Instituto Superior de Formación Docente Nº88

Assignment 1

“NORTHERN IRELAND”

Subject: Language and Culture I

Professor: Hernán Piperno
Students: Carolina Benítez, Florencia Casaux, Soledad Grisolia, Oliver Moreti,
Stefania Vodopivec
Course: 1°F3
Year: 2015
Language and Culture I – 1ºF3 Northern Ireland – Page 2

Geography
Northern Ireland is part of the British Isles
which are a group of islands off the north-west coast of
mainland Europe. Northern Ireland has 5,206 square
miles (13,438 km).
In 1801 the whole of Ireland became part of the
United Kingdom, with the adoption of the name the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
However, in 1922 most of Ireland became a separate
state, The Republic of Ireland. At this time, Britain
negotiated with Ireland to keep the six counties in the
north-east of Ireland. These six counties now make up
what is known as Northern Ireland. The southern part of
the island is the
Republic of Ireland or
Eire.
Northern Ireland is an integral part of The United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, which
consists of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.
It is known as Ulster, because it consists of six of the nine
counties that were parts of the former province of Ulster.
The country consists of six counties: County Antrim,
County Armagh, County Down, County Fermanagh, County
Derry/Londonderry and County Tyrone.

Climate
The whole of Northern
Ireland has a temperate maritime
climate, rather wetter in the west
than the east. The main influence
on the climate is the close
proximity to the Atlantic Ocean
and the northern latitude. The
effects of the Atlantic Gulf
Stream lead to mild winters and
relatively cool summers.
It has an equable climate
that means extremely hot or cold
weather is unusual but conditions
can be changeable. The average
annual temperature in Northern
Ireland at low-lying altitude is
around 10 C. Also, the weather is unpredictable at all times of the year. Rain falls 200 or more
days each year and the average rainfall of this country is between 800 and 1200 mm per year.

River, lakes and mountains

The centerpiece of Northern Ireland's geography is Lough Neagh; it has 151 square
miles (392 km²) and is the largest freshwater lake on the British Isles. Fermanagh is the only
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county not to border Lough Neagh, but makes up for it by exclusively containing Northern
Ireland's own lakeland based around Upper and Lower Lough Erne where a second extensive
lake system is centered. Also, The Upper Bann rises in the Mourne Mountains and empties
into Lough Neagh while the Lower Bann flows out of Lough Neagh to the North Channel.
There are many other rivers such as the Lagan, Erne, Blackwater, and Bush but the longest
river of Northern Ireland is River Bann with 80 miles (129 km²).
There are three main mountainous areas of considerable height in Northern Ireland.
These are the Sperrin Mountains in the northwest, the Antrim Plateau which is along the
northeastern coast, and the Mourne Mountains in the southeast. The highest summit in the
country is Slieve Donard reaching 2796 feet (852 m), a peak in the Mourne Mountains in
county Down.
Northern Ireland's landforms were influenced greatly by Ice Age glaciers. The terrain
consists of rounded hills and low mountains separated by broad valleys. A characteristic
feature of this country is the greenness of the countryside and the cloudy skies above.

Population
According to Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency, the population clock,
which is an estimate of the population at this year, is 1.847.667. The most recent census in
Northern Ireland took place on Sunday 27 March 2011 and the result was 1.810.863.

Capital city
Belfast, situated in county Antrim, is the capital city of Northern Ireland, whose
metropolitan area includes over a third of the population of this country, with heavy
urbanization and industrialization. The city boasts of many fine buildings such as the Royal
Courts of Justice, Queens University, and the Royal Parliament Buildings at Stormont. Belfast
sits in the east of the country, at the point where the River Lagan reaches the sea. This
strategic location, being easily accessible from various parts of the UK mainland, was integral
to its heritage as a major shipbuilding. Belfast is the chief port and has the main airport.

Flag
Northern Ireland's flag and coat of arms have a six-pointed star and the ancient Ulster
symbol of a red hand. The star and hand appear over the St. George's cross of the English
flag. Northern Ireland's flag and arms ceased to be official symbols in 1972. The flag is often
flown by private citizens, but the official flag is the British Union Flag.

Economy
Northern Ireland has a fairly diversified industrial economy: food processing, textile
making, and shipbuilding are industries of long standing. Also, manufacturing activities
developed more recently include oil refining and the making of synthetic fibers, automobiles,
aircraft, and various kinds of machinery and electronic equipment. Moreover, agriculture
provides a livelihood for many people in Northern Ireland (principal crops are potatoes and
barley), and livestock such as cattle, sheep, and poultry are raised in large numbers.
NI’s economy consists of: Agriculture and Forestry, Fisheries, Tourism, Industry-
linens, ropeworks, and clothing-, Mining and Power, Trade and Finance, and Transport and
Communications. In the earlier 1900’s NI was one of Britain’s main shipping routes. Belfast
constructed 600,000 tons of merchant shipping, this includes the building of 6 aircraft
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carriers, 3 cruisers and several other large ships, making a total of 140 warships of all sizes
and 123 merchant ships. Due to this, Belfast was the target of several destructive air raids
during Second World War.
It has very valuable key agricultural and industrial resources. Most of the country’s
trade is with Great Britain, about 80 % of it. Exports consist of: linen goods, textiles, clothing,
machinery, and food mainly meat, potatoes, and dairy products. Imports consist of: petroleum,
and other fuels, raw materials and metals, produce, and various manufactured goods.
The best highways are concentrated in the east, around Belfast, but almost all of the
country is easily accessible by roads. Public buses provide much of the passenger
transportation.

Tourist attractions
The Giant's Causeway, situated on the
North East coast of Northern Ireland, is an area
of about 40,000 interlocking basalt columns,
the result of an ancient volcanic eruption 60
million years ago. The Giant's Causeway
consists of thousands of closely placed,
polygonal pillars of black basalt. It is located on
the North Antrim coast, and is one of Northern
Ireland's main tourist attractions, the only
UNESCO World Heritage Site in Northern
Ireland. This is the focal point of a designated
area of outstanding natural beauty and has attracted visitors for centuries. It represents a
wealth of local and natural history. The Giant’s Causeway is also steeped in myth and legend.

Titanic Belfast is a 'must see'

on any trip to Belfast. Housed in an
iconic, six-floor building, Titanic
Belfast is located in the heart of
Belfast, right beside the historic site of
this world-famous ship’s construction.
The Titanic experience takes you
through nine galleries, telling the story
of RMS Titanic, from its conception in
Belfast in the early 1900s, through its
construction and launch, to its famous
maiden voyage and tragic end. The
galleries are innovative and interactive with many features including diving to the depth of the
ocean to explore where RMS Titanic now rests. The Titanic story is told at Titanic Belfast in a
fresh and insightful way.

The Glens of Antrim comprises nine glens

(valleys) that radiate from the Antrim Plateau to
the coast. The main towns and villages in the
Glens are Ballycastle, Cushendun, Cushendall,
Waterfoot, Carnlough and Glenarm.
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The Grand Opera House is

Northern Ireland's premier theatre;
the oldest theatre in Belfast hosts a
variety of shows, presenting an
outstanding programme of drama,
dance, opera, comedy, musicals and
family shows. Since opening its doors
on 23 December 1895, the Grand
Opera House has delivered an
unrivalled programme of
entertainment, playing host to some
of the greatest names in theatre and
music.

Whiterocks Beach, Portrush,

situated just off the Causeway Coastal
Route, enjoys a stunning natural
location, with the limestone cliffs of the
White Rocks stretching from Curran
Strand to Dunluce Castle. These soft,
sedimentary rocks have been carved
through centuries into a labyrinth of
caves. Under the road, there are
cavernous caves, accessible only from
the sea, home to seabirds and a hunting
ground for hawks.

Carrickfergus Castle is a Norman castle

in Northern Ireland, situated in the town of
Carrickfergus in County Antrim, on the
northern shore of Belfast Lough. Besieged in
turn by the Scots, Irish, English and French, the
castle played an important military role until
1928 and remains one of the best preserved
medieval structures in Ireland. For more than
800 years, Carrickfergus Castle has been an
imposing monument on the Northern Ireland
landscape whether approached by land, sea or air. The castle now houses historical displays as
well as cannons from the 17th to the 19th centuries.

The Mournes is home to Northern

Ireland’s highest mountain peak Slieve Donard a
unique area of special interest, rich in culture,
heritage and mythology.
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History
Pre-Twentieth Century: The history of the Republic of Ireland
It is impossible to understand the history of Northern Ireland without the
comprehension of the history of Ireland.
The origins of problems in the region stretch centuries back to the Anglo-Norman
intervention of Ireland in 1167, when England first laid roots in the area. Despite some
intermingling of the English and Irish population, the two were never completely united. As a
result, two disparate populations, with differing interests, found themselves living in a small
island side by side.
After four centuries, in 1541, the English King Henry VIII forced Ireland's
government to declare him King of Ireland. Once declared King, Henry began to introduce
new laws that increased English control of Ireland. Henry also tried, without success to
introduce Protestantism to Ireland.
All the while, plantations were being established throughout the country. Lands
occupied by Irish landowners were confiscated, especially in Munster and Ulster. They were
distributed to colonists, commonly known as planters, who came in large numbers from
England, Scotland and Wales.
By the late seventeenth century, against a backdrop of battles and disputes, which
further mired relations between the two populations, the position for Catholics was incredibly
compromised.
The passage of ‘penal laws’ limited Catholic property ownership even further,
alongside restricting their right to education and to bear arms, and driving out the clergy. Even
for those seemingly unaffected by the laws, the fact that ultimate control of their land lay in
the hands of Westminster was a mockery. Consequently, a reform movement of ‘patriots’
emerged, that began to lobby for representation in Parliament. The first sounds of Irish
nationalism were being made.
England could not afford to ignore Ireland’s calls for independence. After all, the
mood was ripe for unrest, with both America and France already experiencing revolution in
the latter half of the eighteenth century. As a concession, the penal laws were relaxed.
But this did not extinguish opposition; in 1798 a rebellion broke out in Ireland, organised by
the United Irishmen, a revolutionary republican group, who had been inspired by the
revolutions of France and America. The rebellion lasted for several months.
In January 1801 the Act of Union was passed, which made Ireland and England one state, as a
result of the rebellion.
Out of this act the United Kingdom was created, the Irish parliament was abolished
and the Church of Ireland and England were united. By 1851, the Irish population had
dropped by two million as a result of death, disease and emigration. The desire for an
autonomous Ireland took on even more intensity and violence. Within this context, British
politicians recognized that a resolution to problems in Ireland was paramount.

Home Rule Bills

In 1886, the First Home Rule was introduced. It proposed that a separate parliament
and government should be set up in Dublin. This parliament would control all Irish affairs
except defense issues, foreign relations, trade and issues relating to customs and excise.
Westminster would deal with these issues. This Bill was defeated because many Irishmen
were worried that there would be no representant in Westminister to defend Irish interests.
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In 1893, the Second Home Rule was introduced for Ireland but was again defeated.
Home Rule met opposition both from within Parliament and outside of it. The Protestant
population of Ulster were particularly keen to remain part of the British Empire.
After a few years, in 1905, the political party Sinn Fein, meaning 'we ourselves' was
formed. Their aim: to free Ireland from British rule and gain independence for the whole of
Ireland.
In 1912, the proposals for a Third Home Rule in Ireland were approved by Parliament.
Home Rule was to become law in 1914. It was clear that the Ulster Protestants would not
accept Home Rule so in order to avoid violence, the British government came up with a new
solution. Home Rule with Partition. Home Rule would be introduced in the South but six
predominantly Protestant counties in the north would stay a part of the United Kingdom. This
solution is largely the cause of the problems in Ireland that exist to this day. Nationalist
remain committed to the idea of a united free Ireland, while Protestants are unwilling to
accept anything less than partition.

The Easter Rising

In 1916, about a thousand rebels from the Irish Volunteers decided to take advantage
of the fact that Britain was losing the war against Germany and proclaim an Irish Republic.
British forces poured into Dublin including gunboats that fired on the rebels from the river
Liffey. The fighting lasted five days and caused more than 400 deaths and 2,500 injuries. The
rebels were forced to surrender. Those who had taken part in the Easter Rising became known
as the Irish Republican Army. Seventy rebels were sentenced to death by the British forces.
Fifteen executions were carried out.

The division of Ireland

The escalation of violence made an Irish solution urgent. In May 1921 the
Government of Ireland Act was passed, splitting Ireland into two. Six predominantly
Protestant counties in Ulster become known as the ‘North’ and the remaining 26 counties
formed part of the ‘South.’ The South was established as the ‘Irish Free Zone,’ which had
dominion status within the British Commonwealth, although not full independence - that was
granted in 1937, when a new constitution abolished the Irish Free State and proclaimed EIRE
(Gaelic for Ireland) as an independent, sovereign state.
Trouble instantly erupted in the North, in 1921, as the Ulster Volunteer Force was
revived to fight in the campaign of violence launched by the Irish Republican Army (IRA).
And thus Northern Ireland was born.

The history of Northern Ireland

Calm prevailed for several decades in Northern Ireland, owed in large part to the rule
of Prime Minister Viscount Brookeborough, who was in office for 20 years. His political
allegiance with the Ulster Unionists marginalised the Catholic minority both socially and
politically. With the advent of better education as a result of the introduction of the Welfare
State and the equal opportunities it entailed, the disparities within the Northern Ireland
community were highlighted. On the 50th anniversary of the Battle of the Somme and the
Easter Rising, in 1966, violence erupted. Blood was spilt on both sides.
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The Troubles
The Troubles refers to a violent thirty-year conflict framed by a civil rights march in
Londonderry on 5 October 1968 and the the Good Friday Agreement on 10 April 1998. At the
heart of the conflict lay the constitutional status of Northern Ireland.
The goal of the unionist and overwhelmingly Protestant majority was to remain part of
the United Kingdom. The goal of the nationalist and republican, almost exclusively Catholic,
minority was to become part of the Republic of Ireland.
This was a territorial conflict, not a religious one. At its heart lay two mutually
exclusive visions of national identity and national belonging. The principal difference
between 1968 and 1998 is that the people and organisations pursuing these rival futures
eventually resolved to do so through peaceful and democratic means. This ascendancy of
politics over violence was not easily achieved.
During the Troubles, the scale of the killings perpetrated by all sides - republican and
loyalist paramilitaries and the security forces - eventually exceeded 3,600. As many as 50,000
people were physically maimed or injured, with countless others psychologically damaged by
the conflict, a legacy that continues to shape the post-1998 period.
In 1968, the Northern Ireland parliament had been dominated by unionists for over
fifty years. Its attempts to solve social and political ills, such as institutional discrimination
against Catholics, were too slow for nationalists and republicans and too quick for many
unionists. This gave rise to growing tension and violence between the two communities.
The mounting scale of the disorder led successive UK governments to intervene.
By 1972, things had deteriorated so badly that the British government suspended the
Northern Ireland parliament and imposed direct rule from London.

The 'long war'

At this time, the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) - the main republican
paramilitary organisation in Northern Ireland - was uninterested in any solution short of
British withdrawal and Irish unification. The 'Provisionals' had split from the 'Official IRA' in
1969 and are subsequently referred to here as the IRA. For them, the 'long war' was the only
option.

Bloody Sunday
On 30 January 1972, a civil rights demoinstration through the streets of Londonderry
in north-west Northern Ireland ended with the shooting dead of thirteen civilians by the
British Army. The day of the funerals, the British embassy was burned.

The Sunningdale Agreement

The first major attempt to restore self-government to Northern Ireland was the 1973
Sunningdale Agreement, which provided for both a devolved, power-sharing administration
and a role for the Irish government in the internal affairs of Northern Ireland. Sunningdale's
political institutions collapsed in early 1974, toppled by the Ulster Workers Council (UWC)
strike, a near-insurrection spearheaded by a coalition of unionists and loyalists that effectively
brought Northern Ireland to a standstill. Although Sunningdale was ultimately a failure, it
contained the seeds of the much more intricate and successful Good Friday Agreement twenty
five years later.
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As the cycle of violence escalated post-Sunningdale, further efforts were made by

successive UK governments to devise a political settlement, but only one acceptable to those
parties it considered "legitimate" and non-violent.
The Anglo-Irish Agreement (AIA) in 1985 was a serious attempt to achieve a political
accord that resolved the "Irish question". It gave the Irish government an advisory role in the
affairs of Northern Ireland and determined there would be no change in Northern Ireland's
constitutional status - no Irish unification in other words - without the consent of its people.
Crucially, when the IRA announced a ceasefire in 1994, mainstream republican
leaders had recognized that the 'long war' was unwinnable. Sinn Fein's commitment to politics
and the electoral process enabled it to enter negotiations designed to end the Troubles and
restore self-government to Northern Ireland.

Peace process
Cross-party talks began in earnest in 1996. In almost all quarters, a combination of
political realism and war-weariness cleared the path to negotiation. Importantly, President of
the United States Bill Clinton took an active personal role, appointing veteran US senator
George Mitchell as chair of the talks process that concluded in the Good Friday Agreement.
Negotiating with Sinn Fein was unpalatable for many unionists and loyalists. The
UUP, under leader David Trimble, agreed to participate only if those they regarded as
terrorists were committed to exclusively peaceful and democratic means. Representatives of
loyalist paramilitaries also agreed to take part. By contrast, Ian Paisley's Democratic Unionist
Party (DUP) viewed the whole process as unacceptable. They abandoned the talks and
opposed the subsequent agreement, but still took their seats in the Northern Ireland Assembly
that resulted.
The Good Friday Agreement was ratified in a referendum in May 1998. The
agreement set up a power-sharing assembly to govern Northern Ireland by cross-community
consent.
The Agreement also created a number of institutions between Northern Ireland and the
Republic of Ireland and between the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom.
The Agreement acknowledged that the majority of the people of Northern Ireland
wished to remain a part of the United Kingdom; that a substantial section of the people of
Northern Ireland, and the majority of the people of the island of Ireland, wished to bring about
a united Ireland.
Both of these views were acknowledged as being legitimate.
The agreement reached was that Northern Ireland would remain part of the United
Kingdom until a majority of the people of Northern Ireland and of the Republic of Ireland
wished otherwise. Should that happen, then the British and Irish governments are under "a
binding obligation" to implement that choice.
Irrespective of Northern Ireland's constitutional status within the United Kingdom, or
part of a united Ireland, the right of people in Northern Ireland "to identify themselves and be
accepted as Irish or British, or both" (as well as their right to hold either or both British and
Irish citizenship) was recognised. The two Governments also agreed, irrespective of the
position of Northern Ireland:
As part of the Agreement, the newly created Northern Ireland Assembly and the
national parliament of Ireland (theOireachtas) agreed to consider creating a joint
parliamentary forum made up of equal numbers from both institutions. In October 2012, this
forum was created as the North/South Inter-Parliamentary Association.
The Northern Ireland political parties who endorsed the agreement were also asked to
consider the establishment of an independent consultative forum representative of civil
society with members with expertise in social, cultural, economic and other issues and
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appointed by the two administrations. An outline structure for the North/South Consultative
Forum was agreed in 2002 and in 2006 the Northern Ireland Executive agreed it would
support its establishment.

Sinn Fein, Over to You

At the end of November 1999, David Trimble, leader of the Ulster Unionists, relented
on the "no guns, no government" position and agreed to form a government before the IRA's
disarmament. If the IRA did not begin to disarm by January 31, 2000, however, the Ulster
Unionists would withdraw from the parliament of Northern Ireland, shutting down the new
government.

New Parliament Is Suspended

With this compromise in place, the new government was quickly formed, and on
December 2 the British government formally transferred governing powers over to the
Northern Irish parliament. But by the deadline Sinn Fein had made little progress toward
disarmament, and so on February 12, 2000, the British government suspended the Northern
Irish parliament and once again imposed direct rule.

A New Beginning
Throughout the spring, Irish, British, and American leaders continued to hold
discussions to try to end the impasse. Then on May 6 the IRA announced that it would agree
to put its arms "beyond use" under the supervision of international inspectors. Britain returned
home rule powers to the Northern Ireland Assembly on May 30, just three days after the
Ulster Unionist Party, Northern Ireland's largest Protestant Party, again voted in favor of a
power-sharing arrangement with Sinn Fein.
On June 26, 2000, international monitors Martti Ahtisaari of Finland and Cyril
Ramaphosa of South Africa announced that they were satisfied that a substantial amount of
IRA arms was safely stored and could not be used without detection.
However, while the IRA did allow for the inspection of some of its arms dumps, the
months limped by without any real progress on disarmament. Caught in the middle was David
Trimble, who was accused by his fellow Protestants of making too many concessions to the
Republicans. On October 28, 2000, he was nearly ousted by his own party, a move that surely
would have spelled the end for the Good Friday Agreement. But Trimble survived, pledging
to get tough by imposing sanctions on Sinn Fein.

Into 2001, Still No Major Progress

Through the first months of 2001, Catholics and Protestants remained at odds,
especially over the establishment of a neutral police force in Northern Ireland and IRA
disarmament. In early March 2001, the IRA unexpectedly initiated a new round of talks with
Northern Ireland's disarmament commission, but no real progress was made.
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Religion
The demographic balance
between Protestants and Roman
Catholics in Northern Ireland is
increasingly delicate. Catholics
make up about two-fifths of the
population, and their slightly
higher birth rate has led to
speculation that they eventually
will become the larger of the
“two communities.” Although
Protestants continue to be a
majority, they are perhaps best
thought of as a “majority of
minorities,” in that the Protestant
community comprises a mosaic
of distinct denominations that
vary enormously in size. The
most substantial Protestant denomination in Northern Ireland, the Presbyterians, makes up
more than one-fifth of the population. About one in six people belong to the next biggest
Protestant denomination, the Anglican Church of Ireland. The remainder of the Protestant
population is fragmented among dozens of smaller religious groupings.
Protestant and Catholic
communities are not distributed
evenly. During the political
violence of the last third of the
20th century, many Protestants
moved away from western and
border areas of Northern Ireland.
As a result, the historic counties of
Londonderry, Fermanagh, and
Tyrone now have marked Catholic
majorities, while the traditional
concentration of Protestants in the
eastern reaches has increased. One
important exception to this rule is
Belfast on the eastern seaboard,
where Catholics have become the
majority. During the “Troubles”—
the term used euphemistically to
describe the violence between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland—many wealthy
Protestants from Belfast relocated to the pastoral environs of northern Down while their less
privileged counterparts moved to the bleak estates that sprung up in the satellite towns that
ring the city.
Northern Ireland is also marked by stark patterns of residential segregation. Even
when Catholics and Protestants reside in the same part of the region, they tend to live
separately from one another. Indeed, about half the Northern Irish live in districts in which
nine-tenths or more of residents are drawn from one of the two communities. This
segregation, especially evident in Belfast, is even more pronounced in poorer
neighbourhoods. The hostilities between adjacent working-class districts composed of
different ethnoreligious communities have led to the creation of “peace lines,” essentially
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permanent structures aimed at keeping the warring factions apart. The complex sectarian
geography of Northern Ireland places often severe constraints upon the physical mobility of
working-class residents in particular and has an important impact upon the manner in which
everyday life is organized and experienced. In the interest of self-preservation, young people
learn early to recognize the various cues that indicate ethnoreligious identity.

Decline in the Protestant population

The latest census figures
(from the NINIS – the Northern
Ireland Neighbourhood
Information Service) show
there has been a continuing
decline in the Protestant
population. The census reveals
48% of the resident population
are either Protestant or brought
up Protestant, a drop of 5%
from the 2001 census. 45% of
the resident population are
either Catholic or brought up
Catholic, an increase of 1%.
Also, 7% say they either
belong to another religion or
none. The highest proportions
of people who neither belong to, nor have been brought up in a religion are in North Down
(12%), Carrickfergus (10%) and Ards (9.4%).
One of the reasons for the decline in the Protestant population is that it is an older
community with higher mortality. Other factors include migration and the increase in the
number of those who define themselves as not having any religion.

Education
While education policy in Northern Ireland has been strongly influenced by trends
elsewhere within the United Kingdom, the region’s schools remain distinctive. Notably, the
model of education practiced in Northern Ireland continues to be selective despite the
government’s elimination in 2008 of the intelligence (“transfer”) tests that were administered
to most children at about age 11 to determine the type of post-primary school they could
attend—a grammar school (selective) or a secondary school (not selective). Those “eleven-
plus” examinations had been eliminated earlier in most of the United Kingdom. Although
those standardized tests were eliminated in Northern Ireland, schools were still allowed to use
selective exams and procedures for admitting students. Grammar schools in Northern Ireland
continue to cater to pupils deemed capable of appreciating an academic education; secondary
schools offer more general and vocational training. Traditionally, Northern Irish schools have
also been segregated along ethno-religious lines.
Although formally open to all, the state-run schools have tended to attract Protestant
children. Pupils from nationalist backgrounds typically have attended schools effectively
under the control of the Catholic Church.
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Religion in schools
As primary and secondary school education remains predominantly parochial, there is
little contact between Catholic and Protestant children. The schools became a focal point for
attacks, especially against Catholic children on their way to and from school in North Belfast.
Those attacks attest to the continued deep sectarian divisions that pervade daily life in
Northern Ireland.

Politics
Northern Ireland Assembly
Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs) are elected by, and represent the
people of, Northern Ireland. MLAs pass laws and examine policy on transferred matters like
health, education, the environment, social work and housing. They scrutinise the work of
Ministers and hold Departments to account. Each MLAs represents her or his constituency
and there are 6 MLAs for each constituency. It sits at Parliament Buildings, Stormont Estate,
in Belfast.
Plenary sessions are full meetings of the Assembly in the Assembly Chamber. This is
where MLAs debate issues that concern the people of Northern Ireland, and pass laws.
Plenary sessions are held on Mondays and Tuesdays.
Since 2007, Assembly committees have met with hundreds of people and considered
many different issues that affect the people of Northern Ireland. These include health issues,
water charges, school transfer tests, energy prices, road safety and access to housing.

The Executive
The Northern Ireland Executive is made up of the
First Minister, deputy First Minister, two Junior Ministers
and 11 departmental ministers. It sits at Stormont Castle,
Stormont Estate, in Belfast.
The Executive Committee exercises executive
authority on behalf of the Northern Ireland Assembly, and
takes decisions on significant issues and matters which cut
across the responsibility of two or more Ministers. It also
agrees proposals put forward by Ministers for new
legislation in the form of ‘Executive Bills’ for consideration
by the Assembly. It is also responsible for drawing up a
programme for government and an agreed budget for
approval by the Assembly.

Appointed by the Assembly

Ministers of the Executive are nominated by the political parties in the Northern
Ireland Assembly. The number of Ministers which a party can nominate is determined by its
share of seats in the Assembly. The First Minister and deputy First Minister are nominated by
the largest and second largest parties respectively and act as chairmen of the Executive. Each
Executive minister has responsibility for a specific Northern Ireland government department.
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Ministerial Code
The Ministerial Code sets out the rules and procedures to which all ministers must
adhere. It includes the Pledge of Office, the Ministerial Code of Conduct, and the seven
principles of public life, as well as provisions governing the functioning of the Executive
Committee.

Northern Ireland Departments

Office of the First Minister and Deputy First Minister
Dept of Agriculture and Rural Development
Dept of Culture, Arts and Leisure
Dept of Education
Dept for Employment and Learning
Dept of Enterprise, Trade and Investment
Dept of the Environment
Dept of Finance and Personnel
Dept of Health, Social Services and Public Safety
Dept of Justice
Dept for Regional Development
Dept for Social Development

Government History
Eventually in 1921-22 Ireland was divided (or portioned) into two parts as a result of
uprisings, violence and eventual political agreement. This attempted solution of the historical
problems has been at the root of troubles ever since. The twenty-six counties of southern
Ireland became the Irish Free State and a dominion in the Commonwealth. This latter
developed into the Republic of Ireland (Eire), remain neutral in the Second World War and
left the Commonwealth in 1949. The six counties in the north became known as Northern
Ireland and remained constitutionally part of the United Kingdom. Until 1972, they had a
Protestant-dominated Parliament (at Stormont outside Belfast), which was responsible for
governing the province.
From 1972, responsibility for Northern Ireland rested with the British government in
London (direct rule) after the Northern Ireland Parliament was dissolved. There have been
various assemblies and executives in Northern Ireland, which were attempts to give the
Catholic minority political representation in co-operation with the Protestant majority (power
sharing). But these efforts failed, largely because of Protestant intransigence, although most
injustices to Catholic civil liberties were removed.
British governments have often launched initiatives to persuade Northern Irish
political parties to discuss the realistic possibilities of powersharing in Northern Ireland. They
have also tried to involve the Irish government, and the Anglo-Irish Agreement of 1985 was a
joint attempt to resolve the situation. It aimed to solve difficulties (such as border security and
extradition arrangements) in order to achieve a devolved powersharing government for
Northern Ireland. The Republic of Ireland had to make some concessions as the price for the
agreement, but was given a significant role to play in the resolution of the Northern Irish
situation. However, the Republic’s co-operation with Britain was seen by Northern
Irish Protestants as a step to reunification of the island and they opposed the
agreement. The Republic now sees unification as a long-term aim and the British government
insists that no change in Northern Ireland will take place unless a majority of the inhabitants
there agree (consent). In this connection, the population of Northern Ireland consists of a
Language and Culture I – 1ºF3 Northern Ireland – Page 15

majority of those who would consider themselves to be Protestants (61.5 per cent in 2001)
and a growing minority of Catholics (38.5 per cent).
Multi-party talks held in Belfast in April 1998
concluded with the ‘Good Friday Agreement’.
Legislation was passed in Dublin and London for
referendums on the Agreement and provided for
elections to a new Northern Ireland Assembly. In May
1998 referendums on the Agreement were held.
Northern Ireland voted 71.1 per cent in favour and
28.8 per cent against, while in the Irish Republic the
result was 94.3 per cent and 5.6 per cent respectively.
A new Northern Ireland Assembly of 108 members
was elected by proportional representation (single
transferable vote) in June 1998. A Northern Ireland
Act sets out the principle of consent to any change in
constitutional status in Northern Ireland, provides for
its administration and contains arrangements for
human rights and equality. In December 1999, some
political power was devolved by the Westminster
Parliament to the Northern Ireland Assembly and its
Executive. It has legislative and executive authority to
make laws and take decisions in Northern Ireland, except for reserved UK powers over
policing, security matters, prisons and criminal justice.

British-Irish Council
It is argued that the British-Irish
Council is a very positive step and a political
expression of the mixed ethnic and cultural
history of the British- Irish Isles. The
Council comprises the UK and Irish
governments, the Northern Ireland
Assembly, the Welsh Assembly, the Scottish
Parliament, the Isle of Man, the Channel
Islands and provision for the English
regions. It could promote participation in one
democratic, representative British- Irish
body for the first time.

Culture
Northern Ireland is in many ways a traditional society. Church attendance is high (but
steadily declining), family life is central, and community ties are strong. The daily
interactions of most people are confined to members of their own community, whether in
urban neighbourhoods or country villages. Dancing, music, and cultural and community
festivals proliferate in Catholic communities, particularly in the months following St.
Patrick’s Day (March 17). Easter and the ancient Celtic Halloween are celebrated by both
communities, albeit separately. Poitín (illegal homemade whiskey) is sometimes drunk at
weddings and funerals.
The sectarian conflict between Catholics and Protestants has left a distinct imprint on
the arts; few art forms were untouched by the conflict. The troubled reality of Northern
Language and Culture I – 1ºF3 Northern Ireland – Page 16

Ireland has been central to drama, poetry, fiction, and the visual arts. The most-focused
impact of the Troubles was on the visual arts.

Saint Patrick
Saint Patrick (flourished 5th century, Britain and
Ireland; feast day March 17), is patron saint and
national apostle of Ireland, credited with bringing
Christianity to Ireland. Born in Roman Britain in the
late 4th century, he was kidnapped at the age of 16 and
taken to Ireland as a slave. He escaped but returned
about 432 to convert the Irish to Christianity. He had
established monasteries, churches, and schools. Many
legends grew up around him—for example, that he
drove the snakes out of Ireland and used the shamrock
to explain the Trinity. Ireland came to celebrate his day
with religious services and feasts.

The Shamrock
Perhaps the best-known legend of Saint Patrick
involves the shamrock, the little plant that has gone on
to become famous throughout the world as a symbol of
Irish heritage.
After training as a priest and bishop, Patrick
arrived in Ireland in 432AD and immediately set about
trying to covert the pagan Celts who inhabited the island. Having previously lived and worked
there, he was very probably already aware that the number three held special significance in
Celtic tradition (and, indeed, in many pagan beliefs), and he applied this knowledge in a
clever way.
He used the shamrock, a three-leaved clover which grows all over the island, to
explain the Christian concept of the Holy Trinity ie the theory that God the Father, God the
Son and God the Holy Spirit are each separate elements of just one entity.

The magic fire

The Celtic feast of Beltaine (feast of the fires) was a major festival to celebrate the
beginning of summer and triumph over the dark powers. Traditionally, a fire would be lit by
Ireland's High King on the top of the Hill of Tara, and his fire would then be used to light all
other fires.
So, when St Patrick lit a fire in advance of High King Laoghaire, he was deliberately
inviting attention from the pagan chiefs.
The druid elders were sent by Laoghaire to investigate and they reported back that
Patrick's fire had magical powers because they could not put it out. They warned that if the
king did not extinguish Patrick's fire, it would burn forever.
King Laoghaire was unable to extinguish the saint's fire and accepted that Patrick's
'magic' was stronger than his. Although he did not choose to convert to Christianity himself,
the king endorsed Patrick's mission to convert the Irish.

Banishing the snakes

Probably as famous as the story of the shamrock is the legend of Saint Patrick driving
all the snakes of Ireland into the sea where they drowned.
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In the postage stamp at the top of the page, and in many images of the saint, Patrick is
seen standing on snakes, ie conquering snakes. The well-received message is that there are no
snakes in Ireland (save those in zoos) and he alone is responsible for this happy state.
It is, however, very unlikely there were ever any snakes in Ireland. This particular
legend of Saint Patrick is easy to translate as snakes were sacred to the Druids; their
banishment reflects St Patrick's success at removing pagan influence from the island.

Halloween
To find the origin of Halloween, you have to look to the festival of Samhain in
Ireland's Celtic past.
Samhain had three distinct elements. Firstly, it was an important fire festival,
celebrated over the evening of 31 October and throughout the following day.
It was also a festival not unlike the modern New Year's Day in that it carried the
notion of casting out the old and moving into the new.
To our pagan ancestors it marked the end of the pastoral cycle – a time when all the
crops would have been gathered and placed in storage for the long winter ahead and when
livestock would be brought in from the fields and selected for slaughter or breeding.
But it was also, as the last day of the year, the time when the souls of the departed
would return to their former homes and when potentially malevolent spirits were released
from the Otherworld and were visible to mankind.
The Celts believed that the passage of a day began with darkness and progressed into
the light. The same notion explains why Winter – the season of long, dark nights – marked the
beginning of the year and progressed into the lighter days of spring, summer and autumn. So
the 1st of November, Samhain, was the Celtic New Year, and the celebrations began at sunset
of the day before is its Eve.
In the 7th century Pope Boniface, attempting to lead his flock away from pagan
celebrations and rituals, declared 1st November to be All Saints Day, also known as All
Hallows Day.
The evening before became known as Hallows' Eve, and from there the origin of
Halloween, as a word, is clear.

Halloween's Spookiness
For Celts, Samhain was a spiritual time, but with a lot of confusion thrown into the
mix. Being 'between years' or 'in transition', the usually fairly stable boundaries between the
Otherworld and the human world became less secure so that puka, banshees, fairies and other
spirits could come and go quite freely. There were also 'shape shifters' at large. This is where
the dark side of Halloween originated.
To ward off the evil let loose at Samhain, huge bonfires were lit and people wore ugly
masks and disguises to confuse the spirits and stop the dead identifying individuals who they
disliked during their own lifetime.
They also deliberately made a lot of noise to unsettle the spirits and drive them away
from their homes. The timid, however, would leave out food in their homes, or at the nearest
hawthorn or whitethorn bush (where fairies were known to live), hoping that their generosity
would appease the spirits.
For some, the tradition of leaving food (and a spoon to eat it!) in the home – usually a
plate of champ or colcannon – was more about offering hospitality to their own ancestors.
Just as spells and incantations of witches were especially powerful at Samhain, so the
night was believed to be full of portents of the future.
Language and Culture I – 1ºF3 Northern Ireland – Page 18

The Halloween Lantern

In order to prevent unwelcome spirits entering their homes,
the Celts created menacing faces out of turnips and left them on their
doorsteps. Adding a lit candle to the hollowed out face gave added
protection.
In modern times, pumpkins are used. They're considerably
easier to carve, and a lot bigger, too, but they are not native to
Ireland.
According to legend, the origin of the Halloween lantern can
be found in the tale of a young smith called Jack O'Lantern who
made a pact with the Devil during a gambling session. He managed
to thwart the Devil and extracted a promise from him that he would
never take his soul.
When he eventually died, Jack was refused entry to heaven on account of his drunken,
lewd and miserly ways. The Devil, remembering his earlier promise, also refused to allow
him into hell. So Jack was condemned to roam the dark hills and lanes of Ireland for eternity.
His only possessions were a turnip with a gouged out centre and a burning coal,
thrown to him by the Devil. He put the coal inside the turnip to light his way through the dark
countryside where he still wanders. . .

Halloween party in Derry

While the origin of Halloween
doesn't lie specifically in Derry, the world's
biggest Halloween party is held there every
year. More than 30,000 people take to the
streets, most of them dressed as witches,
ghouls, vampires and monsters from the
Otherworld.
It's a time when you're almost certain
to hear the Banshees screaming – assuming
you can hear anything much above the
marching bands, ceilidh music, hard rock
and calypso as the carnival proceeds through
the town.
Waterloo Place plays host to a free concert, and many events, including Ghost Walks,
are held throughout the city before a spectacular fireworks display brings celebrations to a
close.

The little people

Celtic tales are full of heroic warriors and mystical gods. They are also the origin of
Halloween's (and Ireland's) preoccupation with the 'little people'.
Academics have concluded that the little people were, originally, the pagan gods of
Ireland who lost their significance and, metaphorically, their stature, when Christianity
arrived.
Despite their reduced state and retirement to the Underworld as fairies, a memory of
their magical powers held fast in the imagination of the people. Here lies the origin of
Halloween's dark side.
There are two main groups of fairy: the trooping fairies who are, for the most part,
friendly and have healing powers, and the solitary fairy who causes mischief and is quick to
anger.
Language and Culture I – 1ºF3 Northern Ireland – Page 19

Among the specific terrors of Halloween were the Fomorians who believed they had a
right to take back to the Otherworld their share of fresh milk, grains and live children.
• The Leprechaun is the best known of the latter group.
• The fairy most connected with the origin of Halloween is the Puca (pronounced
Pooka) who is decidedly malevolent and capable of assuming any shape. The puca is
particularly adept at taking animal shapes, especially horses, so riders beware on Halloween –
your 'steed' may not be under your control!
• The Banshee is another fairy, always female, who warns of approaching death by
letting loose a terrible, eerie wail (the Banshee scream) that is guaranteed to send a shiver
down the spine of those that hear it. If you hear the cry of the Banshee of Ireland, you should
look out for a funeral carriage pulled by a headless horse.

Irish Surnames
The prefix 'mac', meaning 'son of', was used. So Kieran mac Fiachra was Kieran the
son of Fiachra, and his son might be Darragh mac Kieran ie Darragh the son of Kieran.
Alternatively, the prefix 'O' (or the older form 'Ua') was used to mean 'grandson of' or
'descended from'. So Kieran O'Conor was the grandson or descendent of Conor. While Oisín
O'Laoghaire was a descendent of Laoghaire.

Customs
Greeting people
Irish people have the reputation of being very friendly. Generally people will shake
hands when they meet for the first time. Friends will hug or just say hello. Sometimes people
will kiss on the cheek if they know each other well. People generally make eye contact
because it is a sign of trust and that you are interested in what they are saying.

Time keeping
Sometimes it may seem as if time keeping is not very important in Ireland. Generally
when someone arranges to meet you at 8pm this will usually mean 8.15pm or later. Irish
people, in general, are very relaxed about time.

Manners
People will generally say ‘please’ and ‘thank you’, for example, when getting off a bus
most people will thank the bus driver.
People also usually queue in line and wait their turn, for example, in a shop.

Irish food
The following meals are considered to be traditionally Irish:
• Potatoes are the stereotypical food for Ireland but they are eaten regularly either as
mash, chips, boiled potatoes or roasted potatoes
• Irish stew – usually consists of meat, potatoes, onions and carrots which are cooked
together or stewed
• Bacon and Cabbage
• Fry – usually eaten for breakfast and consists of sausages, rashers (bacon), tomato,
mushrooms, egg, black and white pudding with soda bread
• Colcannon – usually consists of potatoes, cabbage and leeks.
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