GE 104

GE 104
ENGINEERING
SURVEYS
ENGR. JIGG PELAYO, GE, EnP
CHAPTER 2.1
HORIZONTAL CURVES
PART-1
LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

TOPIC 2. HORIZONTAL CURVES Part-1
◂ Understand the definition of terms related to Horizontal Curves;
◂ Understand the basic concepts of Horizontal Curves;
◂ Identify and Differentiate the various kinds of Horizontal Curves;
◂ Understand the concepts and elements of different Horizontal
Curves;
◂ Identify and explain the different elements of Simple Curves;
◂ Identify and explain the different elements of Compound
Curves;
◂ Identify and explain the different elements of Reversed Curve;
◂ Perform computations and solve problems in relation to various
Horizontal Curves, specifically for Simple, Compound and
Reversed Curves.

3
“ t is never too late
to be what you
”
might have been
George Eliot
4
TOPIC 2.1.1
What is Highway /
Road Curve?

HIGHWAY / ROAD CURVE
◂ A CURVE is nothing but an arc which connects two straight
lines which are separated by some angle called deflection
angle.
◂ The CURVES are provided for smooth or gradual change in
direction from right to left (vice versa) or changes its alignment
from up to down (vice versa) due the nature of terrain, cultural
features, or other unavoidable objects or conditions.
◂ The object may be a hill or a lake or a temple etc. so, for the
ease of movement of vehicle at this point a curve is provided.
◂ Similar curves are also specified in an roadways, railways and
canals.
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◂ CURVES are a critical element in the pavement design.
◂ They are provided with a maximum speed limit that should lie
followed very strictly.
◂ Following the speed limit becomes essential as the exceed in
speed may lead to the chances of the vehicle becoming out of
control while negotiating a turn and thus increase the odds of
fatal accidents.
◂ In highway practice, it is recommended to provide curves
deliberately on straight route to break the monotony in driving
on long straight route to avoid accidents.

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◂ Curves provided in the horizontal plane are known as
Horizontal Curves and are generally circular or parabolic.
Curves provided in the vertical plane are known as Vertical
Curve.
◂ There are two types of curves provided primarily for the
comfort and ease of the motorists in the road namely:
◂ Horizontal Curve
◂ Vertical Curve

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HORIZONTAL CURVE
(PLAN VEIW)
VERTICAL CURVE
(PROFILE VIEW)

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12
HORIZONTAL CURVE
/ ALIGNMENT
VERTICAL CURVE /
ALIGNMENT

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HORIZONTAL CURVE / ALIGNMENT VERTICAL CURVE / ALIGNMENT

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◂ It is necessary that appropriate safety measures be adopted at
all horizontal and vertical curves to make the infrastructure
road user friendly and decrease the risks of hazardous
circumstances.
◂ The low cost safety measures that can be adopted at curves
included chevron signs, delineators, pavement markings,
flexible posts, fluorescent strips, road safety barriers, rumble
strips etc.

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TOPIC 2.1.2
Curve Points and
Stationing

CURVE POINTS
◂ The surveyor learns to locate points using
angles and distances. In construction
surveying, the surveyor must often establish
the line of a curve for road layout or some
other construction.
◂ The surveyor can establish curves of short
radius, usually less than one tape length, by
holding one end of the tape at the center of
the circle and swinging the tape in an arc,
marking as many points as desired.

17
CURVE POINTS
◂ As the radius and length of curve increases,
the tape becomes impractical, and the
surveyor must use other methods. Measured
angles and straight line distances are usually
picked to locate selected points, known as
“stations”, on the circumference of the arc.

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STATIONING
◂ Stationing specifies the relative position of any points along a
reference line.
◂ On route surveys, the surveyor numbers the stations forward
from the beginning of the project.
◂ A full station is 100 feet or 30 meters, making 15+00 and 16+00
full stations.
◂ A plus station indicates a point between full stations. (example,
15+52.96 is a plus station.)
◂ The station number simply becomes the distance from the
beginning of the project.

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STATIONING
◂ Example,
◂ US Survey Foot – 1 Station = 100.00’
◂ If I begin at 0.00’ and measure 200.00’ along the reference
line, I at station 2+00.00
0+00 1+00 2+00
100’ 100’
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STATIONING
◂ Example,
◂ US Survey Foot – 1 Station = 100.00’
◂ If I begin at 0.00’ and measure 200.00’ along the reference
line, I at station 2+00.00
◂ If I measure an additional 45.67’ (total distance of
245.67, I will now be at station 2+45.67
0+00 1+00 2+00 2+45.67
100’ 100’ 45.67’

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STATIONING
◂ Example,
◂ Metric – 1 Station = 1000.000m
◂ If I begin at 0.000m and measure 400.000m along the
reference line, I at station 0+400.000
◂ If I measure an additional 1021.789m (total distance of
1421.789m), I will now be at 1+421.789
◂ Now take note that 1000.000, when converted as station
notation becomes 1+000.000
Single meters
Tens of meters
Hundred meters
Kilometers

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STATIONING

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TOPIC 2.1.3
Horizontal Curve

HORIZONTAL CURVES
◂ Horizontal Curves are one of the two important transition
elements in geometric design for highways (along with Vertical
Curves).
◂ The curve provided in the horizontal plane of earth is called as
Horizontal Curve. It connects two straight lines which are in
the same level but having different directions.
◂ Horizontal curves are established to change the direction or
alignment of a road or railway or even canals.
◂ Horizontal Curve are circular curves or circular arcs.

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HORIZONTAL CURVES
◂ The sharpness of a curve increases as the radius is decrease
which makes it risky and dangerous. The main design criterion
of a horizontal curve is the provision of an adequate safe
stopping sight distance.
◂ A horizontal curve provides a transition between two tangent
strips of roadway, allowing a vehicle to negotiate a turn at a
gradual rate rather than a sharp cut.
◂ The design of the curve is dependent on the intended design
speed for the roadway, as well as other factors including
drainage and friction.

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HORIZONTAL CURVES
◂ Advantages of Providing Horizontal Curves in Roads
◂ Necessary for gradual change in direction when a direct point
of intersection is not feasible
◂ A properly designed transition curve provides a natural, easy-
to-follow path for drivers, such that the centrifugal force
increases or decreases gradually as a vehicle enters or leaves a
circular curve.

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HORIZONTAL CURVES
◂ Advantages of Providing Horizontal Curves in Roads
◂ The transition curve length provides a convenient desirable
arrangement for superelevation runoff.
◂ The spiral facilitates the transition in width where the traveled
way section is to be widened around a circular curve.
◂ The appearance of the highway or street is enhanced by the
application of spiral curve.

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HORIZONTAL CURVES
◂ Horizontal curves are of different types, as follows:
◂ Simple Curve
◂ Compound Curve
◂ Reverse Curve
◂ Spiral Curve

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TOPIC 2.1.3.1
Simple Curve

SIMPLE CURVES
◂ Simple Circular Curve is a horizontal
curve which connect two straight lines
with constant radius. (1st definition)
◂ The Simple Curve is an arc of a circle,
extending from one tangent to the
next. (2nd definition)
◂ It is the “most commonly used” in
highways.
◂ The simple curve is an arc of a circle. SIMPLE CURVE

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SIMPLE CURVES
◂ The radius of the circle determines the
“sharpness” or “flatness” of the curve.
◂ The larger the radius, the “flatter” the
curve.
◂ The smaller the radius, the “sharper”
the curve.
SIMPLE CURVE

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ELEMENTS OF SIMPLE
CURVE

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ELEMENTS OF S.C.
◂ PC - Point of curvature. The point of curvature is the point
where the circular curve begins. The back tangent is tangent to
the curve at this point.
◂ PT - Point of tangency. The point of tangency is the end of the
curve. The forward tangent is tangent to the curve at this point.
◂ PI - Point of intersection of the tangents. Also called vertex. The
point of intersection marks the point where the back and
forward tangents intersect. The surveyor indicates it one of the
stations on the preliminary traverse.
◂ T - Length of tangent from PC to PI and from PI to PT. It is
known as subtangent.
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ELEMENTS OF S.C.
◂ m - Middle ordinate, the distance from midpoint of curve to
midpoint of chord. The extension of the middle ordinate
bisects the central angle.
◂ R - Radius of simple curve, or simply radius, is the radius of the
circle of which the curve is an arc.
◂ L - Length of chord from PC to PT. It is the distance from the
PC to PT measured along the curve. Point Q as shown is the
midpoint of L.
◂ Lc - Length of curve from PC to PT. Point M in the figure is the
midpoint of Lc.

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ELEMENTS OF S.C.
◂ E - External distance, the nearest distance from PI to the
midpoint of the curve. The external distance bisects the
interior angle at the PI.
◂ x - offset distance from tangent to the curve. Note: x is
perpendicular to T.
◂ I - Deflection angle (also called as angle of intersection or
central angle). It is the angle of intersection of the tangents.
The angle subtended by PC and PT at O is also equal to I,
where O is the center of the circular curve from the above
figure.

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ELEMENTS OF S.C.
◂ θ - offset angle subtended at PC between PI and any point in
the curve.
◂ Sub chord - chord distance between two adjacent full stations.
◂ D - Degree of curve. It is the central angle subtended by a
length of curve equal to one station. In English system, one
station is equal to 100 ft and in SI, one station is equal to 20 m.
It is important to note that 100 ft is equal to 30.48 m not 20 m.
The degree of curve defines the “sharpness” or “flatness” of the
curve. There are two definitions commonly in use for degree of
curve, the arc definition and the chord definition.

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ELEMENTS OF S.C.
◂ θ - offset angle subtended at PC between PI and any point in
the curve.
◂ Sub chord - chord distance between two adjacent full stations.
◂ D - Degree of curve. It is the central angle subtended by a
length of curve equal to one station. In English system, one
station is equal to 100 ft and in SI, one station is equal to 20 m.
It is important to note that 100 ft is equal to 30.48 m not 20 m.
The degree of curve defines the “sharpness” or “flatness” of the
curve. There are two definitions commonly in use for degree of
curve, the arc definition and the chord definition.

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ELEMENTS OF S.C.
◂ Arc Basis
◂ The arc definition states that the degree of
curve (D) is the angle formed by two radii
drawn from the center of the circle to the
ends of an arc 100 feet or 20 meters long.
◂ It should be noted that for a given
intersecting angle or central angle, when
using the arc definition, all the elements of
the curve are inversely proportioned to the
degree of curve.

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ELEMENTS OF S.C.
◂ Arc Basis
◂ This basis is primarily used by civilian engineers in highway or
dam or artificial canal construction.

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ELEMENTS OF S.C.
◂ Chord Basis
◂ The chord definition states that the degree of
curve is the angle formed by two radii drawn
from the center of the circle to the ends of a
chord 100 feet or 20 meters long.
◂ The radius and the degree of curve are not
inversely proportional even though, as in the
arc definition, the larger the degree of curve
the “sharper” the curve and the shorter the
radius.

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ELEMENTS OF S.C.
◂ Chord Basis
◂ The chord definition is used primarily on railroads in civilian
practice and for both roads and railroads by the military.

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FORMULAS FOR S.C.
Tangent Distance Long Chord External Distance

𝑇 = 𝑅𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝐼ൗ2) 𝐿𝐶 = 2𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐼ൗ2) 𝐸 = 𝑅(𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝐼ൗ2 − 1)
Middle Ordinate Length of Curve Degree of Curve

𝑚 = 𝑅(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐼ൗ2 ) 𝐿𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑅𝐼
360
𝐷 = 1145.916
𝑅
𝐿𝑐 = 20𝐼
𝐷◂ SI units: 1 station = 𝐿𝑐 = 100𝐼
𝐷
◂ English system: 1 station
20 m = 100 ft
𝑆𝑡𝑎. 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎. 𝑃𝐼 − 𝑇 𝑆𝑡𝑎. 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎. 𝑃𝐶 + 𝐿

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TOPIC 2.1.3.1.1
Sample Problem for
Simple Curve

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
◂ A simple curve of the proposed extension of Butuan highway
have a direction of tangent AB which is due north and tangent
BC bearing N 50 deg. E. Point A is at the P.C. whose stationing is
20+130.46. The degree of curve is 4 deg.
1. Compute the long chord of the curve.
2. Compute the stationing of point D on the curve along a line
joining the center of the curve which makes an angle of 54
deg. With the tangent line passing thru the P.C.
3. What is the length of the line from D to the intersection of
the tangent AB?
Note: Sample problems will be presented and solved through lecture videos.

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS
◂ The chainage of the intersection point of two straights is 1060
m. The azimuth of the back tangent and forward tangent are
240 deg. and 300 deg. respectively. If the radius of a circular
curve to be set out is 570 m, and the peg interval is 30 m,
determine the tangent length, the length of the curve, the
chainage at the beginning and end of the curve, the length of
the long chord, the lengths of the sub-chords, and the total
number of chords.

47
TOPIC 2.1.3.2
Compound Curve

COMPOUND CURVES
◂ Compound Curve is a combination of two
or more simple circular curves with
different radii. In this case both or all the
curves lie on the same side of the
common tangent.
◂ Surveyors often have to use a compound
curve because of the complexity of the
topography/terrain.
COMPOUND CURVE
◂ These curves easily adapt to mountainous
terrain or areas cut by large, winding
rivers.
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COMPOUND CURVES
◂ However, since compound curves are
more hazardous than simple curves, they
should never be used where a simple
curve will do.
◂ This type of curve is used to avoid cutting
or filling.
◂ They become advantages when a road
has to be placed to fit a ground, like a COMPOUND CURVE
layout between a river and a cliff, when
the bend has to follow a specified path.

50
ELEMENTS OF
COMPOUND CURVE

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ELEMENTS OF C.C.
◂ PI - Point of intersection of the tangents. Also called vertex. The
point of intersection marks the point where the back and
forward tangents intersect. The surveyor indicates it one of the
stations on the preliminary traverse.
◂ PCC - point of compound curve

52
ELEMENTS OF C.C.
◂ T1 - length of tangent of the first curve
◂ T2 - length of tangent of the second curve
◂ V1 - vertex of the first curve
◂ V2 - vertex of the second curve
◂ I1 - central angle of the first curve
◂ I2 - central angle of the second curve
◂ I - angle of intersection = I1 + I2
◂ Lc1 - length of first curve
◂ Lc2 - length of second curve
◂ L1 - length of first chord

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ELEMENTS OF C.C.
◂ L2 - length of second chord
◂ L - length of long chord from PC to PT
◂ T1 + T2 - length of common tangent measured from V1 to V2
◂ θ - 180° - I
◂ x and y can be found from triangle V1-V2-PI.
◂ L can be found from triangle PC-PCC-PT
◂ R1 - radius of the first curve
◂ R2 - radius of the second curve

54
FORMULAS FOR C.C.
Finding the stationing of PT
Given the stationing of PC

𝑆𝑡𝑎. 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎. 𝑃𝐶 + 𝐿𝑐1 + 𝐿𝑐2
Given the stationing of PI

𝑆𝑡𝑎. 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎. 𝑃𝐼 − 𝑥 − 𝑇1 + 𝐿𝑐1 + 𝐿𝑐2

55
TOPIC 2.1.3.2.1
Sample Problem for
Compound Curve

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
◂ The common tangent AB of a compound curve is 76.42 m with
an azimuth of 268deg30min. The vertex V being inaccessible.
The azimuth of the tangents AV and VB was measured to be
247deg50min and 282deg50min, respectively. If the stationing
of A is 43+010.46m and the degree of the first curve was fixed at
4deg based on the 20 m chord. Using chord basis.
1. Determine the stationing of PC.
2. Determine the degree of the second curve.
3. Determine the stationing of PCC.
4. Determine the stationing of PT.

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS
◂ The long chord from the PC to the PT of a compound curve is
300 m long and the angle it makes with the longer and shorter
tangents are 12deg and 15deg respectively. If the common
tangent is parallel to the long chord.
1. Find the radius of the first curve.
2. Find the radius of the second curve.
3. If the stationing of PC is 10+204.30 m, find the stationing of
PT.

58
TOPIC 2.1.3.3
Reverse Curve

REVERSE CURVES
◂ Reverse Curve is formed when two simple
circular curves bending in opposite
directions are meet at a common point. This
points is called as point of reverse curvature.
◂ The center of both the curves lie on the
opposite sides of the common tangent. The
radii of both the curves may be same or
different.
REVERSE CURVE
◂ These curves are suitable for tracks lying in a
hilly region and for cross over in station
yards.
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REVERSE CURVES
◂ When a circular curve consists of two reverse
curves with or without any straight line in
between, then it is known as the deviation
curve.
◂ For safety reasons, the surveyor should not
use this curve in high-speed roads (highway)
or railroads unless absolutely necessary.
◂ However, surveyor may use them on low- REVERSE CURVE
speed roads and railroads.

61
REVERSE CURVES
◂ Reverse curves are useful when laying out
such things as pipelines, flumes, and levees.
◂ This type of curve is generally used at places
of the accident, major repair work of the
worn-out track.
◂ This keeps the track running in the original
direction after deviation at the required
place. REVERSE CURVE
◂ For safety reasons, the surveyor should not
use this curve in high-speed roads (highway)
or railroads unless absolutely necessary.
62
REVERSE CURVES
◂ However, surveyor may use them on low-
speed roads and railroads.
◂ Reverse curves are useful when laying out
such things as pipelines, flumes, and levees.
◂ This type of curve is generally used at places
of the accident, major repair work of the
worn-out track.
◂ This keeps the track running in the original REVERSE CURVE
direction after deviation at the required
place.

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ELEMENTS OF R.C.
◂ PRC - point of reversed curvature
◂ T1 - length of tangent of the first curve
◂ T2 - length of tangent of the second curve
◂ V1 - vertex of the first curve
◂ V2 - vertex of the second curve
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ELEMENTS OF R.C.
◂ I1 - central angle of the first curve
◂ I2 - central angle of the second curve
◂ Lc1 - length of first curve
◂ Lc2 - length of second curve
◂ L1 - length of first chord
◂ L2 - length of second chord
◂ T1 + T2 - length of common tangent measured from V1 to V2

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ELEMENTS OF R.C.
◂ Two straights to which a reverse curve connects may be parallel
or non-parallel.

67
ELEMENTS OF R.C.
◂ Reversed Curve for
Nonparallel Tangents
◂ The following figure is
an example reversed
curves of unequal
radii connecting non-
parallel tangents.

68
ELEMENTS OF R.C.
◂ Reversed Curve for
Parallel Tangents
◂ The figure below is an
example of reversed
curves of unequal
radii connecting two
parallel roads.

69
FORMULAS FOR R.C.
Finding the stationing of PT
Given the stationing of PC

𝑆𝑡𝑎. 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎. 𝑃𝐶 + 𝐿𝑐1 + 𝐿𝑐2
Given the stationing of V1

𝑆𝑡𝑎. 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎. 𝑉1 − 𝑇1 + 𝐿𝑐1 + 𝐿𝑐2

70
TOPIC 2.1.3.3.1
Sample Problem for
Reverse Curve

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
◂ Two parallel tangents 10m apart are connected by a reversed
curve. The chord length from the PC to PT equals 120m.
1. Compute the length of the tangent with common direction.
2. Determine the equal radius of the reversed curve.
3. Compute the stationing of the PRC if the stationing of A at
the beginning of the tangent with common direction is
3+420m.

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS
◂ Two parallel tangents have directions of due east and are 200m
apart, are connected by a reversed curve having equal radius of
800m. The PC of the curve is on the upper tangent while the PT
is at the lower tangent. If the horizontal distance parallel to the
tangent from the PC to the PT of the reversed curve is 800m.
1. Compute the distance of the intermediate tangent between the
curves.
2. Compute the distance between the centers of the reversed curve.
3. Compute the stationing of PT if stationing of the PC is 10+020.40m.

73
“ ou will either step forward into
growth, or you will step backward
”
into safety
Abraham Maslow
74
THANK YOU

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LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

HORIZONTAL CURVE / ALIGNMENT VERTICAL CURVE / ALIGNMENT

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

0+00 1+00 2+00

0+00 1+00 2+00 2+45.67

100’ 100’ 45.67’

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

Tangent Distance Long Chord External Distance

Middle Ordinate Length of Curve Degree of Curve

𝑆𝑡𝑎. 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎. 𝑃𝐼 − 𝑇 𝑆𝑡𝑎. 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎. 𝑃𝐶 + 𝐿

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

Given the stationing of PC

Given the stationing of PI

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS

LECTURE NOTES IN GE 104: ENGINEERING SURVEYS