauer Machining, St. 40,000-sq-ft fabrication facility fea-
Louis, Mo. tures CNC fabrication equipment uti-
Summary: L.E. Sauer hosted Section lizing modern electronic 3D interfac-
members for a tour of their facility. ing and 3D modeling software for pro-
Founded as a job shop in 1926, the duction of shop drawings and steel
company grew in the 1950s by pio- members.
neering a line of products for the cor-
rugated box industry known as the
Sauer System. Under the direction of
the third generation, Warren Sauer, it
has expanded its CNC capabilities and
added laser cutting, fabricating, and
heat treating. This has allowed for an
almost complete in-house control of
production of parts and made them a
single-source supplier for many of
their customers. With the fourth gen-
eration now involved, Peter Sauer, the
company is investing in the latest
equipment and technology with the
mission of continuing the legacy of
manufacturing in America.
ST. LOUIS — Section Member Mike
November 15 Kamp (left) demonstrated the flux
Location: Federal Steel & Erection Co., cored self shielded arc welding
East Alton, Ill. process to a Boy Scout.
Presenter: Scott Longnecker
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 87
SECTION NEWS
District 15 IOWA
November 14
Michael Hanson, director Location: Pearson Metal Art,
(763) 221-5951 Radcliffe, Iowa
mikhan318@comcast.com Summary: Members attended a work-
shop by Larry Pearson to learn the
NORTHERN PLAINS process of welded sculptures.
August 11
Location: Fertile, Minn. MID PLAINS
Presenters: Tim Schwanz and Clint October 24
Gilbertson, Sandhill River Golf Course Location: Hershey High School,
Summary: The Section held its annual Hershey, Neb.
golf scholarship fundraiser at the Summary: Section members partici-
Sandhill River Golf Course and had a pated in a tour of Hershey High
positive turnout. School’s new welding lab. Welding ca-
reer opportunities were discussed and
students were encouraged to fill out an NORTHERN PLAINS — Section mem-
District 16 application for an AWS Student Mem- ber Joel Johnson jokingly displayed
turf on his hat while participating
Karl Fogleman, director bership sponsored by the Section.
in the Section’s golf scholarship
(402) 677-2490 fundraiser.
fogleman3@cox.net

ST. LOUIS — Federal Steel & Erection Co. welcomed Section members during their November meeting.

IOWA — Members participated in a workshop to learn about welded sculptures. Shown are (from left) Branden Otto, Section chair;
Corey Smith; Charles Burg; Larry Pearson, Pearson’s Metal Art; AWS Past President David Landon; Harold Boeset; and Paul Berge.

88 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019


NEBRASKA
September 12
Location: Metro Community College,
Omaha, Neb.
Presenter: Uwe Aschemeier, senior
welding engineer, Subsea Global
Solutions
Summary: Aschemeier spoke to Sec-
tion members about underwater wet
welding, including an overview of un-
derwater repair projects.
October 10
Location: Metro Community College,
Omaha, Neb.
Summary: The Section hosted AWS
2018 President Dale Flood and his
wife Svetlana. Flood provided an
overview of the current state of the
welding industry and how it is expect-
ed to change in the next ten years.
District 17
J Jones, director
(832) 506-5986
jjones6@lincolnelectric.com
NEBRASKA — Guest Speaker Uwe As-
chemeier (left) shared stories and in-
sight on underwater welding. District
16 Director Karl Fogleman (right) also
addressed attendees.
NEBRASKA — District Director Karl Fogleman (standing) and Section members en-
joyed a presentation from AWS 2018 President Dale Flood.
SECTION NEWS
He turned 100 years old on December
District 18 28, 2018, and still goes to work every
Thomas Holt, director day. Participating schools included
(409) 721-5777 Newton ISD, Dayton ISD, West Hardin
tholt@techcorr.com ISD, Hampshire-Fannett ISD, Orange-
field ISD, Evadale ISD, Buna ISD,
SABINE Hardin ISD, Liberty ISD, Lovelady ISD,
September 18 Barbers Hill ISD, East Chambers ISD,
Location: Coastal Welding, Magnolia West ISD, Burkeville ISD,
Beaumont, Tex. Taylor Career Center–Beaumont ISD,
Summary: During its September meet- Bridge City ISD, Silsbee ISD, Vidor ISD,
ing, the Section recognized items that Anahuac ISD, Hardin–Jefferson ISD,
were donated by AWS Headquarters to Port Neches Groves ISD, Woodville
Vidor ISD after Hurricane Harvey ru- ISD, and Deweyville ISD.
ined students’ welding gear.
October 3
Location: Lamar Institute of Technolo-
gy (L. I. T.), Tex., Beaumont, Tex.
Summary: Twenty-three schools par-
ticipated in the Texas Rice Festival
High School Welding Competition. Lil-
ton Sonnier of Winnie Welding Works
assisted as a judge, a job he has been
doing since the first competition 19
years ago. Sonnier started Winnie
Welding Works in 1946 and has been a
mentor to young welding students.
SABINE — Standing with items do-
nated by AWS Headquarters are (from
left) District 17 Director J Jones, District
18 Director Tom Holt, Vidor High School
Instructor Garrett Smith, and AWS
Past President John Bray.
NEBRASKA — Section Chair Greg
Schroeter presented guest speaker
and AWS 2018 President Dale Flood
(left) and his wife Svetlana with a
token of appreciation.
SABINE — Lilton Sonnier (left) and
Section Chair John McKeehan served
as judges during the Texas Rice Festi-
val High School Welding Competition.
One-hundred-year-old Sonnier has
been a judge for the competition
since it began 19 years ago.
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 89
SECTION NEWS
SABINE — Members participated in the Texas Rice Festival High School Welding Competition.
BRITISH COLUMBIA — Section 1st Vice
Chair Kyle Bramhoff (left) presented a
speaker gift to Paul Murray.
BRITISH COLUMBIA — Section 1st Vice
Chair Kyle Bramhoff (right) is seen
with Guest Speaker Tristan Warren.
COLORADO — Member Steve Pineiro
(left) received the Section Dalton E.
Hamilton CWI of the Year Award.
90 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
District 19
Shawn McDaniel, director
(509) 793-5182
shawnm@bigbend.edu
BRITISH COLUMBIA
September 27
Location: UAPIC Delta, British Colum-
bia, Canada
Presenter: Paul Murray, Lincoln Elec-
tric Co.
Summary: Members gathered for a
catered dinner and presentation by
Murray titled, “Back to Basic Flux Core
Welding and Consumables.”
October 22
Location: Central City Brewers & Dis-
tillers, Surrey, British Columbia,
Canada
Presenter: Tristan Warren, brewmas-
ter, Central City Brewers & Distillers
Summary: Warren led Section mem-
bers on an operation and maintenance
tour of Central City Brewers & Dis-
tillers. Dinner was catered on-site fol-
lowing the tour.
COLORADO — Guest speaker Patrick Hickey (far left) is seen with Section Board
members (left to right) Tom Kienbaum, AWS Past President Bob Teuscher, Jesse
Grantham, and Juan Carlos Madeni.
District 20
Pierrette H. Gorman, director
(505) 440-6284
pierrette@comcast.net
COLORADO
April 5
Location: Lakewood, Colo.
Summary: The Section presented the
Dalton E. Hamilton Memorial CWI of
the Year Award to Steve Pineiro.
October 11
Location: Denver, Colo.
Presenter: Patrick Hickey, Newmont
Mining Corp., PT Newmont Nusa
Tenggara
Summary: Hickey presented an in-
depth discussion on the Batu Hijau
Mine project in Sumbawa, Indonesia.
He spoke about issues of logistics, hu-
man resources, some of the construc-
tion challenges in a wet jungle/ocean
environment with different types of
materials, special challenges with
welding many of the components in

that environment, and changes that
were required to the original material
selections when necessary due to ma-
terial failures. Also discussed were
some of the unique fabrication solu-
tions for welding and transporting un-
dersea pipelines in various material
combinations.
NEW MEXICO
October 18
Location: Gallup, N.Mex.
Presenter: Joe Sanchez, instructor,
University of New Mexico – Gallup
Summary: Sanchez discussed educa-
tional opportunities for students in
welding and the trades. He explained
that both an associate of applied sci-
ence and certificate of program com-
pletion are offered in the welding pro-
gram at the University of New Mexi-
co – Gallup campus.
District 21
Sam Lindsey, director
(858) 740-1917
slindsey@sandiego.gov
SAN FRANCISCO — AWS 2018 President Dale Flood (center) and his wife Svetlana
(second from left) are seen with (from left) Section Secretary May Ung and Co-
Chairs Liisa Pine and Jennifer Bernard.
NEW MEXICO — Section Chair Pat Bauman (standing, far left) joined Assistant Welding Instructor Jim Bostic (standing, sixth from
left), Instructor Joe Sanchez (kneeling, first from left) and students from the University of New Mexico – Gallup campus.
SECTION NEWS
Presenter: Randy Thomas, coordina-
District 22 tor, Boilermakers Local #549
Robert Purvis, director Topic: Introduction to the Internation-
(916) 599-5561 al Brotherhood of Boilermakers (IBB)
purviswelds@gmail.com Summary: Thomas spoke to members
about the history of the Brotherhood
CENTRAL VALLEY and its relationship to welding. Fol-
October 25 lowing a Q&A session, attendees were
Location: College of the Sequoias, taken on a tour of the training
Tulare, Calif. facilities.
Summary: Past District Director Kerry
Shattell outlined current AWS Scholar-
ship opportunities available to welding
students in the area prior to introduc-
ing AWS 2018 President Dale Flood.
SAN FRANCISCO
October 23
Location: Plumbers & Pipefitters Local
342 Union Hall, Concord, Calif.
Summary: AWS 2018 President Dale
Flood spoke to members and welding
students from Laney College, Los
Medanos College, and San Francisco
CENTRAL VALLEY — Seen at the Octo-
State University. Flood’s presentation
was followed by a tour of Local 342’s
ber meeting are (from left) Section
Chair Randy Emery, AWS 2018 Presi-
updated training facility. dent Dale Flood, Past District Director
Kerry Shattell, and Section Officer
October 23 Chris Huff.
Location: Boilermakers Local #549
Lodge, Pittsburg, Calif.
SAN FRANCISCO — Section Co-Chair
Jennifer Bernard (left) thanked IBB
Coordinator Randy Thomas for his
presentation.
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 91
 GUIDE TO AWS SERVICES
American Welding Society® INFORMATION SYSTEMS Program Managers II
8669 NW 36 St., #130 Managing Director Stephen Borrero... sborrero@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(334)
Miami, FL 33166-6672 John Perry .. jperry@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(247) Definitions and Symbols, Structural Subcom-
(800/305) 443-9353; Fax: (305) 443-7559 mittees on Reinforcing Steel and Stainless Steel,
Phone extensions are in parentheses. PUBLISHING & EDITORIAL Joining of Metals and Alloys, Piping and Tubing
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)
AWS PRESIDENT Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(301)
Thomas J. Lienert. . . . . . . .tjlienert@gmail.com Welding Journal Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International
Consultant Publisher/Editor Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Arc Weld-
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . . . . .(238) ing and Cutting Processes, Computational Weld
SENIOR LEADERSHIP TEAM Mechanics
Executive Director/ Society News Editor
Chief Executive Officer Katie Pacheco.. kpacheco@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(275) Jennifer Molin.. jmolin@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Matt Miller.. mmiller@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(207) Structural Welding, Sheet Metal Welding
Section News Editor
Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(256)
Chief Financial Officer/
Chief Administrative Officer Inspection Trends Editor Program Managers
Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(252) Carlos Guzman..cguzman@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(348) Mario Diaz..mdiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(310)
Automotive, Resistance Welding, Resistance
Chief Marketing Officer MARKETING Welding Equipment, Welding and Brazing in Aero-
Sofia Samuels..ssamuels@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(419) Chief Marketing Officer space, Friction Welding
Sofia Samuels.. ssamuels@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(419)
Senior Vice Presidents Kevin Bulger..kbulger@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(306)
Cassie Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(253) MEMBER SERVICES Brazing and Soldering, Methods of Weld In-
Research, Strategy, and Membership Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(480) spection, Welding in Marine Construction, Welding
of Machinery and Equipment
John Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(472) Associate Director
Welding & Technology Nici Banks...nbanks@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(270) Jennifer Rosario.. jrosario@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(308)
Serves as a liaison between members and AWS Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting, Railroad
Vice Presidents headquarters. Welding, Thermal Spraying, Welding Iron Castings,
Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(299) Welding Qualification
Talent Senior Manager, Volunteer Engagement and
Support Welding Handbook Editor
Patrick Henry.. phenry@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(226) Darrill Gaschler.. dgaschler@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(306) Kathy Sinnes.. ksinnes@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(255)
Society Programs
CERTIFICATION SERVICES CUSTOMER SERVICE & SUPPORT
EXECUTIVE OFFICE Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(273) Director
Associate Director Hosea Carter...hcarter@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(413)
Chelsea Steel.. csteel@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(294) Managing Director
Denny Smith.....dsmith@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(263) Customer Service...customerservice@aws.org . .(280)
HUMAN RESOURCES
Associate Director ACCREDITATION AWS FOUNDATION INC.
Alex Diaz.. adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(209) Senior Manager aws.org/w/a/foundation
Emil Pagoaga..epagoaga@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(448) General Information
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WELDING (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, jdouglass@aws.org
Senior Coordinator EDUCATION & TRAINING
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(319) Director Chairman, Board of Trustees
Liaison services with other national and interna- Alicia Garcia..agarcia@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(229) William A. Rice.. brice@oki-bering.com
tional societies and standards organizations.
CONFERENCES & EVENTS Executive Director, Foundation
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES Director Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(461)
Hugh Webster .... hwebster@wc-b.com CaLae Browne..cbrowne@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(213)
Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C. Associate Director, Foundation Services
(202) 785-9500; Fax: (202) 835-0243 SALES & PUBLISHING John Douglass.. jdouglass@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(212)
Monitors federal issues of importance to the Managing Director
industry. Michael Walsh...mwalsh@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(350)
The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit 501(c)(3)
CONVENTION AND EXPOSITIONS Senior Sales Executive, Academia charitable organization established to provide support
Director, Expositions Efram Abrams....eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(333) for the educational and scientific endeavors of the Amer-
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(239) ican Welding Society. Promote the Foundation’s work
Senior Sales Executive, Corporate with your financial support.
Senior Sales Executive, Expositions Sandra Jorgensen.....sjorgensen@aws.org . . . . .(254)
Sarah Dickson.....sdickson@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(297)
STANDARDS DEVELOPMENT
ITSA — INTERNATIONAL THERMAL Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(340)
SPRAY ASSOCIATION
Program Manager Director — Standards Development
Alfred Nieves....anieves@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(467) Peter Portela.. pportela@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(311)
Technical Committee Activities, Additive
RWMA — RESISTANCE WELDING MANUFACTUR- Manufacturing, High-Energy Beam Welding, Ro-
ING ALLIANCE botics Welding, Welding in Sanitary Applications,
Program Manager Structural Subcommittees on Bridge Welding and
Adrian Bustillo....abustillo@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(295) Titanium

WEMCO — ASSOCIATION OF WELDING Director — International Activities

MANUFACTURERS Andrew Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(466)
Program Manager International Standards Activities, American
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . . . . .(444) Council of the International Institute of Welding

GLOBAL OPERATIONS Manager, Safety and Health

Corporate Director Stephen Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(305)
Jeff Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(233) Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of
Oversees international business activities; Plastics and Composites, Personnel and Facilities
certification, publications, and membership. Qualification, Mechanical Testing of Welds

92 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019

PERSONNEL
Walter Surface Technologies
Appoints Senior Positions
M.-A. Aubé D. Wright
Walter Surface Technologies, Mon-
treal, Canada, has recently announced
two senior-level appointments. The
company has promoted Marc-André
Aubé to the CEO position from his for-
mer role of president and COO. Prior
to joining Walter in February 2017,
Aubé was president and COO of Gar-
daWorld Protective Services, where his
main responsibilities included driving
the company’s annual growth and en-
suring operational standards within
the team of 26,000 Canadian security
professionals. He has also worked for
Nalco Canada, Petro-Canada, Caisse de
dépôt et placement du Québec, and
Scotia Capital Inc. Additionally, David
Wright has been promoted to vice
president of corporate development.
He joined the company in 2015 as the
business development manager.
Ford Expands
Leadership Team
E. Ford J. Savona
Ford Motor Co., Dearborn, Mich.,
has named Elena Ford as chief cus-
94 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019
tomer experience officer. In her role,
she will continue to be closely inte-
grated with the sales and marketing
organization and global dealer net-
work as well as work with the Ford
customer service division and the
quality organization team. She will
also lead a team to identify key cus-
tomer pain points that can drive im-
proved business results, from digital
sites to call centers and service bays.
The company has also named John
Savona as vice president of North
American manufacturing. Additional-
ly, Savona has been elected as a com-
pany officer. In this role, he will be re-
sponsible for the company’s North
America manufacturing footprint.
Savona began his career with the au-
tomaker in 1989 as a security officer
at its Wayne, Mich., assembly plant
after three years of service in the U.S.
Army. Throughout his time at the
company, he has held a variety of roles
with increasing responsibility, includ-
ing his most recent position as direc-
tor of global manufacturing quality.
Chicago Pneumatic Names
Business Line Manager
Chicago Pneumatic, an internation-
al manufacturer of professional auto-
motive and industrial tools, has ap-
pointed Philip Warmbier as business
line manager at the company’s head-
quarters located in Rock Hill, S.C.
Warmbier will direct the sales teams in
the North American territory, which
includes the United States, Canada,
and Mexico. The team services indus-
trial and vehicle service clients.
Obituary
Bernhard Joseph “Bernie” Bastian
Bernhard Joseph “Bernie” Bastian
passed away of natural causes on Nov.
4, 2018. He was 90. A welding consult-
ant, teacher, writer, mentor, and con-
tributor to the technology of automo-
tive welding, Bastian built a 50-plus-
year career in the welding industry.
Born in Poughkeepsie, N.Y., he
earned his bachelor of science degree
in mechanical engineering and a mas-
ter’s degree in metallurgical engineer-
ing from Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti-
tute in Troy, N.Y.
He served in the
U.S. Army during
the Korean War
and was stationed
at Fort Riley mili-
tary base. Bastian
went on to work
as a metallurgical
engineer for near-
ly 40 years, begin-
ning his career
B. J. Bastian
with IBM and the
Edison Institute
in New York and
New Jersey, before moving to Detroit
in 1957. He worked for Chrysler Corp.
and Ford Motor Co. in welding engi-
neering and management. He was also
an instructor and coach for welders
and technicians. He taught welding
and related courses at Henry Ford
Community College for 17 years and
has written instructive articles for a
number of technical publications.
Bastian was very active in the
American Welding Society (AWS),
holding multiple positions, while re-
ceiving numerous awards. He served
on the Welding Handbook Committee,
providing guidance on the organiza-
tion and technical content of the Weld-
ing Handbook. He was also responsible
for oversight and final reviews of vari-
ous chapters of each of the five vol-
umes of the 9th Edition. He is a Fellow
of AWS and was honored as a Life
Member in 2018.
He is survived by his wife, Marta,
11 children, 31 grandchildren, and nu-
merous great grandchildren.
Glenn M. Nally
Glenn M. Nally passed away on No-
vember 13, 2018. He was 91. Nally
contributed to the welding community
and industry for more than 50 years as
a specialist in communications, adver-
tising, literature, public relations,
trade show, and product styling.
He joined Hobart Brothers Co. in
1967, then went on to retire from the
company in 1990. From beginning to
end, he was involved in the creation of
the Gallery of Welding History at the
Hobart Institute of Welding Technolo-
gy. He created a 3D model of the
gallery based on the architectural
drawings, assisted in the research of
pictures, as well as created many of the
pictorial displays and collages and ad-
vised how to place them.
Additionlly, Nally served the Ameri-
can Welding Society (AWS) as a mem-
ber of its board of directors, twice
elected as director-at-large. He was
also a member and chairman of the
Welding Journal Committee for 21
years. He received the AWS National
Meritorious Certificate Award for his
“counsel, loyalty, and devotion to the
B. Leibinger
affairs of the Society.”
He is survived by his wife of 63
years, Beverly, five children, and nine
grandchildren. Under his leadership, the company
evolved into one of the world’s leading
machine manufacturers. He is regarded
Berthold Leibinger as one of the pioneers in the industrial
application of lasers. In 2005, he hand-
Berthold Leibinger, a TRUMPF sen- ed over the reins of the company to his
ior figure and partner, passed away on eldest daughter.
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY
— continued from page 15
At a ribbon cutting for the new Toyota welding lab at Ivy Tech
Community College’s (ITCC) Columbus, Ind., campus were
(from left) Jesse Brand, member, ITCC state board of trustees;
Steven Coffman, dean, schools of advanced manufacturing,
engineering, and applied science, ITCC Columbus; Cindy Frey,
president, Columbus Area Chamber of Commerce; Joe Otte,
department chair, advanced automation and robotics tech-
nology, design technology, and industrial technology, ITCC
Columbus; Tony Miller, senior vice president, Toyota Industrial
Equipment Manufacturing (TIEM); Steven Combs, chancellor,
ITCC Columbus; Steve Pride, former director of human re-
sources, training, and customs compliance, TIEM; Jim Lien-
hoop, mayor, City of Columbus; Takafumi Zensho, president/
CEO, TIEM; Michael Kelley, welding instructor, ITCC Columbus;
Josh Linnemann, director of design engineering, production
engineering, and information technology, TIEM; and Trunnis
Goggins, workforce development consultant, ITCC Columbus.
October 16, 2018, In addition to his work at TRUMPF,
following a long ill- he has held numerous positions in the
ness. He was 87. German business community, includ-
After studying en- ing membership of the supervisory
gineering in boards of Deutsche Bank AG and
Stuttgart, Baden- BMW AG, as well as chair of the super-
Württemberg, Ger- visory board of BASF SE. He was presi-
many, and spend- dent of the Chamber of Industry and
ing two years in Commerce of the Stuttgart Region
the United States, and, from 1990 to 1992, president of
Leibinger joined the German Mechanical Engineering
TRUMPF in 1961. Industry Association. In 1992,
He became a part- Leibinger established the Berthold
ner and managing Leibinger Stiftung, a not-for-profit
director in 1966. foundation that dedicates its proceeds
to cultural, scientific, religious, and
charitable purposes. In 2000, the
foundation established the Berthold
Leibinger Innovation Prize, which is
awarded once every two years. WJ
“At Toyota, we believe that our best hope for the future is
right here in our local people,” said Tony Miller, TIEM senior
vice president.
A ribbon-cutting ceremony on September 25 served as
the official unveiling. Many attendees from TIEM and the
community college were present (see the group photo).
Industry Notes
• Progress is continuing on the proposed welding training
facility at the Port of West St. Mary in Louisiana, which
will aid local companies in filling needs for skilled aluminum
welders. A finalized design is expected in early 2019. Last
year, the Port Commission of West St. Mary revealed a
$1.3-million grant from the U.S. Economic Development
Administration to aid in building a welding training facil-
ity on port grounds; this will be combined with $450,000
in state capital outlay funds.
• The U.S. Department of Energy has awarded Brimrose
Technology, Sparks, Md., with a Phase 1 Small Business In-
novation Research award worth $149,995 to improve the
manufacturing of small modular reactors via nondestructive
examination. The focus is to demonstrate the feasibility of an
ultrasonic scattering technique used to characterize the mi-
crostructure and material properties for components made
with various additive manufacturing characteristics.
• Randolph Community College, Asheboro, N.C., hosted
225 eighth-grade students from nine Randolph County
middle schools as part of Manufacturing Day on October 5.
They participated in a mock assembly line, created badges,
and enjoyed hands-on activities/demonstrations in the
Gene Haas Computer-Integrated Machining Institute, elec-
trical systems, mechatronics, and welding areas. According
to mfgday.com, 2786 events were planned in 2018. WJ
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 95
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CLASSIFIEDS

FOR SALE OR RENT

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We manufacture tank turning rolls
Made in U.S.A. 3-ton through 120-ton rolls
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Phone: (979) 277-8343
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contact information at:
sales@mitrowskiwelding.com
(800) 218-9620
www.nyccertifiedwelding.com
The Atlas of Welding (713) 943-8032
Procedure Specifications
This three-day seminar/workshop on the
subject of developing welding procedure
specifications, procedure qualification
records, and welder qualification records is
being offered once again. The three-day
workshop/seminar is scheduled for March
25 through March 27, 2019 in Simsbury,
Connecticut. The seminar provides a
rational basis for developing welding
procedure specifications that meet AWS
and ASME codes. In-class exercises cover
the process of writing prequalified WPSs
and the mechanics of qualifying WPSs by
testing. The welding documents developed
are applicable to AWS and ASME as well as
other standards that include NAVSEA
standards, other military standards, and
commercial welding standards.

Albert Moore is the point of contact and

the instructor for the workshop. Seating is
limited, so register early. The October
offering sold out very quickly. If you missed
the October seminar, this is your next
opportunity to attend. For more
information contact Albert Moore at
amoore999@comcast.net

100 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019

 ADVERTISER INDEX

Abbot Furnace 31 Gullco International Inc. USA 31

abbottfurnace.com (814) 781-6355 gullco.com (440) 439-8333

Arcos Industries, LLC Inside Back Cover Harris Products 5

arcos.us (800) 233-8460 www.harrisproductsgroup.com (800) 733-4043

Atlas Evaluation & Inspection Services (AEIS) 62 Hobart Institute of Welding Technology 65
iweldusa.com (732) 388-7711 welding.org (800) 332-9448

Atlas Welding Accessories Inc. 28 Lincoln Electric Co. Outside Back Cover
atlaswelding.com (800) 962-9353 lincolnelectric.com (216) 481-8100

AWS Foundation 22, 25, 55 MB Metal Technologies. 64

aws.org/foundation (800) 443-9353, ext. 250 www.markinbox.com (800) 837-9270

AWS Member Services 17, 93 Mercer Industries 7

aws.org/membership (800) 443-9353, ext. 480 mercerindustries.com (800) 221-5202

CM Industries 9 ORS Nasco 64

cmindustries.com (800) 530-0032 orsnasco.com (800) 678-6577

Cor-Met 29 OTC Daihen Inc. 11

cor-met.com (800) 848-2719 daihen-usa.com (888) 682-7626

Diamond Ground Products Inc. 13, 15 Panasonic Corp. of North America 2

diamondground.com (805) 498-3837 panasonicfa.com (847) 637-9800

Donaldson Company Inc. 14 Phoenix International Inc. 53

donaldsontorit.com (800) 365-1331 www.dryrod.com (414) 973-3400

Fabtech USA 2019 43 Select-Arc Inc. Inside Front Cover

fabtechexpo.com (800) 443-9353, ext. 297 select-arc.com (937) 295-5215

Fischer Engineering Co. 62 TRUMPF 1

fischerengr.com (937) 754-1750 us.trumpf.com web contact only

Fischer Technology Inc. 26 Uniweld 65

fischer-technology.com (860) 683-0781 www.uniweld.com (800) 323-2111

Flexovit Abrasives 21 Weld Engineering Co, Inc 23

flexovitabrasives.com (800) 689-3539 weldenginee3ring.com (508) 842-2224

Fusion Inc. 27 Welder Training & Testing 65

www.fusion-inc.com (800) 626-9501 wtti.com (800) 223-9884

Gedik Welding 49
gedikwelding.com +90 216 378 50 00

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 101

AWS Peer Review Panel
All papers published in the Welding Journal’s Welding Research Supplement undergo Peer Review before publication for: 1) originality of the
contribution; 2) technical value to the welding community; 3) prior publication of the material being reviewed; 4) proper credit to others
working in the same area; and 5) justification of the conclusions, based on the work performed. The following individuals serve on the AWS
Peer Review Panel and are experts in specific technical areas. All are volunteers in the program.

Y. Adonyi P. Hall X. Ma F. Pfefferkorn W. J. Sperko

D. K. Aidun K. Hollis D. Maatz S. Pilli J. E. Stallmeyer
T. Anderson T. Holverson R. B. Madigan J. P. Planckaert A. W. Stockdale
J. Antonini T. Hong M. C. Maguire W. R. Polanin R. T. Stone
A. Arora S. Horikawa M. Manohar A. Polar T. Stotler
K. D. Ashtekar B. Horn I. Maroef N. Porter J. Sutliff
R. E. Avery A. Hu B. Marschke M. Posada E. Taban
N. K. Babu J. Hu F. Martinez Diez P. Prangnell H. Tang
S. Bag P. Huang R. P. Martukanitz M. Prime M. Teague
A. Bahrami Y. Huang M. P. Marya J. D. Puskar K. Tello
A. M. Beese J. Hutchins S. Massey J. Querin G. Thirunavukarasu
P. Berube R. Hutchison K. Masubuchi T. P. Quinn E. Todorov
A. Black D. A. Javernick M. Mayer A. Rabinkin W. Tong
M. Bloss N. T. Jenkins A. Maynard J. Ram D. W. Trees
D. Burford C. Jia J. Mazumder A. Raraz J. Tucker
X. Cao M. Q. Johnson M. McAninch S. Ream D. C. Tung
J. Caron A. Kar S. McCracken C. B. Reed D. M. Vandergriff
X. Chai L. Karlsson A. McDonald R. Ress B. Victor
Y. Chai S. Katayama A. Mengel D. Richards C. A. Walker
S. Chakraborty S. C. Kelley P. Michelaris B. Ridgway H. P. Wang
K. R. Chan S. Kelly M. P. Miles G. G. Roy W. Wang
B. Y. J. Chao D. S. Kim D. Miller D. Rudland Y. Y. Wang
C. C. Chen J. K. Kim R. Mishra D. J. Rybicki Z. Wang
S. Chen Y. S. Kim T. Morrissett E. F. Rybicki R. Warke
B. A. Chin D. B. Knorr P. E. Murray S. Sadagopan M. Weinstein
S. K. Chimbli F. Kong S. J. Na S. Santhanakrishnan M. M. Weir
K. Colligan P. J. Konkol X. Na A. Savitski E. M. Westin
G. E. Cook R. Kovacevic P. B. Nagy D. Schick T. C. Wheeler
C. E. Cross A. Kumar R. Nandan J. Schneider T. Wong
E. N. C. Dalder M. Kuntz A. M. Nasiri K. Scott P. Woollin
P. H. Day L. Kvidahl T. V. Natale O. Semenov C. Wu
A. De J. J. Kwiatkowski T. C. Nguyen D. Sen C. Y. Wu
H. Dong M. Labbe M. Nicas A. Shapiro J. Xiao
W. Drake K. Lachenberg N. E. Nissley A. Shukla L. Xiao
D. Dunbar S. H. Lalam J. T. Norris M. Siddens J. Xie
M. du Toit A. Landau Y. Ogawa M. S. Sierdzinski P. P. Xu
D. N. Dunbar B. Leister T. Oyama J. A. Siefert R. Xu
P. Dutta M. V. Li A. Pandey T. Siewert S. Xu
Z. Feng T. Li J. Peng D. Sirois Z. Xu
D. A. Fink W. Li J. A. Penso C. Smith F. Yang
S. R. Fiore D. Liang J. Perdomo B. R. Somers Z. Yang
W. F. Gale E. Liguo F. Perez R. Somers G. Young
D. L. Galiher C. C. Lu M. Perricone H. Song C. Zhang
Y. P. Gao W. Lu E. C. Pessoa W. H. Song K. Zhang
J. A. Gianetto Y. Lu W. Peterson G. Sonnenberg P. Zhang
M. Gray D. Ludwig C. Pettersson C. D. Sorensen R. Zhang
M. Hackett N. Ma A. Peusc V. Soundararajan

Principal Reviewers
B. Alexandrov J. W. Elmer S. Kou T. W. Nelson P. Vianco
M. Balmforth J. D. Farren K. Li G. Padmanabham G. Wang
D. Barborak D. F. Farson L. Li T. A. Palmer P. C. Wang
D. Bechetti P. W. Fuerschbach T. W. Liao A. J. Ramirez P. S. Wei
H. R. Castner P. Gadhe T. J. Lienert J. Ramirez Y. P. Yang
J. Chen A. Gerlich D. Lin G. W. Ritter X. Yu
J. Z. Chen J. E. Gould W. Lin J. Rodelas Z. Yu
T. Dai M. Harris S. Liu D. R. Sigler H. Zhang
C. B. Dallam D. Hartman Y. K. Liu M. Sinfield Y. M. Zhang
A. Debiccari T. Hitchcock T. Melfi D. J. Spinella Wei Zhang
T. DebRoy P. Hochanadel P. F. Mendez D. Susan W. J. Zhang
X. Deng Y. Huang D. W. Meyer W. Tan Y. N. Zhou
J. N. DuPont D. D. Kautz W. Mohr W. Tang
T. W. Eagar D. J. Kotecki B. Narayanan M. Tumuluru

102 WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019


SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, JANUARY 2019
Sponsored by the American Welding Society
The Mechanical Performance of Sn-Pb
Solder Joints on LTCC Substrates
Failure mode analysis was a critical metric for assessing the roles of interfaces,
bulk solder, and the ceramic on mechanical performance
BY P. VIANCO, S. WILLIAMS, A. KILGO, B. MCKENZIE, W. PRICE, AND E. GUERRERO
ABSTRACT
The assembly of ceramic components often uses solder-
ing technologies to attach metal structures to the ceramic
base material. Because many suitable solder alloys do not
readily wet and spread on ceramics, a metallization layer is
deposited on the latter to support wetting and spreading by
the molten solder for completion of the joint. The metalliza-
tion layer must be sufficiently robust to retain its integrity
through the soldering process as well as not negatively im-
pact the long-term reliability of the joint. A study was per-
formed to evaluate the mechanical properties of solder
joints made to a 0.200Ti/W-4.0Cu-2.0Pt-0.375Au (μm) thin-
film metallization deposited on low-temperature co-fired ce-
ramic (LTCC) base materials. The solder joints were made
with the 63Sn-37Pb solder (wt-%, abbreviated Sn-Pb). A pin
pull test was developed to measure the tensile strength of
the solder joint as a function of soldering parameters. Fail-
ure mode analysis was a critical metric for assessing the
roles of interfaces, bulk solder, and the ceramic on mechan-
ical performance. The Sn-Pb solder joints experienced a
nominal strength loss with increased severity of the solder-
ing process parameters. The strength decline was attributed
to changes in the solder joint microstructure, and not degra-
dation to the thin film structures.
KEYWORDS
• Thin Film Conductor • Pin Pull Strength
• Low-Temperature Co-Fired Ceramic
• Soldering Process Conditions
Introduction
Ceramic substrates have traditionally been specified for
printed circuit boards (PCBs) that must meet the perform-
ance requirements of radio-frequency (RF) electronics or to
https://doi.org/10.29391/2019.98.001
WELDING RESEARCH
minimize the thermal-mechanical fatigue (TMF) degrada-
tion of solder joints belonging to large ceramic components
(e.g., capacitors, filters, etc.). Today, these PCBs are also be-
ing targeted for use in high-temperature electronics that
provide in-situ monitoring of oil, gas, and geothermal wells
— Fig. 1. Down-hole temperatures are typically 150°–200°C,
but can peak at 300°C. Similar conditions exist for the very
high reliability electronics that are aboard deep-space probes
exploring the planet, Venus, or the Sun (Refs. 1–3).
Electronics based on ceramic PCBs are referred to as hy-
brid microcircuits (HMCs). Traditionally, HMCs used an alu-
mina ceramic substrate, an example of which is shown in
Fig. 2A. Traces and bond pads were created from pastes that
were a combination of metal particles, typically Ag, Au-Pd,
or Au-Pt-Pd alloy; a glass frit; and organic binders. The cir-
cuit pattern was formed by printing the paste through a
screen or stencil sheet that duplicated that pattern. Once
the paste was printed on the ceramic surface, it was dried to
drive off the organic binder and then fired at 850°–900°C for
15–30 min in air. The firing step sintered the metal particles
together to form an electrically conductive layer; it also
caused the glass frit to melt and diffuse to the metal
layer/ceramic surface, where it bonded the two materials to-
gether. Lastly, the ceramic substrate was assembled with
components using the same soldering processes as are used
with traditional laminate PCBs, creating the HMC assembly
shown in Fig. 2B.
Alumina substrates are generally limited to having cir-
cuitry on one or both surfaces because of the difficulty of
creating internal conductor layers. Signal transmission be-
tween the two sides is achieved by edge clips or holes that
are mechanically drilled through the substrate. If the sub-
strate is sufficiently thin (<0.5 mm), the holes can be
formed by laser drilling. The hole or via walls were covered
with the same thick film conductor and fired to create a con-
tinuous electrical path. These “through-ceramic” holes pro-
vide adequate reliability for the circuit, but they can add sig-
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 1-s
WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 1 — Photographs show the Navy/Sandia Coso down-hole tool and test site. The graph shows the extreme pressure and tem-
perature conditions under which the tool operated without failure for nearly one year.

A B

Fig. 2 — A — Photograph shows an alumina substrate having traces and pads formed from a Au-Pt-Pd thick film. B — HMC assem-
bly is shown with the components soldered to the bond pads.

nificant manufacturing costs to the product.
Unfortunately, even the above two-layer HMC technolo-
gy based on screen-printed, thick-film conductors has
reached its engineering limits with respect to supporting
the further miniaturization and increased functionality of
electronic products. The answer to the two-layer limitation
was the development of low-temperature, co-fired ceramic
(LTCC) substrate technology. The LTCC ceramic attains a
multilayer construction similar to laminate PCBs using the
stack-up of individual “tape” layers, each having a thick film,
circuit pattern printed and dried on it. The layers, which in-
clude vias that connect them, are pressed and fired at elevat-
ed temperatures (800°–850°C) to complete a bond that is
both electrically conductive and mechanically strong.
Although LTCC provided an answer to the need for multi-
ple substrate layers, thick-film conductor technology has be-
come the bottleneck toward further miniaturization of
HMC electronics. The screen printing-drying-firing process
has reached its limits with respect to providing minimum
line widths and spacings that can support solder processes

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Fig. 3 — A — SEM photograph shows the laser-ablated, LTCC
surface used to define the thin film pads. B — SEM image
shows the cross section between the ablated (left) and non-
ablated (right) region; the latter is under the thin film.
and provide interconnections that meet long-term reliability
requirements. The reliability limitation became particularly
apparent in the development of thick film/LTCC PCBs for
multi-chip module (MCM) sub-assemblies (Ref. 4).
An alternative approach is to replace thick film conductors
with thin film layers. The thin films are deposited by physical
vapor deposition (PVD) techniques — evaporation or sputter-
ing. The glass adhesion layer is replaced with a thin-film met-
allization such as titanium (Ti) or chromium (Cr). The solder-
able finish is deposited on top of the adhesion layer. The sol-
derable finish is the layer to which the solder joint is made.
Common solderable finishes include copper (Cu), nickel (Ni),
and platinum (Pt). The solderability of the layer is maintained
by adding a protective finish on top of it. Often-used protec-
tive finishes include gold (Au), silver (Ag), and tin (Sn). While
the adhesion layer is typically only fractions of a micron thick,
the other layers can have thicknesses that vary over several
microns, depending upon the soldering process, signal trans-
mission properties, and long-term reliability requirements.
The particular advantage of thin film conductors is that
the corresponding circuit pattern can be made with increas-
ingly finer features to support further miniaturization. Cir-
cuit definition can be achieved by one of three methodolo-
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 4 — LTCC pull test specimen and the Cu pin.
gies: a) shadow masks, b) photoimaging as is similarly used
in the microelectronics industry, and c) laser ablation. The
use of shadow masks provides a rapid means to define the
metallization pattern. However, its drawback is a limitation
on feature definition due to the combination of minimum
mask feature dimensions and proximity of the mask to the
substrate surface.
The photoimaging process can realize considerably finer
lines and spaces. Ultraviolet light passes through a glass
mask to define the pattern on a photosensitive film or resist
covering the thin-film metallization. The unexposed film is
removed by chemicals. The exposed metallization is re-
moved by plasma etching, leaving behind the desired circuit
pattern under the exposed photosensitive layer. The latter
layer is removed by a different chemical removal step. Draw-
backs include capital equipment costs and time duration to
plasma etch away the thin film, which increases with the lat-
ter’s thickness. Also, prolonged etching times can expose the
substrate surface to temperatures of 150°–200°C.
The third technique is laser ablation (Ref. 5). The particu-
lar advantage comes with thicker film layers because it re-
duces both process time and temperature rise at the sub-
strate while still providing feature resolution equivalent to
that of photoimaging techniques. Aside from capital equip-
ment costs, its other drawbacks include metal and substrate
spatter as well as surface microcracks and general roughness
that may impact high-frequency, RF signal performance. See
Fig. 3 for an example of a laser-ablated surface.
Hybrid microcircuit products have been developed at
Sandia National Laboratories using a thin film-on-LTCC
technology. The metallization stack was as follows: 0.200-
m Ti adhesion layer, 4.0-m copper (Cu) signal layer, 2.0-
m Pt solderable finish, and 0.250-m Au protective finish.
The relatively thick metallization required plasma etching as
the photo definition process. Titanium was selected as the
adhesion layer based upon its success on alumina ceramics.
An extensive study was conducted that is similar to that re-
ported below, which examined the adhesion strength of the
Ti-Cu-Pt-Au system when soldered with the 63Sn-37Pb sol-
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 3-s
WELDING RESEARCH

A B

der (wt-%, abbreviated Sn-Pb) and 95.5Sn-3.9Ag-0.6Cu C

(SAC396) Pb-free solder (Ref. 6). The thin films withstood
exposure to molten solder as well as long-term, solid-state
aging at temperatures as high as 170°C and time periods as
long as 200 days.
Nevertheless, the microanalysis of metallographic cross
sections uncovered localized separations between the Ti lay-
er and the LTCC, specifically, at the Ti/SiO2 interface. This
anomaly was sensitive to the conditions of the LTCC surface,
which were difficult to control as part of the overall process.
As a result of these findings, a task was initiated to explore
alternative adhesion layers having improved bonding to the
LTCC surface. Candidate layers included chromium (Cr), zir-
conium (Zr), silicon (Si), and the titanium/tungsten (Ti/W)
alloy. Chromium, Zr, and Si can be deposited by evaporation.
The deposition of the Ti/W layer required establishing a new
RF sputtering capability. This report describes the results of
a study, the goal of which was to assess the processibility Fig. 5 — A — LTCC substrate is located into the base plate of
and long-term reliability of the 0.200Ti/W-4.0Cu-2.0Pt- the fixture. B — Fixture is assembled with the LTCC substrate,
0.375Au metallization for Sn-Pb solder joints made to LTCC. solder paste, and pins in place. The entire assembly would
The thicker Au layer was required for ribbon bonding. be placed into the furnace to make the joints. C — Photo-
A second degradation scenario is the effect of solid- graph of the final test specimen.
state aging on the joint strength. The results from those
tests and microanalyses will not be presented in this report posit the Ti/W film by RF sputtering, break the vacuum, and
in the interest of brevity. Those findings will be provided move the test pieces into the evaporation system to deposit
in a follow-on text. the Cu, Pt, and Au layers. However, the Cu layer exhibited
very poor adhesion to the Ti/W film using this process
Experimental Procedures sequence.
The LTCC substrates were fabricated using Dupont™ 951
The thin film stack used in this study was as follows: tape (Dupont is a registered trademark of the E.I. Dupont de
0.200Ti/W-4.000Cu-2.000Pt-0.375Au (m). The Ti/W film Nemours Corp., Wilmington, Del.). The substrate and pin
served as the adhesion layer. The Ti/W ratio was determined used to perform the pull test are shown in Fig. 4. The post-
to be Ti1.5/W3.5 using spectral analysis techniques, the details fired substrate thickness was 0.914 mm. The test specimen
of which are provided in the results section. The Cu layer had an x-y footprint of 25.4  25.4 mm. The substrates were
supported electrical signal conduction. The Pt layer served not subjected to additional surface preparation steps (e.g.,
as the solderable finish. The 0.375-m-thick Au layer was polishing) other than those routinely performed at the man-
the protective finish. The Ti/W film was deposited by RF ufacturer. This surface condition is typically the starting
sputtering. The Cu and Pt layers were also deposited by RF point from which thin film circuits were created with the
sputtering in the same chamber without a break in the vacu- LTCC substrate. A pattern of nine test sites was used to as-
um condition. The Au layer was evaporated on the Pt layer sess thin-film adhesion. The pattern was created by an aper-
in a second chamber. The limited oxidation of the Pt layer ture mask.
allowed the test pieces to be exposed to the air environment Copper pins were soldered to each pad using the 63Sn-
prior to the Au deposition. Initial attempts were made to de- 37Pb solder (wt-%, abbreviated Sn-Pb). A specially designed

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Fig. 6 — STEM image shows the as-deposited, Ti/W-Cu-Pt-Au
layer. A faint demarcation line is identified in the layer. The
inset picture is the annular spectral image that identifies the
elements by color, including the different phases in the LTCC.
fixture held the LTCC substrate and pins for the soldering
process — Fig. 5. Solder paste was dispensed onto each pad
and the substrate was placed onto the fixture base plate —
Fig. 5A. The Cu pins were fed through a frame that held
them in an upright position. The frame was attached to the
base plate, after which the pins were lowered onto the solder
paste deposit — Fig. 5B. The entire assembly was placed
into the furnace to complete the soldering process. Once the
fixture had cooled to room temperature, the test specimen
— substrate-plus-soldered pins — was cleaned of flux
residues and inspected for solder joint quality — Fig. 5C.
This study evaluated the solder joint strength as a func-
tion of the soldering process. Potential degradation mecha-
nisms include a) incomplete dissolution of the Au layer; b)
excessive leaching of the Pt layer that exposed the Cu layer
to dissolution by molten solder; and c) excessive intermetal-
lic compound (IMC) layer development between the solder
and Pt thin-film layer. In addition, exposure of the Ti/W-Cu-
Pt-Au to the high temperatures of the soldering process
could potentially lead to delamination between individual
layers or an adhesion loss between the Ti/W layer and LTCC
surface.
The soldering process variables included exposure time
to the molten solder and the molten solder temperature.
The time durations were 15, 60, and 120 s. These values
took into account the range of automated soldering
processes. The molten solder temperatures were likewise
based upon typical soldering assembly processes: 215°,
240°, 260°, and 290°C. Duplicate samples were fabricated
and tested for each combination of solder temperature and
time duration.
All pull tests were performed in a mechanical test frame.
The displacement rate was 10 mm/min. Eight of the nine sol-
der joints were pull tested per sample, leaving one joint for
cross section and microanalysis. The pull strength was repre-
sented by the mean and the standard deviation of the 16 data
points. Failure mode analysis was also performed on the test
samples. There were four predominant failure modes:
• Solder failure: crack path that remains in the solder and/or
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 7 — High-magnification, STEM image shows Ti/W-Cu-Pt-
Au layer at the location of the film. A faint demarcation line
is identified in the Ti/W layer by the magenta arrow.
associated IMC layers;
• Thin film delamination: a separation of the Ti/W layer
from the LTCC surface.
• Thin film peeling: separation along the interface(s)
between layers within the thin film stack.
• Divot failure: loss of bulk LTCC from under the joint area.
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images will be pre-
sented that illustrate these failure modes in the discussion
below. The failure mode analysis methodology began with
each pull-tested site being assigned one of the four failure
modes that predominated the fracture surface. A further
discrimination was not made between minor failure modes
because, in general, there was one mode that controlled the
fracture for each pin pull test. The failure modes were added
up and the percentage determined by dividing that count by
16, which was the total number of test sites.
Results and Discussion
Spectral Analysis of the Ti/W-Cu-Pt-Au
Thin Film
The Ti/W-Cu-Pt-Au thin film was evaluated using scanning
transmission electron microscopy (STEM). The specimen was
prepared by the focused ion-beam (FIB) cutting process using
gallium (Ga) ions. The STEM image is shown in Fig. 6. The Cu
and Pt layers developed with largely columnar grain struc-
tures. A small demarcation line was observed near the top of
the Pt layer. The columnar grain structure appeared to be con-
tinuous across the line, which implies that the source of the ar-
tifact did not significantly interrupt the deposition process
and, as such, did not introduce a material defect in the Pt layer.
The inset picture is an annular spectral image that identi-
fied the elemental construction of the layer: blue, Au; green,
Pt; red, Cu; cyan, Ti/W; magenta, the silica-based glass com-
ponent of the LTCC; and yellow, the alumina particles also
within the LTCC base material. An important observation is
that the Ti/W layer exhibits excellent adhesion to the silica-
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 5-s
WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 8 — Pull strength is shown as a function of process tem-

perature for each of the three process time intervals. The ten- Fig. 9 — Bar chart shows the percentage of the observed
sile stresses were calculated for the 20- and 30-lb loads to failure modes as a function of solder temperature for a sol-
illustrate these limiting cases. Those values are shown at the dering time of 15 s. Each of the four failure modes is distin-
right of the graph. guished by the color of the bar per the legend above the plot.

A B

Fig. 10 — SEM photographs show the solder failure mode, fracture surfaces belonging to — A — the thin film pad on the LTCC sub-
strate and B — the corresponding pin. The letters “A,” “B,” and “C” denote the three surface topographies. The soldering process
parameters were 215°C and 15 s.

based, glass component of the LTCC base material, which
was a shortcoming of the Ti adhesion layer. Aside from a po-
tentially improved intrinsic interaction between the Ti/W
layer and glass, the higher energy, RF deposition process
may also have contributed to an improved adhesion per-
formance by partially sputtering the LTCC surface. Interdif-
fusion was also absent between the individual layers. Lastly,
quantitative data, which were obtained from this analysis,
determine the Ti/W layer composition to be Ti1.5/W3.5.
A high-magnification image is shown in Fig. 7 of the Ti/W
layer. A faint demarcation line was also observed that, as was
the case with the Pt layer above, was likely caused by a brief in-
terruption in the deposition process. Although the gray tone
implies a slightly lower material density, discontinuities such
as voids and cracks were not associated with the demarcation
line. General porosity was limited to less than a 5-nm size. The
layer had excellent adhesion to the LTCC substrate. Excellent
adhesion was also confirmed between the Cu and Ti/W layers.
Effect of Soldering Process Parameters on
Pull Strength
The pull strength data are shown in Fig. 8 as a function of
the process temperature. The blue circles, magenta squares,
and red diamonds represent the 15-, 60-, and 120-s data, re-
spectively. The pull strengths are presented in load (lb). Ten-
sile stresses were calculated at minimum and maximum load
values bounding the data. The very high pull strengths re-
flect the plain strain effect resulting from the confined
geometry created by the thin gap and the wide footprint of
the joint. The strength enhancement is demonstrated by
comparing the data in Fig. 8 with the tensile strength of the
bulk Sn-Pb solder, which is 5.8–7.3 ksi (40–50 MPa) at a
similar displacement rate (Ref. 7). A minor, yet statistically
significant, difference was observed between the 15-s inter-
val vs. the 60- and 120-s soldering times, but for only the
240° and 260°C soldering temperatures. The short error

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Fig. 11 — High-magnification SEM image of region A (see the
inset picture) is shown, together with the EDX maps of Cu,
Sn, and Au that predominated the fracture surface (process
conditions: 215°C and 15 s). These data were obtained from
the pad (LTCC) side of the failure.
Fig. 13 — High-magnification SEM image shows the region C
(see the inset picture) together with the EDX maps of Sn, Au,
and Pb (process conditions: 215°C and 15 s). These data were
obtained from the pin side of the failure.
bars indicate the excellent reproducibility of the strength
values.
Effect of Soldering Process Parameters on
Failure Mode
The failure mode results are presented in Fig. 9 for the
test vehicles assembled by soldering for 15 s. At the solder-
ing temperature of 215°C, 50% of the test sites exhibited
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 12 — High-magnification SEM image of region C (see the
inset picture) is shown, together with the EDX maps of Sn, Pt,
and Pb on the fracture surface (process conditions: 215°C
and 15 s). These data were obtained from the pad (LTCC) side
of the failure.
failure within the solder joint (blue bar); the remainder
of the failures were evenly split (25%) between thin-film
delamination at the Ti/W-LTCC interface (yellow bar) and
fracture by the LTCC divot mode (red bar).
An increase of the soldering temperature to 240°C intro-
duced the thin-film peeling mode, which replaced the thin-
film delamination mode and a portion of the solder failure
and LTCC divot modes. The thin-film peeling mode re-
mained at the higher soldering temperature of 260°C, but to
a lesser degree as the LTCC divot mode increased in frequen-
cy. The LTCC divot failures have been attributed to residual
stresses caused by the mismatch of coefficients of thermal
expansion (CTE) between the Cu pin, Sn-Pb solder, and
LTCC (Ref. 6). This point will be further discussed later in
the report. Lastly, when the soldering temperature was
raised to 290°C, 90% of the test sites showed solder failures;
the remaining failures were thin-film delamination at the
Ti/W-LTCC interface.
The failure mode data in Fig. 9 were compared to the pull
strength data in Fig. 8. The pull strengths remained essen-
tially unchanged across the 215°, 240°, and 260°C soldering
temperatures. Yet, a significant variation occurred to the
failure modes. This trend implies that, by and large, the in-
trinsic strengths were similar between the microstructural
features associated with each failure mode.
When the soldering temperature was raised to 290°C,
90% of the test sites showed the solder failure mode; the re-
maining failures were thin-film delamination of the Ti/W-
LTCC interface. The increased presence of the solder failure
mode was accompanied by a small decrease of pull strength
as shown in Fig. 8. This trend implies that, in the event
there is a strength loss by the solder joints, the likely culprit
can be found in the solder joint microstructure and not the
adhesion properties accompanying the thin film layers.
At this point, an analysis is made of the physical metallur-
gies that characterized each of the failure modes in Fig. 9. The
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 7-s
WELDING RESEARCH

A B

Fig. 14 — SEM photographs show the complementary fracture surfaces of the following: A — The thin film pad on the LTCC sub-
strate; B — the pin that together illustrates the “LTCC divot” failure mode. The A region is the divot itself; the B region is a fractal
pattern comprised of a mixture of both the “thin-film peeling” and “thin-film delamination” failure modes. The C region is solely the
thin-film peeling mode. The soldering process parameters were 215°C and 15 s.

A B

Fig. 15 — SEM photographs show the complementary fracture surfaces of the following: A — Thin film pad on the LTCC substrate;
B — the pin showing the “thin-film peeling” failure mode. The A region identifies the film peeling mode. The secondary fracture
paths were the LTCC divot (B) and the fractal patterns of thin film delamination and thin-film peeling (C). The soldering process pa-
rameters were 240°C and 15 s.

solder failure (blue bar) is illustrated by the SEM images in Fig.
10. Figure 10A, B show the fracture surfaces on the LTCC pad
and pin sides of the solder joint, respectively. This joint was
made using the process conditions of 215°C and 15 s. Three
distinctive regions were identified on the fracture surfaces by
the letters “A,” “B,” and “C.” Their physical metallurgies were
determined with the assistance of the energy-dispersive x-ray
(EDX) technique.
Region A had a relatively smooth topography in Fig. 10.
That topography resulted from intergranular fracture as
shown by the higher magnification SEM image in Fig. 11. The
accompanying EDX elemental maps indicate the fracture sur-
face was comprised primarily of Au, Cu, and Sn. Although in-
termittent areas showed only the Sn signal (white circles), by
and large, the fracture surface showed all three elements to
overlap with one another (cyan circles). The same surface to-
pography and elemental distributions were repeated on the
pin side of the fracture (region A, Fig. 10B).
The failure mode morphology of region A resulted from
fracture through the (Cu, Au)xSny IMC layer that formed at the
solder/Cu pin interface. The Au layer, which topped the thin-
film stack on the LTCC substrate, dissolved into the molten
Sn-Pb solder. While the solder was molten, as well as following
solidification, a driving force developed for Au to diffuse to the
solder/Cu interface where it was incorporated into the IMC
layer. Note that the contribution by solid-state diffusion had
taken place at room temperature.
Regions B and C were very similar. Their relative heights
versus that of region A in Fig. 10 indicated the fracture sur-
face was closer to the solder/thin film interface. The pri-
mary difference between regions B and C was that region B
included a greater percentage of failure within the ductile

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Fig. 16 — High-magnification SEM image of region A (see the inset picture) is shown, together with the EDX maps of W, Al, and Ca
(process conditions: 240°C and 15 s). These data were obtained from the LTCC pad side of the failure.
Sn-Pb solder that generated the cup-and-cone fracture sur-
face relief. Therefore, further discussion of this fracture be-
havior will focus on region C.
A high-magnification SEM image is shown in Fig. 12 of
region C. The EDX maps show the fracture surface to be
comprised predominantly of Pt and, to a lesser extent, Sn.
Lead (Pb) was also observed, which reflected an intermit-
tent fracture in the adjacent Sn-Pb solder. At first glance,
the data suggest that fracture occurred along a PtxSny IMC
layer that formed at the solder/Pt interface after the Au had
been dissolved away. However, the yellow circles show there
is minimal coincidence between the Pt and Sn signals, which
implies that the fracture path did not have a significant as-
sociation with a PtxSny IMC layer.
To confirm the above hypothesis, SEM and EDX data were
analyzed of the region C on the pin side of the fracture. Those
results are shown in Fig. 13. Platinum was not detected on the
fracture surface. However, there was a significant Au presence.
The Pb signal (white circles) is due to localized fracture in the
adjoining Sn-Pb solder field as noted earlier. The remaining
fracture surface was comprised primarily of overlapping Sn
and Au signals. These findings, when coupled with those of
the fracture surface on the pad side (Fig. 12), indicate the Au
was not fully dissolved from atop the Pt layer by the molten
solder. Rather, some Au remained and reacted with Sn to form
a AuuSnv IMC layer. The C-region failure mode originated from
fracture along the interface between the AuuSnv IMC layer and
WELDING RESEARCH
the Pt layer. Given that region C comprises a significant frac-
tion of the solder failure surface, AuuSnv IMC/Pt interface frac-
ture does not necessarily indicate the latter poses an intrinsic
weakness to the joint.
The divot failure mode is illustrated by the complementa-
ry SEM images in Fig. 14. Failure initiation occurred in the
bulk LTCC material, which is indicated by the letter A in
both images. As the LTCC fracture expanded from the pad
center (Fig. 14A), it transitioned into the “fractal” pattern
(B) that is the combination of thin-film delamination and
thin-film peeling. As the crack approached the outer edge of
the joint, a second transition took place whereby separation
was entirely thin-film delamination (C). This behavior was
documented as an “LTCC divot” failure mode because it pre-
dominates the LTCC fracture. Also, given the rapid nature of
the LTCC fracture, the remaining fracture surface may not
reflect the intrinsic failure mode of the joint in the absence
of the LTCC divot fracture.
The thin-film peeling failure mode is illustrated by the
SEM images in Fig. 15 and, specifically, location A. This
sample was fabricated at 240°C and 15 s. The LTCC pad and
pin sides of the fracture are shown in (A) and (B), respective-
ly. A small divot (B) and associated “fractal pattern” (C) were
observed in both images. However, the latter fracture paths
were secondary to the thin-film peeling mode.
The fracture surface appeared to be relatively featureless
at the magnifications used in Fig. 15. A high-magnification
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 9-s
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 17 — Bar chart shows the percentage of the observed
failure modes as a function of solder temperature for a sol-
dering time of 60 s.
SEM image is shown of the fracture surface in Fig. 16 (LTCC
side). The corresponding EDX maps, together with those
from the pin side of the fracture, confirmed that failure took
place at the Ti/W-Cu interface. Residual Cu was not ob-
served on the exposed Ti/W film to within the detection
limits of the EDX technique.
At the higher magnification level of Fig. 16, the fracture
surface showed significant relief. The Ti/W layer is only
0.200 m thick so that it replicates the surface topography
of the LTCC substrate. The limited thickness of the Ti/W
layer also permitted the x-ray signal to sample the chemistry
of the LTCC underneath it. The protrusions of the film cor-
respond to the alumina phase of the LTCC (Al map). The
glass phase is represented by the Ca signal because the Si
signal, which would be generated by the primary constituent
of the glass material, silica (SiO2), is overlapped by the W
line of the Ti/W film.
The failure mode percentage data appearing in Fig. 17 were
obtained from test sites soldered for 60 s. The thin-film peel-
ing appeared at the soldering temperature of 215°C; it was no
longer observed at 260°C, as recorded at 15 s — Fig. 9. The
failure mode percentages were nearly identical at 240°C. At the
soldering temperatures of 260° and 290°C, there were a signif-
icant increase in the solder failure mode at the expense of the
other three modes. This trend implies that, with increasing
soldering temperature, the interfaces associated with the thin-
film structures and the bulk LTCC (divots) had lesser roles in
the fracture behavior while the solder joint microstructural
features — bulk solder and IMC reaction layers — had greater
effects on mechanical performance.
The details of the fracture surface morphologies associat-
ed with the failure modes in Fig. 17 were generally similar to
those discussed in association with Figs. 10–16. The failure
mode data in Fig. 17 (60 s) were compared to the pull
strength results in Fig. 8. The pull strength decreased slight-
ly between 215° and 240°C, which happened to coincide
with the increase in the thin-film peeling mode from 12 to
10-s WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019, VOL. 98
Fig. 18 — Bar chart shows the percentage of the observed
failure modes as a function of solder temperature for a sol-
dering time of 120 s.
50%. However, nearly the same failure mode percentages
were observed at 240°C, 15 s (Fig. 9), but without the lower
pull strength associated with 240°C and 60 s data (Fig. 17).
Thus, a conclusive correlation cannot be drawn between low
solder joint strength and the thin-film peeling mode. A simi-
lar conclusion can be made with respect to the thin-film de-
lamination failure mode. At the soldering temperature of
215°C, increasing the soldering time from 15 to 60 s caused
this failure mode to increase from 25 to 38%. Yet, the pull
strength did not change significantly between those same
conditions. In summary, the analysis of failure mode data,
which were obtained for 15 s (Fig. 9) and 60 s (Fig. 17),
when compared to the pull strength results (Fig. 8), indicat-
ed a direct correlation cannot be made between the failure
mode and strength metrics for the 215°, 240°, and 260°C
soldering temperatures. This trend implies, once again, that
the particular fracture paths associated with each failure
mode have similar intrinsic strengths.
However, the failure mode data in Fig. 17 (60 s) for the
290°C soldering temperature, like that in Fig. 9 (15 s),
showed a reduced pull strength and 88% occurrence of the
solder failure mode. This comparison indicates changes to
the Sn-Pb solder and associated IMC reaction layers, which
control the solder joint failure mode, have the ability to re-
duce the pull strength of the joint. Moreover, those features
are expressly a function of the soldering conditions.
The details of the fracture surface morphologies associat-
ed with the failure modes in Fig. 17 were generally similar to
those described with respect to Figs. 10–16.
The failure mode percentages are shown in Fig. 18 for the
longest soldering time of 120 s. The thin-film peeling mode
was observed at the soldering temperatures of 215° and 240°C;
it increased at the former temperature and decreased at the
latter temperature when compared to the 60-s solder time re-
sults in Fig. 17. Moreover, the solder failure mode increased,
significantly, at the two lowest soldering temperatures when
compared to either of the two shorter soldering times. At the
 WELDING RESEARCH

A B

Fig. 19 — SEM photographs illustrate the changes to the frac- C

ture surfaces and, specifically, the proportions of regions A,
B, and C as a function of soldering process conditions: A —
215°C, 15 s; B — 215°C, 60 s; and C — 290°C, 120 s.

higher soldering temperatures of 260° and 290°C, the solder

failure mode retained its dominance at 120 s as was the case at
60 s. But, there was also an increased frequency of LTCC divot
failures with the longer soldering time.
The failure mode trends in Fig. 18 were compared to the
pull strength data in Fig. 8. A reduced pull strength was ob-
served at 215°C that coincided with the increased prevalence
of the solder failure mode. The pull strength was unchanged
at the soldering temperatures of 240° and 260°C as was also
the case for the dominance of the solder failure mode. In ad-
dition, the increased frequency of LTCC divots between
these temperatures was not reflected by a change to the pull
strength. A slight drop in pull strength was observed at
290°C. However, the slight increase in the LTCC divot failure
mode (Fig. 18) cannot be confidently asserted as the cause.
Rather, the solder failure mode with its dependence on the
Sn-Pb microstructure and IMC layers likely caused the drop
in the pull strength.
A closer examination was made of the fracture surfaces
associated with the four failure modes between soldering
process conditions. Even at higher magnifications, the de-
tails of the fracture surface morphologies changed very little
for the thin-film delamination, thin-film peeling, and LTCC
divot modes as a function of either soldering temperature or
time. Therefore, the “appearance” and “disappearance” of
these three failure modes vs. the soldering parameters are
not correlated to intrinsic changes to the thin-film layers,
their interfaces, or the properties of the bulk LTCC.
On the other hand, the fracture surfaces associated with
the solder failure mode did change as a function of the solder-
ing parameters in two manners. First, the proportion of the
fracture area represented by region A (Fig. 10) increased with
severity of the soldering conditions. Recall that region A
results from separation in the IMC layer that formed at the
solder/Cu pin interface. This trend is illustrated in Fig. 19,
which shows the surfaces on the pad (LTCC) side of the frac-
ture path for the range of soldering conditions: a) 215°C, 15 s;
b) 215°C, 60 s; and c) 290°C, 120 s. Note that region A has in-
creased at the expense of the combined regions, B plus C.
Second, the details of the fracture surface topography be-
longing to region A changed as a function of soldering con-
ditions. This behavior is illustrated in Fig. 20, which shows
the region A fracture surface generated by the following sol-
dering parameters: a) 215°C, 60 s and b) 290°C, 120 s. The
smooth topography in Fig. 20A has changed to a rougher to-
pography in Fig. 20B. The latter surface was attributed to an
increased growth of the (Cu, Au)xSny IMC layer caused by
the prolonged exposure to molten solder.
A review was made of the EDX data, the goal of which was
to determine whether the topographical changes to region A
as illustrated in Fig. 20, were likewise accompanied by chem-
istry changes to the associated (Cu, Au)xSny IMC layer. A de-
crease was observed in the Au signal relative to that of Cu with
the increased severity of the soldering conditions. In the ab-
sence of cross-section analyses, it could only be hypothesized
that the higher soldering temperature allowed the Au to reach
a higher concentration in the Sn-Pb solder, which reduced its
concentration in the (Cu, Au)xSny IMC layer formation. Be-
cause the reduction in the Au content of the IMC layer would
cause the latter to become less brittle, the increased propensi-

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 11-s

WELDING RESEARCH
A B
Fig. 20 — SEM photographs shows an increased roughness to the fracture surface topography of region A as a function of solder-
ing conditions: A — 215°C, 60 s; B — 290°C, 120 s.
ty for fracture at this interface (region A) was attributed to the
increased thickness of the IMC layer.
In summary, the solder failure mode, the propensity of
which increased with the severity of the soldering condi-
tions, was correlated to the reduction in solder joint pull
strength. Furthermore, the loss of pull strength was associ-
ated with an increased proportion of the fracture surface oc-
curring at the solder/pin interface (region A). The reduced
pull strength of the latter interface coincided with a thicken-
ing of the (Cu, Au)xSny IMC layer taking place at the region A
fracture surface. It is important to reiterate that the
strength loss observed in Fig. 8 was relatively small and cer-
tainly would not portend a degradation to the performance
or long-term reliability of the joint.
Program Goal: A Robust Thin-Film Technology
The long-term objective of this program was to develop a
robust thin-film technology for LTCC-based electronic prod-
ucts. Although the solder failure mode appeared to control
the pull strength of the Sn-Pb joints, it required the pres-
ence of the Cu pin. A Cu base material may not always be
present in an HMC solder joint. Therefore, additional con-
sideration was given to the other three failure modes to un-
derstand their individual behaviors.
One goal was to ascertain the ability of the Ti/W adhe-
sion layer to withstand the range of soldering process condi-
tions required to assemble HMC products. In the case of the
thin-film delamination mode, the SEM and EDX analyses
showed that the Ti/W film, like its Ti counterpart, exhibited
a slightly better bond to the alumina phase (particles) than
to the silica-based glass phase of the LTCC material. Never-
theless, these differences of adhesion were subtler than was
the case of the Ti layer and, as such, did not significantly im-
pact the solder joint pull strength.
The thin-film peeling failure mode represented a separation
between the Ti/W adhesion layer and the Cu layer. Although
depositing the Cu layer without breaking vacuum improved its
adhesion to the Ti/W surface, this measure reduced, but did
not completely eliminate, its occurrence. Interestingly, thin-
film peeling appeared to diminish with increased severity of
the soldering process conditions. This trend suggests that the
12-s WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019, VOL. 98
additional thermal exposure improved adhesion at the inter-
face between the Cu and Ti/W layers. Perhaps an ancillary
thermal treatment would increase the bond strength of that
interface. Nevertheless, the thin-film peeling fracture path was
not sufficiently pervasive nor weak enough to pose a risk to
the mechanical strength of the solder joint.
Lastly, the LTCC divot failure mode occurred persistently
in the pull tests, but without an obvious trend as a function
of soldering process parameters. Moreover, the occurrence
of LTCC divots did not correlate with the pull strength
trends. Clearly, the strength of the LTCC ceramic was, at
least, comparable to the intrinsic strengths of the structures
that contributed to the other three failure modes.
Further consideration was given to the LTCC divot failure
mode. The tensile strength of LTCC is in the range of 39–51
ksi, which exceeds the nominal stresses generated by the pull
loads in Fig. 8 by nearly threefold (Ref. 8). The failure mode
analysis did not indicate that the test substrates contained a
repeatable flaw in the LTCC material. Therefore, a stress con-
centration must have been generated in the substrate such
that, when combined with the stresses of the pull test, caused
the total stress in the LTCC to exceed its intrinsic strength.
The hypothesis was mentioned earlier that residual stresses
can result from the mismatch of CTE values between LTCC
(5–8 ppm/°C) and those of either the Sn-Pb solder (21
ppm/°C) or the Cu pin (17 ppm/°C) (Refs. 7, 9). Radial tensile
stresses were generated under the solder joint footprint after
its solidification as the Sn-Pb alloy and Cu pin contracted to a
greater degree than did the LTCC material. A detailed finite el-
ement analysis was outside the scope of this study. Neverthe-
less, it is hypothesized the pull load placed on the joint super-
posed additional tensile stresses on the preexisting residual
stresses so that the total tensile stress exceeded the local ten-
sile strength of the LTCC, resulting in the divot failure mode.
The CTE mismatch residual stresses can only develop after
solidification of the solder (183°C). Per se, the residual stresses
were not sensitive to the specific soldering temperatures that
exceed 183°C because the Sn-Pb alloy would still be molten
and could not support a mechanical load. The same trend was
observed with the LTCC divot failure mode, that is, its occur-
rence was largely insensitive to the soldering temperature.
This correlation supports the premise that residual stresses,

which arose only after the Sn-Pb solder had solidified at 183°C,
contributed to the divot formation. Also, the LTCC divot fail-
ure mode was not sensitive to soldering time. The latter obser-
vation, when coupled to the soldering temperature insensitivi-
ty, implies that the strength of the LTCC material was not ex-
plicitly degraded by the harshness of the overall soldering con-
ditions so as to be a cause of the divots. Lastly, the residual
stresses and LTCC divot failure mode were not of a magnitude
or prevalence, respectively, to control the solder joint perform-
ance and/or reliability.
Conclusions
1. A study was undertaken to develop a 0.200Ti/W-4.0Cu-
2.0Pt-0.375Au (m, abbreviated Ti/W-Cu-Pt-Au) thin-film
metallization system to serve as the conductor on low-temper-
ature, co-fired ceramic (LTCC) substrates for high-reliability
hybrid microcircuit (HMC) electronic products.
2. A pin pull test was used to assess the tensile strength of
solder joints made to the Ti/W-Cu-Pt-Au thin film with the
63Sn-37Pb (wt-%) filler metal. The assembly process, which
attached Cu pins to the thin-film pads, was based on the ma-
trix of the soldering temperatures of 215°, 240°, 260°, and
290°C as well as soldering times of 15, 60, and 120 s.
3. The pull strengths were well in excess of calculated val-
ues based on the tensile strength of Sn-Pb solder due to the
plain strain effect of the solder joint geometry. The strength
values experienced a modest loss from 25 to 21 lb between
215° and 290°C. Strength differences were within the exper-
imental error as a function of soldering time at either of
these temperatures. At 240° and 260°C, strengths were
slightly higher at 15 s vs. 60 and 120 s, but only just outside
the error bars of the respective data sets.
4. Failure modes were dominated by fracture within
the solder joint and, specifically, at the solder/thin film or
solder/Cu pin interfaces. The slight loss of pull strength was
correlated to an increased prevalence of failure in the (Cu,
Au)xSny intermetallic compound (IMC) layer at the solder/
Cu pin interface.
5. The thin-film delamination and thin-film peeling fail-
ure modes had a negligible role because they did not corre-
late to the trends in the pull strength. The thin-film peeling
failure mode, which was caused by separation along the in-
terface between the Ti/W and Cu layers, appeared to actual-
ly diminish with increased severity of the soldering process.
6. The LTCC divot failure mode was also a minor contrib-
utor to the fracture behaviors. Its occurrence shifted slightly
to the higher soldering temperatures, but without a consis-
tency that could be correlated to the pull strength data. The
divots were attributed to the presence of tensile residual
stresses generated by the CTE mismatch of the materials
after solidification of the Sn-Pb solder joint.
P. VIANCO (ptvianc@sandia.gov), S. WILLIAMS, A. KILGO, and B. McKENZIE are with Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, N.Mex.
W. PRICE and E. GUERRERO (ret.) are with Nuclear Security Complex, Kansas City, Mo.
This paper was named Best Soldering Paper at the International Brazing and Soldering Conference held April 15–18, 2018, in New Or-
leans, La.
WELDING RESEARCH
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Brian Wroblewski for his thor-
ough review of the manuscript and Paul Kotula for the spec-
tral analysis. Sandia National Laboratories is a multimission
laboratory managed and operated by National Technology
and Engineering Solutions of Sandia LLC, a wholly owned
subsidiary of Honeywell International Inc. for the U.S. De-
partment of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administra-
tion under contract DE-NA0003525. This paper describes
objective technical results and analysis. Any subjective views
or opinions that might be expressed in the paper do not nec-
essarily represent the views of the U.S. Department of Ener-
gy or the United States Government.
References
1. Amalu, E., Ekere, N., and Bhatti, R. 2009. High temperature
electronics: R&D challenges and trends in materials, packaging,
and interconnection technology. Proc. Sec. Inter. Conf. on Adaptive
Science and Tech., IEEE. pp. 146–153. DOI: 10.1109/ICASTECH.
2009.5409731
2. Nowak, D., and Dziedzic, A. 2011. LTCC package for high
temperature applications. Microelect. Rel. 51 pp. 1241–1244. DOI:
10.16/jmicrorel.2011.02.018
3. Del Castillo, L., Schatzel, D., Tudryn, C., Hatake, T., Chen, Y.,
Jojharradi, M., and Kolawa, E. 2006. Extreme environment elec-
tronic packaging for venus and mars landed missions. Proc. Inter.
Planetary Probe Workshop 4, NASA.
4. Vianco, P., et al. 2008. An analysis of the pull strength behav-
iors of fine-pitch, flip chip solder interconnections using a Au-Pt-
Pd thick film conductor on low-temperature, co-fired ceramic
(LTCC) substrates. Sandia Report SAND2008-5736 (Sandia Nation-
al Laboratories, Albuquerque, N.Mex.).
5. Girardi, M., Peterson, K., Vianco, P., and Wieliczka, D. 2015.
Laser ablation of thin films on low-temperature co-fired ceramic. J.
Microelect. and Elect. Pack. 12: 72–79. DOI: 10.4071/limaps.457
6. Vianco, P., et al. 2015. Establishing a Ti-Cu-Pt-Au thin film-
on-low temperature co-fired ceramic (LTCC) technology for high
temperature electronics. Proc. Surf. Mount Tech. Assoc. Inter. Confer-
ence. Surface Mount Technology Association, Edina, Minn.,
smta.org.
7. Vianco, P. 2000. Soldering Handbook, 3rd Ed. Miami, Fla.:
American Welding Society. p. 197.
8. Bermejo, R. 2012. Mechanical properties of low temperature
co-fired ceramics: Testing methodologies for strength characteriza-
tion. J. of Microele, Elec. Comp., and Mater., Vol. 42, pp. 254–259.
9. Sakamoto, S., Fujita, S., Sugimoto, Y., and Tanaka, N. 2017.
Mechanical strength of low-temperature co-fired ceramic multi-
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DOI: 10.2109/jcersj2.16289
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 13-s
WELDING RESEARCH
Corrosion Behaviors of CMT Spot-Joined
AA6022-T4 to Galvanized DC03
Welds were investigated and compared in terms of joint morphology and
mechanical properties, as well as macro- and microstructure
BY H. Y. LEI, Y. GUO, Y. B. LI, AND B. E. CARLSON
ABSTRACT
The mixed use of aluminum and steel is increasing in light-
weight automotive bodies. The cold metal transfer (CMT) arc
spot welding of aluminum alloy to steel has recently been de-
veloped. However, the electrochemical potential difference of
dissimilar materials will inevitably degrade weld performance.
Thus, this study investigated the corrosion behavior of CMT
spot-welded 1-mm AA6022-T4 sheet to 1.5-mm hot dipped
galvanized (HDG) low-carbon steel, DC03. The open circuit po-
tential (OCP) of the base materials and varying positions with-
in the welds was measured, and the results showed that the
OCP of the zinc coating on the steel substrate and zinc-rich
zone at the weld root were the most negative and likely to
corrode. Salt spray exposure was conducted specifically on
the welds with and without e-coating. The results indicated a
similar fracture mode after 20 cycles as with the as-welded
condition, i.e., fracture in the weld metal, though with a slight-
ly reduced lap-shear strength. After an exposure of 63 cycles,
the weld strength decreased nearly 38%, and the fracture
mode transitioned to interfacial fracture due to the corroded
Fe-Al IMC layer, whereas postweld e-coating of the CMT Al-
steel joints provided a high level of corrosion protection.
KEYWORDS
• Aluminum • Steel • Zinc • Intermetallics • Welding
• Corrosion
Introduction
As a means to achieve the upcoming mandated automo-
tive greenhouse gas emissions, one lightweighting strategy
for automotive body structures and closures is to use the
right material in the right form for the right application
(Refs. 1, 2). This strategy has resulted in a use of mixed ma-
terials, which in turn is driving joints of dissimilar materials
such as aluminum to steel (Refs. 3–5).
The cold metal transfer (CMT) arc welding process is a
modified gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process wherein the
heat input during welding can be substantially reduced com-
pared to the standard GMA process. Furthermore, the CMT
14-s WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019, VOL. 98
process has been found to produce acceptable joint quality in
joint welding of aluminum to steel sheets with a thin Fe-Al
IMC layer (Refs. 6, 7). However, welding distortion is an inher-
ent issue for CMT joint welding of aluminum to steel because
of differences in the thermal expansion coefficient between
aluminum alloys and steel. To overcome the disadvantages of
seam welding, CMT arc spot welding was proposed as a
method to join aluminum alloys to galvanized steels in previ-
ous work. Three spot welding modes, i.e., direct welding (DW),
plug welding (PW), and edge plug welding (EPW), were investi-
gated (Ref. 8); the EPW mode was found capable of homoge-
nizing the welding heat input and producing welds with a rela-
tively thin and uniform intermetallic compound (IMC) layer,
and thereby, acceptable mechanical performance (Ref. 9).
However, because of the differences in electrochemical
potential within a dissimilar material joint, corrosion is a
significant concern. A conventional solution for Al-steel
joints is to pretreat the Al prior to joining and then apply ad-
hesive along the joint as an isolation barrier and mechani-
cally join the pretreated Al and zinc-coated steel using self-
piercing rivets. Unfortunately, introduction of adhesive to a
fusion joint, especially a single-sided joint, can create signif-
icant issues with gas generation, which can lead to porosity
and spatter. Thus, without the isolating barrier of adhesive,
corrosion properties of the Al-steel joint created by the rela-
tively new CMT arc spot welding process is of concern.
In available literature to date, there are a relatively small
number of publications focusing on the corrosion mecha-
nism and properties of dissimilar Al-steel welds. Wloka et al.
studied the electrochemical behavior and macro corrosion
attack of welded joint using aluminum alloy and hot-dip gal-
vanized (HDG) steel via laser brazing with the application of
different types of welding wire: AlMg6Mn and ZnAl2. Strong
coupling effects at the boundary between the filler materials
and steel were found, and the fusion zone of the weld was
most prone to corrosion (Ref. 10). The corrosion property of
the pulsed double-electrode gas metal arc (DE-GMA) weld-
brazed joints of aluminum and zinc-coated steel with
ER5356 and ER4043 welding wire was studied by Yu Shi et
al. The results revealed that galvanic corrosion occurred in
the weld, and the zinc-rich zone corroded first during im-
mersion tests (Ref. 11). One effective method to minimize
https://doi.org/10.29391/2018.97.001
 WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 1 — The CMT welding system. Fig. 2 — Schematic of the CMT arc spot weld positions rela-
tive to the positioning of the 1-mm AA6022 and 1.5-mm DC03
panels.

In this study, the open circuit potential (OCP) of base ma-

terials and various locations within the CMT Al-steel welds
were measured in addition to the accelerated salt spray expo-
sure testing carried out on the welds in the as-welded condi-
tion as well as after e-coating. Mechanical testing of coupons
having undergone environmental exposure was completed
and complemented by macro- and microstructural analysis of
the welds to systematically study the corrosion mechanism of
the brazed aluminum-steel welds.

Fig. 3 — Illustration of the CMT arc spot welding process
using the EPW mode.
corrosion was the application of a protective coating, which
covers both the weld and the base metal (Refs. 12, 13). Al-
steel CMT arc spot welds involve various types of materials,
including aluminum alloy, steel, zinc coating, and filler ma-
terials, resulting in a brazed Fe-Al IMC layer. Therefore, gal-
vanic corrosion in the multimaterial weld is highly probable.
Experimental Procedures
Welding Procedure
The CMT arc spot welding process of aluminum to galva-
nized steel was carried out using a Fronius TransPuls Syner-
gic 3200 CMT welding system integrated with an ABB IRB
1410 industry robot to control the movement of the welding
torch, as shown in Fig. 1. The materials used in the study
were 1-mm-thick 6022-T4 aluminum alloy and 1.5-mm-
thick HDG DC03. The welding wire was AlSi5 (4043) with a
diameter of 1.2 mm. The chemical compositions and nomi-

Table 1 — Chemical Compositions of AA6022-T4, 4043, and HDG DC03 (wt-%)

Mg Si Cu Mn Zn Ti C S P Fe Al
AA6022-T4 0.45–0.70 0.8–1.5 0.01–0.11 0.02–0.10 0.25 0.15 — — — 0.05-0.20 Bal.
ER4043  0.1 5  0.05 — — — — — —  0.04 Bal.
HDG DC03 — — —  0.45 — —  0.1  0.035  0.035 Bal.  0.2

Table 2 — Mechanical Properties of AA6022-T4 Aluminum and HDG DC03 Steel

Materials Yield Strength Ultimate Tensile Elongation Elastic Modulus

(MPa) Strength (MPa) (%) (GPa)
AA6022-T4 135 252 26 70
HDG DC03 210 350 37 206

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 15-s

WELDING RESEARCH

A B

Fig. 4 — Electrochemical test workstation: A — Modulab potentiostat; B — flat cell with three electrodes.

B C

Fig. 5 — OCP testing: A — Relative positions within the weld; B — section through the aluminum weld; C — section through the
base steel substrate.

nal properties of the base materials are listed in Tables 1 and
2, respectively. The composition of zinc coating on the steel
was zinc + 0.15–0.20% Al + 0–0.1% Pb or 0–0.5% Sb, and
the layer thickness was typically less than 10 m.
The aluminum alloy and zinc-coated steel were fabricated
into 304.8-  127-mm panels, and the aluminum alloy panel
was positioned as the top sheet closest to the CMT torch
with an overlap width of 20 mm, as presented in Fig. 2. All
the panels were cleaned using acetone to remove any surface
contamination.
The EPW mode (Refs. 8, 9) (refer to Fig. 3) was adopted to
spot weld aluminum alloy to galvanized steel. This process re-
quires a predrilled hole in the top aluminum sheet. The diame-
ter of the hole used in the study was 6.5 mm with a 50.8-mm
interval on the panel (refer to Fig. 2). The welding torch was
kept perpendicular to the aluminum sheet with an extension
of 12 mm, and the center of the wire was aligned to the edge of
the hole. The welding torch moved along the edge of the
predrilled hole at a translation speed of 27 mm/s. Upon reach-
ing an angle of 337.5 deg from the starting position, the torch
changed direction toward the center of the hole. The arc was
extinguished upon reaching the center of the hole. The wire

16-s WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019, VOL. 98


Fig. 6 — Heat treatment of non e-coated panels. A — Temperature profile used in e-coating; B — heat-treatment oven and thermo-
couple fastened to the welded assembly.
feed speed was 5.6 m/min, the welding current was 116 A, and
the voltage was 14.0 V. A shielding gas of 99.999% pure argon
was adopted at a flow rate of 20 L/min.
Electrochemical Measurements
The open circuit potential (OCP) measurements were tak-
en using a Modulab potentiostat, as shown in Fig. 4A. A
three-electrode PAR flat cell was employed, which used a sat-
urated calomel reference electrode (RE) and a pure Pt-mesh
counter electrode (CE). A photo of the apparatus is presented
in Fig. 4B. The electrolyte was a 3.5% NaCl solution. A base-
line measurement of the bare steel substrate was desired.
Thus, to eliminate any batch-to-batch variation, the zinc-
coated DC03 steel surface was ground using a 180-, 600-, and
1200-grit SiC abrasive paper to expose the underlying steel
substrate for OCP measurements.
Figure 5A is a drawing of the CMT Al-steel weld with vari-
ous positions in the stackup, indicating where specimens
were extracted for OCP measurements. Position 1 is the top
WELDING RESEARCH
surface of the weld, and then sections were taken through
the stackup until position 7, which is the bottom surface of
the zinc-coated steel. Electrical discharge machining (EDM)
was used to section the weld stackup to remove slices of ma-
terial, as exemplified by the two in Fig. 5B and C. The circu-
lar CMT weld can be clearly seen within the aluminum sub-
strate material in Fig. 5B. If the steel slice in Fig. 5C were
polished, it would exhibit a circular heat-affected zone be-
cause no nugget is formed within the steel. Positions 2 and
3, which were the top and bottom surfaces of the Al slice,
were the filler metal in the nugget on the aluminum side.
The diameter of the area of filler metal was larger than the
working electrode on the flat cell to make sure that only the
filler metal was exposed to the electrolyte when the OCP
testing was conducted. Position 4 is intended to enable OCP
measurements of the IMC layer. Because of the difficulty in
accurate positioning of the EDM process in relation to the
very thin IMC layer, it was decided to load the weld to frac-
ture and thereby expose the IMC layer. This had the advan-
tage of isolating the IMC layer though introducing a certain
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 17-s
WELDING RESEARCH

A B

Fig. 7 — Cyclic corrosion test: A — Test chamber; B — positioning of welded panels in the chamber.

A B C

Fig. 8 — Weld morphology and microstructure: A — Cross section of the weld; B — enlarged view of the region b presented in A; C
— enlarged view of the region c presented in A (Ref. 10).

A B

Fig. 9 — Morphology of the CMT spot-welded panels: A — As-welded and without e-coating; B — e-coated following welding.

amount of surface texture, which is not consistent with the
other positions. Three specimens were measured for each
position.
E-Coating of Samples
An electrophoretic deposition process, e-coat, is a coating
process within the automotive assembly paint process that
deposits particles onto the surface of the aluminum and/or
steel body in white prior to painting. As such, e-coating does
provide a level of corrosion protection and, therefore, needs
to be considered in the experimental plan especially for dis-
similar material joints. Thus, welded panels were e-coated to
simulate the industrial body in white process. However, be-
cause the e-coating process consists of immersion in a wa-
ter-based solution containing paint epoxy-based emulsion
followed by curing, referred to here as “paint bake,” all weld-
ed panels underwent a paint bake process to eliminate any
potential heat treatment effects. The maximum tempera-
ture of the bake process was about 190˚C (375˚F). The red,
green, and blue plots in Fig. 6A are experimental measure-
ments from the e-coating process with the blue plot based
upon data from a thermocouple affixed to an actual welded

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A B
Fig. 10 — OCP testing of the substrate and different positions of the weld: A — Positions tested in the weld; B — potential curves
as a function of time for various substrates and weld positions.
Fig. 11 — EPMA analysis of zinc distribution within the weld.
panel assembly. This data was used to generate a heat-treat-
ment schedule for non e-coated coupons in the furnace seen
in the photo (refer to Fig. 6B). The black plot in Fig. 6A is
the experimental thermal history of a non e-coated coupon
affixed with a thermocouple in the furnace, which exhibits
good correlation to the thermal history inherent in the e-
coating process. The probe of the thermocouple was fas-
tened on the weld surface with heat-resistant adhesive tape,
as shown in Fig. 6B.
Salt Spray Test
Typical automotive environmental exposure testing em-
ploys some form of salt spray exposure. The current study
followed the standard GMW14872 and carried out the test-
ing using an auto technology cyclic corrosion test chamber.
The welded panels were placed at an angle of 30 deg to the
vertical reference line with the steel sheet at the bottom (re-
Table 3 — Salt Spray Exposure Cycle Based on GMW14872 (Ref. 14)
Control Variable Ambient Stage
Temperature 25 ± 3C
Humidity ~ 45 ± 10% RH
Duration 8h
WELDING RESEARCH
fer to Fig. 7). The water solution within the chamber was
composed of 0.9% NaCl, 0.1% CaCl2, and 0.075% NaHCO3.
Because the GMW14872 was an internal standard from
General Motors, the salt spray exposure cycle was listed in
Table 3, which consisted of three stages, e.g., ambient, hu-
mid, and dry off (Ref. 14). Two different exposure cycles,
i.e., 20 and 63 days, were adopted to investigate the influ-
ence of exposure time. Although GMW14872 stipulates a
targeted mass reduction, this was not measured because the
corrosion products found at the notch root are difficult to
remove, and their presence would cause significant error in
the mass loss measurements.
Microstructural Analysis and Mechanical
Testing
Because any welded assembly would be e-coated, the
greatest concern is not the top or bottom sheet surfaces but
the area of the notch root where e-coating penetration may
not reach and dissimilar materials of the Al-steel joint are in
intimate contact. Thus, individual welds of a panel were ex-
tracted and cross sectioned to examine the effect of corro-
sion on weld macro- and microstructure. The weld cross sec-
tions were mounted and first ground with 180-, 600-, and
1200-grit SiC abrasive paper followed by polishing with sus-
pension liquids on a Presi polishing machine. Keller’s
reagent (1 mL HF + 1.5 mL HCl + 2.5 mL HNO3 + 95 mL
H2O) was used to etch the aluminum side for 15 s, and 4%
nital was used to etch the steel side for 20 s to highlight the
Humid Stage Dry-Off Stage
49 ± 2C 60 ± 2C
~ 100% RH  30% RH
8h 8h
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 19-s
WELDING RESEARCH

A B

C D

Fig. 12 — The CMT-welded Al-steel panels after salt spray exposure: A — Without e-coat after 20 cycles; B — e-coated after 20
cycles; C — without e-coat after 63 cycles; D — e-coated following 63 cycles.

microstructure. Optical microscopy was adopted to observe
the macro- and microstructure of the welds.
Finally, the effects of corrosion were measured upon the
lap-shear strength of the welds. The welded panels before
and after corrosion were laser cut into 38-mm-wide coupons
with a single weld positioned along the centerline. Laser cut-
ting was employed as a means to minimize any disruption of
the weld joint, especially after longer cycles of environmen-
tal exposure. Quasistatic lap shear testing was conducted us-
ing a SUNS UTM5504 load frame at a loading rate of 1
mm/min. The normal fixture for lap shear test of materials
was adopted for tensile testing of the weld. Backing plates
were placed at both ends of the welded coupon, and the
same offset was applied to minimize bending stresses inher-
ent in the testing of lap-shear specimens. Three coupons
were tested for each parameter combination, and the aver-
age value was calculated along with the standard deviation.
Image analysis was employed using an optical microscope on
the fracture surfaces of lap-shear coupons to measure the
load-bearing areas of the weld nugget. Areas of weld nugget
that were corroded by the environmental exposure exhibited
a visually darker surface due to the corrosion/oxidation oc-
curring there, and this fracture surface contrast was the ba-
sis for the image analysis.
Results and Discussion
Characterization of the Weld
The macrostructure of the CMT spot weld cross section
was observed by optical microscope and a representative
photo is presented in Fig. 8A, the microstructure of which
was much similar to the weld of 1-mm 6022-T4 aluminum
alloy + 1.5-mm-thick HDG DC03. The CMT process achieves
a welding-brazing joint because the welding wire and adja-
cent aluminum substrate melts approximately 900˚C below
the steel. Any zinc on the steel surface is melted and forms a
low-melting-point eutectic with the aluminum. The molten
aluminum alloy pool then wets the steel surface. Figure 8B
and C are photomicrographs of the weld in the notch root
area and along the faying interface respectively, both of
which highlight the weld microstructure and intermetallic
compound (IMC) layer, which were analyzed by using a scan-

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Fig. 13 — Lap shear strength of CMT Al-steel welds (with and
without e-coating) measured as-welded and following envi-
ronmental exposure for 20 and 63 cycles.
ning electron microscope with accompanying EDS analysis.
Results are shown in Table 4.
Position 1 located at the Fe-Al IMC layer was identified as
Fe2Al5. Because the beam spot of EDS was too close to the
steel substrate, the reflections of the Fe element were picked
up from the steel. Positions 2 and 3 were the Al–Zn mixture,
indicating that a zinc-rich zone existed between the alu-
minum weld metal and Fe-Al IMC layer. Farther into the
weld, though still along the faying interface, a thin IMC layer,
i.e., Fe2Al5, with very little zinc was detected at position 4.
Figure 9A is a photo of the as-welded panel, and Fig. 9B is
a photo of the welded and e-coated panels, which appear
black.
Electrochemical Measurements
As a measurement of the corrosion tendency for the dif-
ferent alloy compositions making up the Al-steel joint (refer
to Fig. 5), the OCP was plotted as a function of time (refer to
Fig. 10A). The majority of positions exhibit a trend of de-
creasing OCP values with time. However, for those positions
(1 and 2) exhibiting an increase of the OCP over time, the
authors attribute this to an increasing protective property
of a passive AlxOy film during the exposure to the elec-
Table 4 — Chemical Compositions of Different Points (at.-%)
Elements
Positions
Al Fe
1 58.12 25.19
2 49.38 2.91
3 59.50 2.42
4 64.63 26.12
WELDING RESEARCH
trolyte. To compare these values, an average OCP was calcu-
lated by averaging the values in the time frame of 1800–
3600 s. This was done for three replicates per position, and
the average OCP values were then plotted as a function of
relative position within the joint stackup (refer to Fig. 10B).
The OCP for the zinc coating on the steel substrate was the
most negative, which is similar to the bottom surface of the
weld, position 7, as would be expected assuming that the sur-
face temperature at the bottom surface of the steel does not
reach the melting point of zinc during welding. The OCP of
the Fe-Al IMC layer mixed with zinc, position 4, was also very
low, about –1.0 V, compared with the weld metal in the alu-
minum side. Thus, this would drive the IMC layer to corrode
after the corrosion of the zinc-rich zone. The OCP of the alu-
minum base alloy was relatively higher and OCP of the Al
weld decreased in OCP value from the surface of the weld to
the faying interface, especially positions 2 to 3, which is at-
tributed to a greater zinc-alloying content closer to the faying
interface (refer to Fig. 10A). This can be explained by the fact
that the zinc coating has a low boiling point of 906˚C, such
that when it is exposed to the heat from the welding arc, it
will evaporate and become trapped at the weld root.
This was detected by EPMA analysis of zinc distribution
in the weld nugget, as shown in Fig. 11. The OCP of the steel
substrate and positions 5 and 6 within the steel substrate
were the most positive, indicating the greatest corrosion re-
sistance. The OCP of positions 2, 3, and 4 was the result of
mixed potentials.
Therefore, according to the OCP results, it is proposed
that the zinc coating on the steel surface will corrode first
during the corrosion process. However, the zinc coating on
the steel in the vicinity of the weld notch root corroded
slowly because of the difficulty for the electrolyte solution
to penetrate into this overlapped area. Once the solution
penetrated into the overlapped area and following extended
exposure times, the zinc-rich zone at the weld notch root
corroded and the corrosion propagated into the aluminum
weld metal through the zinc distribution at the notch root.
The existence of e-coating on the panels provides a barrier
to the invasion of electrolyte solution into the overlapped
area, and the corrosion rate is slowed, highlighting the bene-
ficial attributes of e-coating.
Macro Morphology of the Corroded Panels
Photos exhibiting the morphologies of the welded panels
with and without e-coating after salt spray exposure for dif-
ferent cycles are presented in Fig. 12. The uncoated welded
Phases
Zn Si
6.65 10.04 Fe2Al5
45.40 2.32 Al–Zn mixture
36.61 1.46 Al–Zn mixture
0.27 8.98 Fe2Al5
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 21-s
WELDING RESEARCH

A B

C D

Fig. 14 — Fractography of the weld under applied load: A — Uncoated weld after 20 cycles; B — e-coated weld after 20 cycles; C
— uncoated weld after 63 cycles; D — e-coated weld after 63 cycles.

A B C

Fig. 15 — Fractographies and lap-shear strengths of non e-coated coupons with a different % of corroded weld nugget fracture
surface following 63 cycles of GM14872 environmental exposure testing: A — 2.3%; B — 18.5%; C — 67.7%; D — weld strength with
different percentage of corrosion weld nugget fracture surface shown in A, B, and C.

22-s WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019, VOL. 98

 WELDING RESEARCH

A B

C D

Fig. 16 — Photomicrographs of polished cross sections of the Al-steel weld following environmental exposure: A — Uncoated weld
after 20 cycles; B — e-coated weld after 20 cycles; C — uncoated weld after 63 cycles; D — e-coated weld after 63 cycles.

panels exhibit a white color indicating oxidation of the zinc
coating and areas of brown rust after 20 cycles of environ-
mental exposure (refer to Fig. 12A). Brown rust can also be
observed in some locations, which indicates full oxidation of
the zinc coating and oxidation of the base steel substrate
has begun. Conversely, the e-coated panels (refer to Fig.
12B) were well protected and no obvious corrosion was de-
tected. The white drops on the surface in the photo are dried
electrolyte solution left on the panels. After 63 cycles of en-
vironmental exposure, the uncoated steel panel exhibited
severe corrosion as evidenced by a thick layer of brown rust
(refer to Fig. 12C). For the same exposure, the aluminum
panel exhibits a white corrosion product covering the sheet
in contrast to the darker grey color of the aluminum panel
seen in Fig. 12A. After 63 cycles, the e-coating was still pro-
viding corrosion protection; however, evidence of white cor-
rosion product could be found in the vicinity of the over-
lapped region.
Lap-Shear Strength
For the investigation of corrosion on the mechanical
property of the welds, lap-shear testing was conducted fol-
lowing 20 and 63 cycles of salt spray exposure. The results
are summarized in Fig. 13. As a baseline, coupons were test-
ed prior to any environmental exposure and measured a lap-
shear strength of approximately 4.1 kN independent of the
presence of e-coating or not.
The fracture mode was crack initiation at the weld
notch root progressing into and through the weld to create
a partial button similar to that presented in Fig. 14A and
B. Following 20 cycles of salt spray exposure, there was no
measurable effect for coupons that were e-coated. Based
upon observation of a clear demarcation in Fig. 14B be-
tween the black e-coated steel surface and the oxidized
steel surface in the overlap area, it was concluded that the
e-coating did not penetrate fully around the welds. For
those welds without e-coating, the lap strength after 20
cycles of exposure was reduced to a value of 3.6 kN, retain-
ing the same fracture mode as the baseline — Fig. 13.
Again, after 63 cycles, there was no degradation of lap-
shear strength for the e-coated coupons; however, for
coupons without e-coating, the strength reduction was sig-
nificant, measuring an average strength of 2.6 kN. Fur-
thermore, the fracture mode changed to one of interfacial
fracture along the IMC layer. This can be understood in the
observation of a thick oxidation layer in the region of over-
lap and corrosion directly on the weld fracture surface (re-
fer to Fig. 14C), which also caused the large fluctuation of
the weld strength shown in Fig. 13. Thus, e-coating ex-
hibits an ability to provide significant corrosion protection
for coupon-level testing even without complete joint pene-
tration into the Al-steel overlapped area (refer to Fig.
14D). Further work under conditions of durability type
testing would be required to represent in-use conditions
for automotive applications.
Observation of the fracture surfaces for the welds with-
out e-coating tested after 63 cycles of environmental expo-
sure (refer to Fig. 15A–C) led to the correlation of the %
area of weld nugget corroded during the salt spray test,
i.e., extent of corrosion, to the lap-shear strength (refer to
Fig. 15D). This implies that as the corrosion progresses,
the bond between the Al and steel is destroyed, thereby re-
ducing the overall load-bearing area of the joint. For the

JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 23-s

WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 17 — Microstructure of the corroded weld notch root without e-coating: A — Corrosion propagation in the weld notch root after
20 cycles; B — IMC layer near the weld notch root without corrosion after 20 cycles; C — corrosion propagation in the weld notch
root after 63 cycles; D — corroded IMC layer near the weld notch root after 63 cycles.

welds shown in Fig. 15A–C, the percentage of corroded
weld nugget fracture surface increased greatly from 2 to
57% (refer to Fig. 15D) because the weld with the largest
corrosion area was close to the edge of the panel, as shown
in Fig. 9A and exposed much more to the corrosion solu-
tion; the weld adjacent to the panel center corroded slight-
ly. As the percentage of the corroded weld nugget area in-
creased to 57%, corresponding to the fractography pre-
sented in Fig. 15C, the weld strength per unit area de-
creased from 38 N/mm2 for the as-welded and e-coated
condition to approximately 23 N/mm2, which implies there
is another mechanism beyond the load-bearing area at
play. As the square of corrosion area increased, which
caused a smaller load-bearing area, the reduction of the
lap-shear strength also became larger simultaneously (re-
fer to Fig. 15D), which was calculated by the lap-shear
strength of the weld without corrosion subtracted by the
value of the weld strength after corrosion, then divided by
the area of corroded interface. This could very well have to
do with the stress state at the faying interface/notch root,
which requires further investigation beyond the current
body of work.

24-s WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019, VOL. 98


Fig. 18 — Microstructure of the corroded weld notch root for coupons having been e-coated: A — After 20 cycles; B — after 63 cycles.
Macro and Microstructural Analysis of the
Weld Cross Section
To investigate the effect of environmental exposure on
the macrostructure of the weld, the welds were cross sec-
tioned, mounted, polished, and observed by optical micro-
scope. Photomicrographs of coupons after being exposed to
20 and 63 cycles are presented in Fig. 16. After 20 cycles of
salt spray exposure, the weld without e-coating (refer to
Fig. 16A) exhibited corrosion, which propagated into the
aluminum weld metal on both sides of the weld notch root
near the boundaries of the faying interface. This can be
compared with the as-welded photo in Fig. 8A. In contrast,
very little corrosion was evident in the weld root for the e-
coated sample after 20 cycles (refer to Fig. 16B), indicating
the effectiveness of the e-coating for this duration as a bar-
rier to the environmental exposure electrolyte between the
aluminum and steel. Corrosion continued to propagate into
the weld metal on the aluminum side for non e-coated
coupons after 63 cycles of environmental exposure (refer to
Fig. 16C). This observation correlates with the elevated
zinc distribution at the weld root (refer to Fig. 11). For the
e-coated sample after 63 cycles, there is a greater extent of
corrosion observed (refer to Fig. 16D) than after 20 cycles,
however, not nearly to the extent observed for the coupon
without e-coating.
To investigate any microstructural relationship to the
preferred path of corrosion, the microstructure and ele-
ment distribution of the corroded weld without e-coating
were captured using SEM and EDS (refer to Fig. 17). As
noted previously, after 20 cycles of environmental expo-
sure, the weld nugget root was corroded (refer to Fig. 17A).
WELDING RESEARCH
The EDS mapping analysis confirmed that the corrosion
path followed regions of elevated zinc content along the
faying interface and then into the zinc-rich region of the
weld metal. The IMC layer farther along the faying inter-
face near the weld centerline exhibited no corrosion (refer
to Fig. 17B). After 63 cycles of environmental exposure,
which can be seen in Fig. 17C, large amounts of aluminum
weld metal dissolved with significant zinc corrosion at the
weld notch root. The IMC layer mixed with the zinc ele-
ment near the notch along the interface between the alu-
minum weld metal, and the steel substrate was also oxi-
dized (refer to Fig. 17D). High levels of Na and Cl were
measured indicating salt residue. Therefore, the weld
strength and the area of bearing load decreased significant-
ly, and the fracture mode turned to interfacial fracture, as
shown in Figs. 13 and 14C.
To study the effect of e-coating on the corrosion process
of the dissimilar material welds, the cross section of the e-
coated weld after salt spray exposure was also analyzed
with SEM and EDS, and the results are presented in Fig. 18.
After 20 cycles of exposure, the zinc-rich zone at the notch
root exhibited slight oxidation (refer to Fig. 18A), which
was significantly less compared to the weld having no e-
coating, compare to Fig. 17A. Na and Cl, which are indica-
tive of the electrolyte, were also detected around the weld
root, indicating the coating could not seal the overlapped
area entirely. The corrosion at the weld notch root after 63
cycles propagated into the aluminum weld root in the zinc-
rich region, as shown in Fig. 18B; however, the extent of
corrosion was also less severe in contrast to the weld having
no e-coating, indicating the coating provided a partial block
to the electrolyte solution attacking the weld root.
JANUARY 2019 / WELDING JOURNAL 25-s
WELDING RESEARCH
A B
C D
Fig. 19 — Corrosion mechanism of Al and steel CMT spot weld: A — Corrosion of zinc coating on the steel surface; B — corrosion of
the zinc-rich zone at the weld notch root; C — corrosion propagation in the zinc-rich zone of the weld notch root; D — corrosion
propagation in the IMC layer.
Corrosion Mechanism
To explain the corrosion mechanism observed in the CMT
arc spot welded Al-steel coupons following environmental ex-
posure, the following model (refer to Fig. 19) is put forth. For
corrosion to occur, the electrolyte solution must penetrate be-
tween the Al and steel sheets into the overlapped area. The
zinc coating on the steel surface has the lowest open circuit
potential and, as such, preferentially corrodes (refer to Fig.
19A). As the zinc coating is corroded along the steel surface,
the solution attacks the zinc-rich zone of the weld notch root,
which begins to corrode as shown in Figs. 19B and 17A. As
the number of cycles and corresponding exposure time in-
creases, the corrosion continues propagation into the weld
metal along a path of zinc-rich microstructure (refer to Figs.
19C, 11, and 17C). As the zinc-rich material is being corroded,
so too is the aluminum weld metal oxidized. Once the corro-
sion has propagated through the zinc-rich zone, the Fe-Al
IMC layer mixed with zinc coating, which evaporated from
the steel surface during welding, is preferentially corroded,
thereby reducing the load-bearing joint between the Al and
steel (refer to Figs. 19D and 17D). This results in a decrease of
the lap-shear strength and transition of fracture mode to in-
terfacial fracture (refer to Fig. 14C). The following anodic and
cathodic reactions of the various stages corresponding to Fig.
19A–D are presented:
Anodic reaction: (a) Zn → 2e– + Zn2+
(b) Zn → 2e– + Zn2+
(c) Zn → 2e– + Zn2+,
Al → 3e– + Al3+
(d) Zn → 2e– + Zn2+,
26-s WELDING JOURNAL / JANUARY 2019, VOL. 98
Al →3e– + Al3+, Fe → 2e– + Fe2+
Cathodic reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 4e– → 4OH–
Conclusions
The corrosion properties of CMT spot-welded 1-mm-
thick AA6022-T4 to 1.5-mm-thick HDG DC03 welds were
investigated. The OCP of base materials and different por-
tions of the welds from top to bottom were measured, and
salt spray exposure testing was conducted for the welds
with and without e-coating for durations of 20 and 63 cy-
cles. After exposure, the welds were investigated and com-
pared in terms of joint morphology, mechanical properties,
as well as macro- and microstructure. The following con-
clusions can be drawn:
1) The OCP value differed between the weld and base
metals and varied as a function of position within the weld.
The OCP of the zinc coating on the steel substrate was the
most negative, which was similar to the bottom surface of
the weld. The OCP of the Fe-Al IMC layer in the interface
mixed with zinc was also very low. The OCP of the alu-
minum weld metal was relatively higher and decreased from
the surface of the weld to the faying interface due to the
mixed zinc vapor during the welding process. The OCP of
the steel substrate was the most positive, indicating the
strongest corrosion resistance.
2) During salt spray tests, the electrolyte solution pene-
trated along the opening between the welded Al and steel
sheets, migrating toward the weld notch root. The zinc coat-
ing on the steel surface has the largest negative electro-
chemical potential and would corrode first. Then as the elec-

trolyte penetrates, it would attack the zinc-rich zone at the
weld notch root.
3) Considering the as-welded condition as the baseline lap-
shear strength with a nugget pullout through the Al as the
fracture mode, the average strength dropped 12% following
20 cycles of salt spray exposure and 41% following 63 cycles
coupled with a change in fracture mode to interfacial.
4) E-coating has a very positive effect upon corrosion of the
CMT Al-steel welds. The e-coating provides a barrier to the
penetration of the electrolyte solution into the overlapped
area between the top and bottom sheets. Resulting lap-shear
strengths exhibited no statistical difference between the as-
welded and post-environmentally exposed conditions.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of
GM Research and Development Center and National Natural
Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. U1564204,
U1764251, and 51322504).
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