5

A Nonmathematical
Approach to Radar NIMROD cockpit

M
odern radar systems are coherent, meaning they
measure both amplitude and phase of echo sig-
nals. As will shortly be seen, the phase is measured
relative to a reference, usually the transmitted sig-
nal. Measuring the amplitude and phase provides a powerful
basis on which almost all advanced (and some not quite as
advanced) techniques are built. A powerful tool often used by
the radar engineer to represent the amplitude and phase of a
received echo is a graphic device called the phasor. Though no
more than an arrow, the phasor is key to nonmathematically
understanding many seemingly esoteric concepts encountered
in radar work such as the spectrum of a pulsed signal, the
time-bandwidth product, digital filtering, the formation of real
and synthetic antenna beams, and sidelobe reduction.
Unless you are already skilled in the use of phasors, don’t yield
to the temptation to skip ahead to chapters “about radar.” Having
mastered the phasor, you will be able to unlock the secrets
of many intrinsically simple physical concepts that otherwise
you may find yourself struggling to understand. This is because
phasors represent the relationships between signals and can be
used to combine signals and describe the resultant. As well as Y
being easy to visualize, they have a rigorous mathematical basis
so results can be trusted both quantitatively and qualitatively.
This chapter begins by briefly describing the phasor. To dem- A
onstrate its application, phasors are then used to explain several
basic concepts that are essential to understanding material pre- Phase 
X
sented in later chapters. In addition, the decibel (dB) is intro-
duced. It is necessary to become familiar with the dB because
it is such a universal measure of many quantities used in radar.

5.1 How a Phasor Represents a Signal

A phasor is nothing more than a rotating arrow (vector), yet Figure 5-1. A phasor rotates counterclockwise, making one
it can represent a sinusoidal signal completely (Fig. 5-1). The complete revolution for every cycle of the signal it represents.
63
64 PART II: Essential Groundwork

A sin kt A
A sin kt

kt Time
x

kt

Figure 5-2. For a sine wave, projection of the phasor onto the y axis gives the signal’s instantaneous amplitude.

A
arrow is scaled in length to the signal’s peak amplitude. It
A rotates like the hand of a clock. Phase progression is rep-
A A resented as rotation and is positive in the counterclockwise
A
y direction, making one complete revolution for every cycle of
+
the signal. The number of revolutions per second thus equals
A
the signal’s frequency.
– –A
The length of the projection of the arrow onto a vertical line
Time
through the pivot point equals the amplitude times the sine of
Figure 5-3. As a phasor rotates, projection onto the y axis the angle between the arrow and the horizontal axis (Fig. 5-2).
lengthens to a maximum positive value, returns to zero, lengthens Consequently, if the signal is a sine wave, this projection cor-
to maximum negative value, and then returns to zero again.
responds to the signal’s instantaneous amplitude.

As the arrow rotates (Fig. 5-3), the projection lengthens until it

equals the arrow’s full length, shrinks to zero, then lengthens
in the opposite (negative) direction, and so on, exactly as the
instantaneous amplitude of the signal varies with time. If the
signal is a cosine wave, the projection on the horizontal axis
through the pivot corresponds to the instantaneous amplitude.
The 90°-degree angle between the horizontal and vertical axes
y shows that the cosine wave is a sine wave with a 90°-degree
phase shift.

A In the interest of simplicity, the arrow is drawn in a fixed posi-

Strobe
Light tion. It can be thought of as illuminated by a strobe light that
Phase 
flashes on at exactly the same point in every cycle. The strobe
x
point is the instant the arrow would have crossed the x axis
had the signal the arrow represents been in phase with a refer-
ence signal of the same frequency (Fig. 5-4). In other words,
the strobe light is the reference signal or, in radar parlance, the
local oscillator (LO) signal.
Figure 5-4. A phasor can be thought of as illuminated by a
strobe light that flashes on at the same time as a reference phasor
The angle the arrow makes with the x axis, therefore, corre-
would be crossing the x axis. The strobe provides the phase sponds to the signal’s phase—and hence the name, phasor. If
reference. the signal is in phase with the reference, the phasor will line
 CHAPTER 5: A Nonmathematical Approach to Radar 65

up with the x axis (Fig. 5-5). If the signal is 90° out of phase  (Leading)
(i.e., in quadrature) with the reference, i.e., is in quadrature
with it, the phasor will line up with the y axis. For a signal that
which leads the reference by 90°, the phasor will point up; for 
a signal that lags behind the reference by 90°, the phasor will
point down.
 (Lagging)
Generally, the rate of rotation of a phasor is represented by
In phase In quadrature
the Greek omega, ω. While the value of ω can be expressed with reference with reference
in many different units (e.g., in revolutions per second or
Figure 5-5. If the signal a phasor represents is in phase with the
degrees per second), it is most commonly expressed in
reference (strobe light), the phasor will line up with the x axis. If
radians per second. A radian is an angle that, if drawn from signal is in quadrature, the phasor will line up with the y axis.
the center of a circle, is subtended by an arc the length of
the radius. Since the circumference of a circle is 2π times the
radius, the rate of rotation of a phasor in radians per second
is 2π times the number of revolutions per second, or the fre-
quency (Fig. 5-6). Thus,

ω = 2 πf
 = 2f

where f is the frequency of the signal, in Hz.

R
The real power of phasors lies in their ability to represent t
the relationships between two or more signals clearly and
concisely. Phasors may be manipulated to portray the addi-
Figure 5-6. Rate of rotation, ω, is generally expressed in radians/
tion of signals of the same frequency but different phases, the
second. Since there are 2π radians in a circle, ω = 2πf.
addition of signals of different frequencies, and the resolution
of signals into in-phase and quadrature components (a key
part of modern radar systems). Several common but impor-
tant aspects of radar operation—including target scintillation,
frequency translation, image frequencies, and the creation
of sidebands—can illustrate the kind of insights that may be
A+B
gained from phasors. B
B

B
5.2 Combining Signals of Different Phase
A A A
To see how radio waves of the same frequency but different
phases combine, consider drawing two phasors from the same
Figure 5-7. To add phasors A and B, simply slide Β to the tip
pivot point. Sliding one laterally, one is added to the tip of of A. The sum is a phasor drawn from the origin to the tip of B.
the other. A third phasor from the pivot point to the tip of the
second arrow can then be drawn. This phasor, which rotates
counterclockwise in unison with the others, represents their
sum (Fig. 5-7).

The sum can also be obtained without moving the second A+B
phasor by constructing a parallelogram with two adjacent sides
made up of the phasors to be added. The sum is a phasor B
drawn from the pivot point to the opposite corner of the paral-
lelogram (Fig. 5-8). The value of such a seemingly simple rep- A
resentation of the sum of two signals can be used to explain
target scintillation.
Figure 5-8. Phasors can also be added by constructing a
Scintillation. Consider a situation where the reflections of parallelogram and drawing an arrow from the pivot to the opposite
a radar’s transmitted waves are received primarily from two corner.
66 PART II: Essential Groundwork

parts of a target (Fig. 5-9). The fields of the reflected waves

will merge. To see what the resulting wave will be like under
d1
d2 various conditions, the waves are represented by phasors.

To begin with, assume that the target’s orientation is such that

the distances from the radar to the two parts of the target are
Figure 5-9. In this situation, a radar receives return primarily from
two points on a target. Distances to the points are d1 and d2.
almost the same (or differ by roughly a whole multiple of a
wavelength). Therefore, the two waves are nearly in phase. As
illustrated by the left-hand diagram in Figure 5-10, the ampli-
tude of the resulting wave very nearly equals the sum of the
amplitudes of the individual waves.
Sum Next, assume that the orientation of the target changes ever
so slightly, as it might in normal flight, but enough so that the
2 reflected waves are roughly 180° out of phase. The waves now
largely cancel (right-hand diagram in Fig. 5-10).
1
1 Sum Clearly, if the phase difference is somewhere between these
extremes, the waves neither add nor cancel completely, and
their sum has some intermediate value. Thus, the sum may
2 vary wildly from one moment to the next. Recognizing, of
d1 ~
– d2 d1 – d2 ~
– 
course, that appreciable returns may be reflected from many
2 different parts of a target, this wildly varying sum explains
Figure 5-10. If distances d1 and d2 to the two points on the target why a target’s echoes scintillate. This also explains why the
are roughly equal, the combined return will be large, but if the maximum detection range of a target is predicted in statisti-
distances differ by roughly half a wavelength, the combined return cal terms.
will be small as they will sum in near anti-phase.
What happens to the rest of the reflected energy when the
waves don’t add up completely? It doesn’t disappear. The
waves just add up more constructively in directions different
to that of the radar receiver.

5.3 Combining Signals of Different Frequency

The application of phasors is not limited to signals of the
same frequency. They can also be used to illustrate what hap-
pens when two or more signals of different frequency are
added together or when the amplitude or phase of a signal of
one frequency is varied (i.e., modulated) at a lower frequency.

To see how two signals of slightly different frequency combine,

consider drawing a series of phasor diagrams, each showing
the relationship between the signals at a progressively later
instant in time. If instants are chosen so they are synchronized
with the counterclockwise rotation of one of the phasors (i.e.,
B adjusting the frequency of the imaginary strobe light so it is
B B the same as the frequency of one of the phasors), that phasor
A
A A A will occupy the same position in every diagram (phasor A in
B Fig. 5-11).

The second phasor will occupy progressively different posi-

tions. The difference from diagram to diagram corresponds to
Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time 4
the difference between the two frequencies.
Figure 5-11. How signals of different frequencies combine. If the
strobe light is synchronized with the rotation of phasor A, it will If the difference is positive and the second frequency is higher,
appear to remain stationary and phasor B will rotate relative to it. the second phasor will rotate counterclockwise relative to the
 CHAPTER 5: A Nonmathematical Approach to Radar 67

Mixer
B B
A A
Received Extract Received
Signal, fs + Amplitude Signal, fIF
Fluctuation*
(fIF = fs – fLO)
fLO

fB > fA fB < fA Local * By passing the sum through a

Oscillator nonlinear circuit and its output
through a bandpass filter.
Figure 5-12. If the frequency of B is greater than that of A, phasor B will
Figure 5-13. A received signal may be translated to a lower
rotate counterclockwise relative to A. Otherwise, it will appear to rotate
frequency fIF by adding it to an LO signal and extracting the
clockwise.
amplitude modulation of the sum.

first (Fig. 5-12). If the difference is negative and the second fre- Fluctuation in amplitude of sum
quency is now lower, the second phasor will rotate clockwise fs
relative to the first.
Time
As the phasors slip into and out of phase, the amplitude of fLO

their sum fluctuates (or is modulated) at a rate equal to the

difference between the two frequencies. The phase of the sum Frequency, fIF = fs – fLO

also is modulated at this rate. It falls behind during one-half

of the difference–frequency cycle and slides ahead during the
other half. As the phase changes, the rate of rotation of the sum
phasor changes: the frequency of the signal is also modulated.
By representing signals of different frequencies in this way, many
important aspects of a radar’s operation can easily be illustrated
graphically using image frequencies or creating sidebands.

Frequency Translation. Since the amplitude of the sum of two

phasors fluctuates at a rate equal to the difference between the
rates of rotation of the phasors, a signal can be readily shifted
down in frequency by any desired amount. Adding one signal
to another at a suitably different frequency does this, and then Fluctuation
in phase
the amplitude fluctuation is extracted. Figure 5-13 shows how
this is carried out in a radar receiver. The frequencies of the
local oscillator ( fLO) and intermediate frequency ( fIF) are two
very important design parameters for any radar.
In the early stage of virtually every radio or radar receiver, the
received signal is translated to a lower intermediate frequency,
or IF (Fig. 5-13). Translation is accomplished by mixing the
signal with the output of a local oscillator, whose frequency is
offset from the signal’s frequency by an amount equal to the
desired intermediate frequency ( fIF).
Figure 5-14. If the LO signal is stronger than the received signal,
In one mixing technique, the signal, fs is simply added to the then the fluctuation in amplitude of the sum is virtually identical to
the received signal except for being shifted to fIF.
LO output, as in Figure 5-14, and the fluctuation in the ampli-
tude of the sum is extracted (detected). In another mixing tech-
nique, the amplitude of the received signal itself is modulated
by the LO output. Amplitude modulation produces image fre- 1. For larger frequency differences, these relationships do not
quencies or sidebands. In this case, the frequency of one of necessarily hold. If a phasor’s frequency is less than half the
reference frequency or is between 1½ and 2, 2½ and 3, 3½ and
the sidebands is the difference between the frequencies of the 4, etc. times the reference frequency, the phasor’s apparent
received signal and LO signal fIF.1 rotation will be reversed.
68 PART II: Essential Groundwork

fs1 Image Frequencies. The phasor diagram of Figure 5-15

illustrates a subtler aspect of frequency translation. The
fLO Time same amplitude modulation will be produced by a signal
whose frequency is above the LO frequency as by one whose
frequency is an equal amount below it. The phasors repre-
Frequency, fIF = fs1 – fLO senting the two difference signals rotate in opposite direc-
tions, but the effect on the amplitude of the sum is essentially
fs2 the same. It fluctuates at the difference frequency in either
case.
fLO Time
Consequently, if a spurious signal exists whose frequency
is the same amount below the LO frequency as the desired
Frequency, fIF = fLO – fs2 signal is above it (or vice versa), both of the signals will be
translated to the same intermediate frequency. The spurious
Figure 5-15. Amplitude modulation of sum by signals whose signal will thus interfere with the desired signal even though
frequencies are above and below fLO by the same amount. their original frequencies are separated by twice the interme-
diate frequency. The spurious signal is called an image, and
its frequency is called the image frequency (Fig. 5-16). Another
consequence of images is that noise occurring at the image
frequency is added to the noise with which the desired signal
must compete. There are solutions to both of these image
problems.

Creation of Sidebands. When phasors representing two sig-

nals of different frequencies are added, the phase modulation
of the sum can be eliminated completely by adding a third
Local
Oscillator phasor, which is the same length as the second and rotates
at the same rate relative to the first phasor but in the oppo-
site direction (Fig. 5-17). If the counterrotating phasors pass
through the axis on the first phasor (vertical axis in Fig. 5-17)
Interfering Desired simultaneously, the phase modulation will cancel and only the
Image Signal
amplitude of the sum will fluctuate. The sum will be a pure
amplitude modulation (AM) signal. This is the same sort of
fs2 fLO fs1
signal received from an AM broadcast station.
fIF fIF
As in the earlier examples of modulation, the frequency at
which the amplitude of the sum is modulated is the difference
Frequency
between the frequency of either one of the counterrotating
phasors and the frequency of the fixed phasor. All three pha-
Figure 5-16. If operating frequency is higher than fLO, then the
image frequency is fLO – fIF, and vice versa. sors rotate in unison with that phasor. But this rotation doesn’t
show up in the diagram because the imaginary strobe light,
which illuminates the phasors, flashes on only once in every
cycle of that phasor’s rotation.

In some instances AM is actually produced by generating

the signals represented by the counterrotating phasors sepa-
rately and adding them to the signal that is to be modulated.
Generally, though, it is the other way around. The signals
represented by the counterrotating phasors are the inevitable
result of amplitude modulation.

As illustrated by the phasor diagram of Figure 5-18 and read-

ily demonstrated with actual signals, whenever the ampli-
tude of a signal of a given frequency, fc, is modulated at a
 CHAPTER 5: A Nonmathematical Approach to Radar 69

SL SU
SU SL
SL SU
SU SL

C C C C

Figure 5-17. If two counterrotating phasors, SL and SU, are added to a third phasor, C, and their phases and frequencies are such that all pass through
the same axis together, their sum will be a pure amplitude modulated signal.

lower frequency, fm, two new signals are invariably produced.

One of these, represented by the phasor SU, has a frequency
fm Hz above fc and another fm Hz below it, as illustrated in
Figure 5-18. ωC Envelope fm = (fU – fc) = (fC – fL)

Since the frequencies of these signals lie on either side of fc SL SU

(Fig. 5-19), the signals are called sideband signals, or simply side- C
bands. Since the signal that is modulated carries the modulation—
that is, the modulation is added to and subtracted from the ampli- Time
tude of this signal—it is called the carrier.
The light lines that join the crests of the modulated wave in Figure 5-18. If amplitude of a carrier signal C is varied sinusoidally
Figure 5-18 delineate what is called the modulation envelope. at rate, fm, two new signals, SL and SU, are produced.
The frequency of the sidebands is the modulation frequency.
The average separation of the sidebands from the baseline is
the amplitude of the carrier.
Sidebands are similarly produced when the phase or fre-
quency of a carrier signal is modulated. Only then is the phase

Carrier (C)
Amplitude

SL Su

fC Frequency
fm fm

Figure 5-19. Since the frequencies of SL and SU are fm Hz above

and below fc, they are called sidebands.
70 PART II: Essential Groundwork

relationship of the sidebands to the carrier different (Fig. 5-20).

SU
If the percentage by which the phase or frequency varies is
C Sum large, many sideband pairs separated by multiples of the mod-
SL
ulation frequency are created.
The production of sidebands by the transmitter pulsed modu-
lation in some cases causes echoes from a target and a ground
patch to be passed by the same Doppler filter even though
they have different Doppler frequencies (see Chapter 23 for
further details).

5.4 Resolving Signals into In-Phase and

ωmt Quadrature Components
By resolving a received echo into in-phase (I) and quadrature
(Q) components, both phase and amplitude can be recovered.
Phase is exploited in techniques such as digital Doppler fil-
tering, synthetic aperture radar (SAR), and electronic beam-
Figure 5-20. Frequency and phase modulation differ from forming. I and Q components have the same frequency and
amplitude modulation in that the phase of the sideband signals is peak amplitude but differ in phase by 90°. Since a cosine wave
shifted by 90°. reaches its positive peak 90° before a sine wave does, the most
convenient way of picturing the two components is as a sine
wave (A sin ωτ) and a cosine wave (A cos ωτ). By convention,
2. This convention was adopted because current passing through the cosine wave is called the I component.2 Since 90° is one-
a resistance is in phase with the voltage across the resistance, quarter of a circle, the sine wave is called the Q component.
whereas a current passing through a reactance either leads or
lags behind the voltage by 90°. If the signal is represented by a phasor, the instantaneous
amplitude of the I component can be found by projecting the
y phasor onto the horizontal (x) axis. The instantaneous ampli-
tude of the Q component can be found by projecting the pha-
sor onto the y axis (Fig. 5-21).
Q A
For a phasor whose apparent rotation is counterclockwise
such that the frequency of the signal (represented by the pha-
x sor) is higher than the frequency of the reference signal (strobe
I
light), the I component goes through its positive maximum
90° before the Q component. On the other hand, for a pha-
sor whose apparent rotation is clockwise the frequency of the
signal represented by the phasor is lower than that of the ref-
erence and the Q component goes through its maximum in a
Figure 5-21. Instantaneous values of the I and Q components of positive direction 90° before the I component.
a signal are obtained by projecting phasor representation of
signal onto both the x and y axes. Distinguishing the Direction of Doppler Shifts. One of the
more striking examples of a requirement for resolving signals
into I and Q components is found in radars that employ digi-
Echo 1 Echo 2 Echo 3 Echo 4 Echo 5 Echo 6 Echo 7
tal Doppler filtering. For digital filtering, the IF output of the
Target receiver must be converted to video frequencies, where the car-
rier frequency is removed leaving, just the shape or envelope of
the signal. Once this conversion has been made, to preserve the
Echo 3 Echo 2
sense (positive or negative) of a target’s Doppler shift, two video
2
Echo 4 Echo 1 signals must be provided: one corresponding to the cosine of
1
Transmitted Signal the Doppler frequency (I); and the other to the sine (Q).
Echo 5 Echo 8 A target’s Doppler frequency shows up as a progressive shift
in the radio frequency phase, ϕ, of successive echoes received
Echo 6 Echo 7 from the target, relative to the phase of the pulses transmitted
Figure 5-22. A target’s Doppler frequency shows up as a pulse-to- by the radar (see Chapter 15). The phasor diagram in Figure
pulse shift in phase. 5-22 illustrates this echo-to-echo phase shift.
 CHAPTER 5: A Nonmathematical Approach to Radar 71

By sensing the progressive phase shift, the radar can pro- Positive Shift
3 2 1 I 8
duce a video signal whose amplitude fluctuates at the target’s
2 7
Doppler frequency. The signal is illustrated for positive and 4 1
negative Doppler shifts in Figure 5-23. As the figure clearly
I2 I1
shows, however, the fluctuations in the amplitude of this Time
5 8 6
signal are the same for both positive and negative Doppler 3
6 7 4 5
shifts.
Negative Shift
If both the I and Q components of the phase shift are sensed 6 7 1 8
I
the difference between positive and negative Doppler fre- 2 7
8
quencies may be readily determined. The fluctuation of the 5 I2 I1
Q component will lag behind the fluctuation of the I compo- Time
4 1 6
nent if the Doppler shift is positive (Fig. 5-24). Whereas the 3
Q component will lead the fluctuation of the I component if 3 2 4 5
the Doppler shift is negative (Fig. 5-25).
Figure 5-23. Video signal proportional to in-phase component
Differentiating between Signals and Images: Image of target echoes fluctuates at the target’s Doppler frequency, but
Rejection. Just as it is possible to distinguish between posi- fluctuation is the same for both positive and negative Doppler shifts.
tive and negative Doppler frequencies by resolving the
received signals into I and Q components when they are
converted from IF to video frequencies, image frequencies
can be differentiated from signals when the radar return is I 8
1
translated from the radar’s operating frequency to IF. As the 2 7
Positive Shift
phasor diagram of Figure 5-26 illustrates, if a signal’s fre-
quency is higher than the LO frequency the Q component of Time
3Q 2
the mixer’s output will lag 90° behind the I component. Yet if 2 3 6
the signal’s frequency is lower than the LO frequency the Q 4 Q1 1 4 5
component will lead the I component by 90°. This difference Q 90°
I2 I1
can be exploited in the design of a receiver’s mixer stage to 5 8 2 3
reject images. 1 4
6 7 Time

5 8
LO
6 7

Figure 5-24. If the Doppler frequency shift is positive and both

L H I and Q video signals are provided, Q will lag I by 90°.

fLO
fIF fIF
Frequency
1 8
I
Negative Shift (+) 2 7

0
L H 6 7
(–) 3 6
Q Q 5 8 5
I2 I1 4
I I 90°
Q1 6 7
4 1
Q2 (+) 5 8
Q
3 2
0

Q Leads I by 90° Q Lags I by 90° (–) 1 4

2 3
Figure 5-26. The mixer output’s Q component will lead the in-phase
component if the frequency of the received signal is lower than fLO and Figure 5-25. If the Doppler frequency shift is negative, Q will lead
will lag behind it if the frequency of the received signal is higher than fLO. I by 90°.
72 PART II: Essential Groundwork
The Ubiquitous Decibel
T he decibel (dB) is one of the most widely used tools in the design
and construction of radar systems. If you are already famil-
iar with decibels, can readily translate to and from them, and
feel at ease when the experts start throwing them about, then
skip this panel. Otherwise, you will find the few minutes it
takes you to read it well worthwhile.
What Decibels Are. The decibel is a logarithmic unit origi-
nally devised to express power ratios but is also used today to
express a variety of other ratios. Specifically,
P2
Power ratio in dB = 10 log10
P1
where P2 and P1 are the two power levels being compared. For
example, if P2/P1 is 1000 then the power ratio in decibels is 30.
Origin. Named after Alexander Graham Bell, the unit originated
as a measure of attenuation in telephone cable, the ratio of the
power of the signal emerging from a cable to the power of the
signal fed in at the other end. It so happened that 1 decibel
almost exactly equaled the attenuation of 1 mile of standard
telephone cable, the unit used until the decibel came along.
Also, one decibel relative to the threshold of hearing turned
out to be very nearly the smallest ratio of audio-power levels
that could be discerned by the human ear, so the dB was soon
also adopted in acoustics. From telephone communications,
the dB was quite naturally passed on to radio communications
and thence to radar.
1 Mile
Advantages. Several features of the decibel make it par-
ticularly useful to the radar engineer. First, since the deci-
bel is logarithmic, it greatly reduces the size of the numbers
required to express large ratios.
A power ratio of 2 to 1 is 3 dB, yet a ratio of 10,000,000 to 1
is only 70 dB. Since the power levels encountered in a radar
cover a tremendous range, the compression in the sheer size
of numbers that decibels provide is extremely valuable.
In radar, detection performance varies inversely proportional
with the fourth power of range. Thus, all other parameters
being the same, a change in range from, say, 1 km to 10 km
causes a change in detection performance by a factor of 10,000
and such large numbers are typical of radar calculations. In
dB 10,000 is just 40, a much smaller number. By tradition, it is
usual to express radar parameters in dB.
20
dB
10
20 40 60 80 100
Power Ratio
Another advantage also stems from the decibel’s logarith-
mic nature: two numbers expressed as logarithms can be
multiplied by simply adding the logarithms. Expressing
ratios in decibels therefore makes compound power ratios
easier to work with. Multiplying 2500/1 by 63/1 in your
head, for example, isn’t particularly easy. Yet when these
same ratios are expressed in decibels, there is nothing to it:
34 + 18 = 52 dB.
2,500 63
× =157,500
1 1
34 dB+18 dB=52 dB
Similarly, with logarithms the reciprocal of a number (one
divided by the number) can be obtained by giving the loga-
rithm a negative sign. By merely changing the sign of a ratio
expressed in decibels, the ratio can instantly be turned upside
down. If 157,500 is 52 dB, then 1/157,500 is –52 dB.
157,500
52 dB= = 157,500
1
1
−52 dB = = 0.000006349
157,500
When it comes to raising ratios to higher powers or taking
roots, these advantages are magnified. If a ratio such as 63
is expressed in decibels, you can square it by multiplying by
two: 632 = 18 dB × 2 = 36 dB. You can take its fourth root by
dividing by four: 4 63 = 18 dB ÷ 4 = 4½ dB.
Perhaps the most compelling advantage is that in the world of
radar—where detection ranges vary as the one-fourth power
of most parameters, target signal powers may vary by factors
of trillions, and losses of 20 or 30 percent may be negligible—
it is a lot easier to talk and think in terms of decibels than in
terms of numbers expressed in scientific notation or ground
out of a calculator. Furthermore, by tradition, many radar
parameters are commonly expressed in decibels.
To be able to throw decibels about as deftly as a seasoned
radar engineer, it is necessary to know only two things: (1) how
 CHAPTER 5: A Nonmathematical Approach to Radar 73

The Ubiquitous Decibel continued

to convert from power ratios to decibels and vice versa; and (2) Power Ratio dB
how to apply decibels to a few basic characteristics of a radar. 1 0
If you know the system, both things are surprisingly easy. And 1.26 1
the system is really quite simple. 1.6 2
Converting from Power Ratios to dB. You can convert any 2 3
power ratio (P2/P1) to decibels, with any desired degree of 2.5 4
accuracy, by dividing P2 by P1, finding the logarithm of the 3.2 5
result, and multiplying by 10. 4 6
5 7
P2 6.3 8
10 log10 = dB 8 9
P1

Nevertheless, for the accuracy you will normally want, it’s not Returning to our example, if we look up the decibel equiva-
necessary to have a calculator. With the following method, lent of the basic power ratio, 2.5, (or better yet our memory)
you can do it all in your head—provided you have memorized we find that it is 4 dB. So, expressed in decibels, the complete
a few simple numbers. power ratio, 2.5 × 103, is 34 dB.

The first step is to express the ratio as a decimal number, in Basic

terms of a power of 10 (scientific notation). A ratio of 10,000/4, Power Power One’s
e’
e’s
Ratio of 10 Place
for example, is 2500. In scientific notation,
2,500 = 2.5 × 103 = 34 dB
2500 = 2.5 × 10 3

When converting to decibels, two portions of this expression

are significant: the number 2.5, which we will call the basic
power ratio; and the number 3, which is the power of 10.
Now, a ratio expressed in decibels similarly consists of two
basic parts: (1) the digit in the ones place (plus any decimal
fraction); and (2) the digit or digits to the left of the ones
place. The digit in the ones place expresses the basic power
ratio: 2.5, in the foregoing example. The digits, if any, to the
left of the ones place express the power of 10: in this case, 3.
Converting from dB to Power Ratios. To convert from deci-
bels to a power ratio, you can also use a calculator. In this case,
you divide the number of decibels by 10 to get the power of 10
and then raise 10 to that power to get the power ratio.
Power ratio = 10dB/10

Incidentally, as you may already have observed, if the power But you can make the conversion just as easily in your head
ratio P2/P1 is rounded off to the nearest power of 10 (e.g., using the procedure outlined in the preceding paragraphs in
2.5 × 103 ≈ 103), converting it to decibels is a trivial operation. reverse.
The basic power ratio then is zero (log101 = 0), so the decibel Suppose, for example, you want to convert 36 dB to the cor-
equivalent of P2/P1 is simply 10 times the power of 10—in this responding power ratio. The digit in the ones place, 6, is the
case 30. Thus, dB equivalent of a power ratio of 4. The digit to the left of
the ones place, 3, is the power of 10. The power ratio, then, is
Power Ratio Power of 10 dB 4 × 103 = 4,000.
1 0 0
10 1 10 One’s
Place
100 2 20
1000 3 30
36 dB = 4 × 103 = 4,000
10,000,000 7 70

Basic Power
The basic power ratio, of course, may have any value from 1 to Ratio
(but not including) 10. So the digit in the ones place can be any Power of 10
number from 0 through 9.999.
The following table gives the basic power ratios for 0 to 9 dB. As outlined here, the process may seem a bit laborious, but
To  simplify the table, all but the ratio for 1 dB have been once you’ve tried it a few times there is really nothing to it
rounded off to two digits. If you want to become adroit in the as long as you remember the power ratios corresponding to
use of decibels, you should memorize these ratios. decibels 1 through 9.
74 PART II: Essential Groundwork

The Ubiquitous Decibel continued

Decibels times the current, I, flowing through it: P = VI. But the current
–30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30 is equal to the voltage divided by the resistance: I = V/R. So the
10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101 102 103 power is equal to (V 2/R).
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Accordingly, the power output of a circuit equals (V0)2/R, and
Power Ratios
the power input equals (Vi )2/ R. If the circuit’s input and output
impedances are the same, the gain is (V0 )2/(Vi )2. Expressed in
Using Decibels. A common use of decibels in radar work is
decibels, then, the gain is
expressing power gains and power losses.
2
Gain is the term for an increase in power level. In the case of an V  V 
G = 10 log10  0  = 20 log10  0 
amplifier, such as one that might raise a low-power microwave  Vi   Vi 
signal to the desired level for radiation by an antenna, gain is Decibels as Absolute Units. While decibels were originally
the ratio of the power of the signal coming out of the amplifier used only to express power ratios, they can also be used
to the power of the signal going into it.3 to express absolute values of power. All that is necessary is
Output power to establish some absolute unit of power as a reference. By
Gain = relating a given value of power to this unit, that value can be
Input power
expressed with decibels.
If the output power is 250 times the input power, the gain is A frequently used unit is 1 watt (W). A decibel relative to 1 W is
250. This ratio (250 to 1) is 24 dB. called a dBW. A power of 1 W is 0 dBW; a power of 2 W is 3 dBW;
a power of 1 kilowatt (kW) (103 W) is 30 dBW.
Loss is the term for a decrease in power. According to conven-
tion, it is the ratio of input power to output power—just the Another common reference unit is 1 milliwatt (mW). A decibel
opposite of gain. relative to 1 mW is called a dBm. The dBm is widely used for
expressing small signal powers, such as the powers of radar
Input power echoes. They vary over a tremendous range. Echoes from a
Loss=
Output power small, distant target may be as weak as –130 dBm or less, while
echoes from a short-range target may be as strong as 0 dBm or
Power Gain in Terms of Voltage. Sometimes it is convenient more. The dynamic range of echo powers is thus at least 130 dB.
to express power in terms of voltages. The power dissipated in Considering that –130 dBm is 10−13, or 0.0000000000001 mW the
a resistance equals the voltage, V, applied across the resistance convenience of expressing absolute powers in dBm is striking.
3. Assuming properly matched source and load impedances.

5.5 Summary
This chapter introduced the phasor as a powerful tool for
visualizing phase and frequency relationships. Its length
corresponds to amplitude; its rate of rotation to frequency;
and its angle to phase. The phasor can be drawn in a fixed
position by thinking of it as being illuminated by a strobe
light that flashes on at the same point in every cycle. If the
signal is in phase with the reference, it is drawn horizontally.
If signals of the same frequency are combined, the amplitude
of the sum will depend on the relative phases of the signals.
Because of this dependence, even a very slight change in
target aspect can cause a target’s echoes to scintillate.
If signals of different frequency are combined, their sum can
be visualized by assuming that the strobe is synchronized
with the rotation of one of the phasors, causing it to appear
fixed. The other then rotates at the difference frequency.
The amplitude and phase of the sum will be modulated at
a rate equal to the difference between the frequencies. The
phase modulation can be minimized by making the second
 CHAPTER 5: A Nonmathematical Approach to Radar 75

signal much stronger than the first. By extracting the ampli-

tude modulation, the first signal can be translated to the dif-
ference frequency. At the same time, however, a signal whose
frequency is offset from that of the first signal by the same
Test your understanding
amount in the opposite direction (image) will also be trans-
lated to the difference frequency. 1. How does a rotating phasor map to
a sine wave representation of a radar
Whenever a carrier signal’s amplitude is modulated, two side- signal?
band signals are produced. Their frequencies are separated
from the carrier by the modulation frequency. 2. With the aid of a phasor diagram,
show how two signals of the same
Resolution of a signal into in-phase and quadrature compo-
frequency but different phase
nents can be visualized by projecting the phasor representing combine.
the signal onto the x and y coordinates. Resolving the IF output
of a receiver into I and Q components when it is converted to 3. How can a phasor diagram
video enables a digital filter to differentiate between positive represent the combination of signals
and negative Doppler frequencies. with different frequencies?
The decibel was devised to express power ratios. Being loga- 4. A radar system has a transmission
rithmic, it greatly compresses the numbers needed to express frequency of 10 GHz; what is the
values having a wide dynamic range. angular frequency of this signal?
Decibels also make compounding ratios easy. Ratios can 5. Explain the terms image frequencies
be multiplied by adding their decibel equivalents, divided and sidebands.
(inverted) by giving them a negative sign, and raised to a
6. How do I and Q components allow
power by multiplying them by that power. both the amplitude and phase of a
A ratio expressed in dB can be thought of as consisting of two signal to be recovered?
parts. The digit in the ones place expresses the basic ratio. The
7. How is a signal resolved into I and
digit to the left of it is the power of 10. To translate from dB to a
Q components?
power ratio in your head, you convert the basic ratio and then
place a number of zeros to the right of it equal to the power of 8. Explain the term scintillation.
ten. To translate to decibels, you do the reverse. 9. How do I and Q components allow
Positive decibels correspond to ratios greater than 1; zero deci- the direction of a Doppler signal to
bels to a ratio of 1; negative decibels to ratios less than 1. There be determined?
is no decibel equivalent for a ratio of 0.
10. Two radar echoes differ in
Decibels are commonly used to express gains and losses. Gain amplitude by a factor of 10. What is
is output divided by input. Loss is input divided by output. the power ratio as expressed in dB?
Referenced to absolute units, decibels are also used to express
absolute values.

Further Reading
J. W. Nilsson and S. Reidel, “Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis,”
chapter 9 in Electric Circuits, Prentice-Hall, 2011.

Some Relationships to Keep in Mind

• Power ratio • 3 dB = 2
P2 • dBW = dB relative to 1 Watt
dB = 10 log10
P1
• dBm = dB relative to 1 milliwatt
• Power ratio in terms of voltages
V2 • dBsm = dB relative to 1 square meter of
dB = 20 log10 radar cross section
V1
• 1 dB = 1¼ • dBi = dB relative to isotropic radiation