Unit-I: Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology For Diploma Studies 1. Define The Following Term: Computer

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology for Diploma Studies Unit-I
1. Define the following term:

Computer
 The computer is a programmable electronic device that can store, retrieve, and process data.
 A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions.
Hardware
 The computer hardware refers to the physical components of the computer, such as Keyboard,
monitor, memory chips, and different drive like hard disk drive, floppy disk drive.zip drive, CD
ROM drive etc. (we can see the hardware and also physically touch it).
Software
 The term software refers to the set of instructions/programs that directs the hardware to perform
their particular task. (We can see and fill the software but like hardware we cannot touch it).
Firmware
 Firmware is low-level software often stored on electrically programmable mernory devices.
Firmware is given its name because it is treated like hardware and run ("executed") by other
software programs.
 Firmware is a combination of software and hardware. Computer chips that have data or programs
recorded on them are firmware. These chips commonly include the following:
 ROMs (read-only memory)
 PROMs (programmable read-only memory)
 EPROMs (erasable programmable read-only memory)
List out characteristics of Computer.
 Speed
 Accuracy
 Reliability
 Memory Capability
 Versatility
Form Factor
 When referring to computer hardware, a form factor is a specification of physical dimensions,
layouts, and other explicit information that helps ensure the hardware works with products that
support that form factor.
 Form factors help prevent incompatibilities between multiple hardware manufacturers.
2. Write a short note on classification of computer

Personal computer(micro computer)
 The computer used in house or in office is known as a personal computer (PC).
 Initially PC made by IBM, the biggest and oldest computer manufacturer in the world.
 Later on IBM -freely allows other manufacturers to copy their design, so that PC is become
more popular in short time, for personal use and small business groups.
 This PC is also known as IBM clones.
1 Dept: CE CMT (3350701) Chintan N. Kanani

 This PC has low cost and smaller size.

 It is useful for individuals without intermediate computer operator.
 Basically the PC are identify by its processor such as Intel x86, Advanced Micro Devices
(AMD), Zilog Z80, Motorola 6800 etc.
 The most common operating system such as Microsoft windows, Mac OS, UNIX, LINUX etc.
are used in PC.
 It can be capable to connect with other PC on LAN.
Mainframe computer
 A Mainframe computer is a large, powerful computer that handles the processing for many users
simultaneously (up to several hundred users).
 Mainframe computer is some time called "big iron".
 It is high-performance computer which require greater availability and security than personal
computer.
 In past it basically associated with centralized rather than distributed computing.

 Users connect to the mainframe using terminals and submit their tasks for processing by the
mainframe.
 A terminal is a device that has a screen and keyboard for input and output.
 But it does not do its own processing (they are also called dumb terminals since they can’t process
data on their own).
 The processing power of the mainframe is time-shared between all of the users.
 They are used in situations where a company wants the processing power and information storage
in a centralized location.

Minicomputer
 A minicomputer is a multi-user computer that is less powerful than a mainframe.

 This class of computers became available when large scale integrated circuits made it possible to
build a computer much cheaper than the existing mainframes.
 The minicomputer has been largely taken over by high-end microcomputer workstations serving
multiple users.
Workstation computer
 A workstation is a powerful, high-end microcomputer.

 They contain one or more microprocessor CPUs'.
 They may be used by a single-user for applications requiring more power than a typical PC.
 The term "workstation" also has an alternate meaning: In networking, any client computer
connected to the network that accesses server resources may be called a workstation.
 Such a network client workstation could be a personal computer or even a "workstation".
 The UNIX operating system has often used as the workstation operating system.
 Among the most successful makers of this kind of workstation are Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-
Packard, DEC. and IBM.

Super computer
 A supercomputer is mainframe computer that has been optimized for speed and processing power.
 A supercomputer is typically used for applications that must handle very large databases and/or do
a great amount of computation.
 Most supercomputer is multiple computers that work parallel.
 The "Blue Pacific". IBM's supercomputer, which was built to simulate the physics of a nuclear
explosion.
 It is operated at 3.9 trillion operations per second.
 15,000 times faster than the average PC.
 It consists of 5,800 processors containing a total of 2.6 trillion bytes of memory.
3. Explain Personal Computer Configuration.(Dec-14)

 Most of PC configuration consists of following main part:
Microprocessor: CPU
 The microprocessor is single integrated circuit(IC) which containing sophisticated circuitry that
allows it to perform simple arithmetic calculations to more complex program controlling.
 Two main part of the microprocessor are the bus interface unit and the execution unit.
 The bus interface unit does data transfer to all the circuit on the system.
 The execution unit is the part that actually carries out the instruction.
Power supply
 The power supply generally located in the right corner of desktop PC.
 It converts the AC power to DC and creates the various voltages needed to power your computer’s
devices.
 The power supply has several important things like input voltage, frequency, output voltage etc.
Motherboard
 The motherboard is the main circuit board of the pc.
 It has various electronic components and chips which are linked together by metal tracks called
traces.
 In addition to this components and chips motherboard may contain extra sockets (slot) for optional
items.
 A socket is soldered into the circuit board and contains holes into which you can plug a chip's
pins.

Memory module
 There are different types of memory in system. The most common are ROM, RAM and Cache
memory.
 The ROM is used for storing the small program like BIOS.
 The RAM used for storing temporary program and data for the CPU.
 The Cache memory is very costly and fast memory generally used for storing very small amount
of information.
Storage devices like hard disk, floppy disk and CD drive
 These are used for storing permanent data or program.
 The hard disk has a very high capacity storage capability compare to floppy disk and CD.
 The hard disk store the operating system and other program while floppy disk and CD are used to
store small amount of data and transfer that data from one computer to other computer.
Keyboard and mouse
 The keyboard and mouse are generally used for input devices in a PC.
 The keyboard is similar to a typewriter.
 It has all of the same keys, along with additional keys for different uses.
 However, instead of typing onto paper, the text and characters appear on the monitor and operate
the computer.
 There are many types of keyboards, some with many keys and others with fewer keys, but all of
them function in the same way.
 There is no separate power button once the main computer box is on, the keyboard will also be on.
 The mouse is a component that functions as a pointing device. It is a small plastic case that fits
under your hand.
 When you slide the mouse across a flat surface, you will see an arrow, or pointer, move across the
screen.
Monitor
 The monitors are used as an output device for display text and graphic.
 The monitor rooks like a television screen. It is connected to the main computer box.
 There are several types of monitors; but they all function in the same way.
 The power button is usually located on the front of the monitor, beneath the screen.
 Often, there will be a small light to indicate if the power is on.
 Monitor is available in different size and resolution.
 Also they can build using different technology like CRT, LCD etc.
Printer
 The most printers have a parallel interface and are linked to the computer by a cable that is
attached to the computer's parallel port.
 Printers are come in a wide variety of types, prices, speed and capabilities.
 The most common types of printer are: dot matrix, inkjet, laser and impact.
4. Difference between PC, PC-XT and PC-AT(May-16,Dec-15)

Technical Specifications:
IBM PC-XT
 Intel 8088 processor with 4.77 MHz clock speed
 256 KB RAM
 l0 to 40 MB Hard disk drive
 Supported one or two 360 KB I 1.2 MB Floppy disk drive
 Supported 14 inch monochrome monitor
 84 / 101 keys keyboard
 Require l35 watts power supply
 One serial and one parallel port

 Also have 8287 coprocessor socket.
 Introduced ROM based diagnostic software
IBM PC AT 286
 Intel 80286 processor with 6 to 8 MHz clock speed
 Up to 4 MB RAM
 Up to 80 MB Hard disk drive
 Supported 360 KB / 1.2 MB Floppy disk drive
 Supported 14 inch monochrome or CGA monitor
 Enhanced l0l keys keyboard
 Requirel35 watts power supply
 Serial and one parallel interface
 80287 coprocessor socket.
 Introduced ROM based diagnostic software (Power On Self Test)
IBM PC AT 386
 Intel 80386 processor with 8 to 33 MHz clock speed.
 Up to 64 MB RAM
 64 KB external on board cache memory
 1.2 MB / 1.44 MB Floppy disk drive
 14 or 20 inch monochrome/ CGA / VGA monitor
 Enhanced l0l keys keyboard
IBM PC AT 486
 Intel 80486 processor with 25 to 120 MHz clock speed
 Up to I28 MB RAM
 Up to 512 KB external on board cache memory
 1.2 MB / 1.44 MB Floppy disk drive
 14 or 20 inch SVGA monitor
 104 keys windows keyboard
 Two serial and one parallel port
 Supports CD drive
 Plug and play features
Pentium
 Pentium Processor with 75 MHz to 233 MHz clock speed
 Up to 256 MB RAM
 1 MB cache memory
 Supports four Hard disk drives each Hard disk drive larger than 584 MB and up to 8 GB.
 1.2 MB / 1.44 MB Floppy drive
 14 inch SVGA color monitor
 Multimedia component.
Pentium II
 Pentium Processor II with 300 MHz clock speed

 Up to 8 GB Hard disk drive

 14 inch SVGA color monitor
 Multimedia component
Pentium III
 Pentium Processor with 650 MHz clock speed
 Up to 13 GB hard disk drive.
 14 inch SVGA color monitor with 4 MB AGP card
 Multimedia component.
5. What are General faults of computer system(May-16)

The following list gives most general problem of computer.
1. The CPU has lost control
2. There is a junk display on the monitor
3. The printer prints suddenly
4. The floppy disk drive always remains selected
5. The CD drive always remains selected
6. The hard disk drive is not reading data
7. when types a character from keyboard, two or more characters are displayed on the monitor
8. After power-on nothing is done by the computer, the computer is dead.
9. The program is missing, memory contains junk.
10. The program is getting aborted without any reason or message
11. Computer display irrelevant error messages.
12. Printer prints one line and immediately computer hangs.
13. After power on, only the first program runs successfully. Subsequent programs aborted
abnormally.
14. If two Hard disk drives are connected, none of the Hard disk drive works properly. If any one
of them is disconnected, everything is fine.
15. Suddenly Hard disk drive gets erased
16. Opening more than windows causes the system to hang
17. Suddenly the display on the screen dances
18. when the system covers are open, the computer works properly and when they are closed it
misbehaves
19. Keyboard not gives any response
20. CD ROM drives LED glow, but the CD is not read.
6. List out Basic Parts of Laptop Computer.(Dec-14)

1. Display Screen (LCD)
2. Keyboard
3. Touch Mouse Pad
4. Hard Disk Drive
5. Motherboard
6. CPU
7. Memory (RAM)
8. Power Board
9. Heat Sinks

10. Inverter Board

11. Power Adapter
12. Cooling Fans
13. Wireless Antenna
14. DC Power Jack
15. Bluetooth
16. USB Ports.
17. Web Camera
18. Battery
19. Microphone
20. Speaker
21. Modem
22. Optical Drive (CD/DVD/Blu-Ray)
23. Fingerprint Reader (optional)
7. Draw the layout of latest motherboard and explain the components mounted on
motherboard in brief
OR
Draw & Explain the layout of motherboard(Dec-15,May-15,Dec-14)
Layout of Motherboard
 A computer motherboard is nothing but the circuit board or the circuit which controls the entire
functioning of the computer.
 All the components that form your computer are connected to the computer motherboard.
 The computer processor, which is the most important component of your computer, is mounted on
the computer motherboard.
 All other components like the computer keyboard, computer monitor, computer mouse, hard
drives. etc., are all connected to the computer motherboard through cables.

Block diagram of Motherboard

1. Processor
 The processing unit of a computer is the component, which processes all those zeros and
ones.
 The higher the processing speed, the faster the system runs.
 There are three main leading manufacturers of processors: Intel, AMD (American Micro
Devices) and Cyrix.
 The processor is a single integrated circuit (IC) containing sophisticated circuit that allows it
to perform arithmetic functions.
 The processor has two main sections: Bus Interface Unit (BUI) and Execution Unit (EU).
 The BIU can transfer the data between the microprocessor and other circuit.
 The EU is the part that carries out the instructions.
2.Co-processor
 The Co-Processor is an optional plug-in component on the motherboard.
 The primary advantage of using this chip is the increased execution speed of program.
 The coprocessor permits a computer to carry out certain operations much faster.
 A coprocessor can make a computer run 5 to l0 times faster in some operation.
 The processor works in conjunction with the co-processor when it is operating in the
maximum mode.
 Operations performed by the co-processor may be floating point arithmetic, graphics, signal
processing, string processing, encryption or I/O Interfacing with peripheral devices.
3.Clock generator
 Computers are used clocked logic.
 All the logic elements in the computer are designed to operate synchronously.
 They carry out their designed operations one step at a time and each circuit makes one step
at the same time.
 This synchronous operation helps the machine to keep track of every bit that it can process.
 These timing controls are generated by clock generator's logic.
A desktop PC clock generator, based on the chip ICS 952018AF and 14.3 MHz resonator (on
the left)
4. Bus Sub System

 This has latches to latch the address generated by the CPU on to the address buffer,
transceivers to transfer data between processor and data bus, and bus controller to generate
control signals.
 The bus controller generates signal to control address latch, memory read, memory write, I/O
read and I/O write.
5.Interrupt Controller
 Interrupts are generated to capture the microprocessor's attention and temporarily divert it to
a different process.
 The interrupt controller handles 8 maskable interrupts.
 The interrupt request lines are designated with numbers 2 to 7 with decreasing priority.
 The Non-maskable interrupt (NMI) logic generates the NMI signal. It is generated on
detection of
l) RAM parity error in motherboard
2) RAM parity error in daughter boards which have the RAM as expansion memory
3) Co-Processor error if coprocessor is installed
6. ROM and RAM Logic
 The PC memory is a block where any byte of information is directly available by calling its
address.
 The ROM stores the POST (Power On Self Test) and BIOS.
 The use of dynamic RAM in PC needs refreshing the memory.
 The DMA channel 0 is used for it.
7. Direct Memory Access Controller (DMA Controller-8237)
 To speed up the system performance the main processor is to be relieved from time
consuming jobs like moving blocks of memory (bulk data) between main memory and I/O
devices.
 The DMA controller handles these tasks separately.
 Once it receives instructions from the CPU the DMA takes the command and does all the
memory transfer operations.
8.Timer/counter Logic ( Programmable Interval timer 8253)
 There are main three timers on motherboard.
1) Time 0 : Used to interrupt the processor at the rate of 18.2 clock cycle per second to
maintain the system time and date
2) Time 1: Used to generate DMA request signals for performing refresh cycles at every 15
microseconds.
3) Time 2: Used to generate various tones by the speaker.
9. Peripheral Interface Logic (PPI-8255A)
 The programmable peripheral interface (PPI) device connects the peripheral devices to the
personal computer system.
 It is design to implement parallel I/o ports without the additional circuit.
 The PPI is very flexible parallel interface that is software controlled.
 Earlier PC's had the keyboard connected to PPI.
 Recent models have a separate microcontroller such as 8042 for connecting mouse and
keyboard with computer system.
8. Explain in detail different types of Mother board.

1. Non-Integrated Motherboards
 Non-integrated Motherboards have assemblies such as the I/O port connectors (serial
and parallel ports), hard drive connectors, floppy controllers and connectors, joystick
connections etc installed as expansion boards.
 This takes up one or more of the motherboard's expansion slots and reduces the
amount of free space inside the computer case.

 Most of the older motherboards were Non-Integrated.
 Some of the later system boards began to integrate some of these assemblies right
onto the circuit board.
2. Integrated Motherboards
 Integrated Motherboards have assemblies that are otherwise installed as expansion
boards, integrated or built right onto the board.
 The serial and parallel ports, the IDE and floppy drive, and joystick all connect
directly to the motherboard.
 This is now standard on any latest model 486 and above.
It tends to free up some space inside the case and allows for better accessibility and
airflow.
 The systems are cheaper to produce because there's less material involved, less
installation and testing can all be done at the same time.
 They are more expensive to repair because if the problem is with a controller failure
or broken pin it means a new motherboard should be needed.
3. Embedded Motherboard
 In an effort to reduce the cost (and size) of a computer system even more,
manufacturers began integrating (or embedding) technologies such as video, sound,
networking and modems right onto the system board.
 This dramatically increases the cost of the main board but reduces the cost of the
overall system.
9. Explain Motherboard Types/Form Factors (AT, Baby AT, ATX, LPX, NLX,
BTX) (May-16,May-15)
 The motherboard is a main printed circuit board used to connect all of the parts of a computer
together.
 The CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card and other ports and
expansion cards all connect to the motherboard directly or via cables.

10. What do you mean by CPU? Describe its working in brief

 CPU- Central Processing Unit.

 The CPU is the part of a computer in which arithmetic and logical operations are performed and
instructions are decoded and executed.
 The CPU controls the operation of the computer.
Working of CPU
 The CPU is centrally located on the motherboard.
 The data come from the RAM and the units such as keyboard, drives etc.
 After processing, the data is send back to RAM and/or the output units.
 The CPU receives at least two types of data: Instructions, which to handle the other data and
second one is User Data.
 Six basic elements are used to gauge the performance and capability of a CPU design.
1. Speed
 The maximum number of clock cycles measured in MHz.
 The higher the speed, the quicker a command will be executed.
2. Number of transistors
 More switches means more computing power.
3. Registers
 The size (in bits) of the internal registers.
 The larger the registers. the more complicated the commands that can be processed in
one step.
4. External data bus
 As data bus size increases, so does the amount and complexity of code (information)
that can be transferred among all devices in the computer.
5. Address bus
 The size of the address bus determines the maximum amount of memory that can be
addressed by the CPU
6. Internal cache
 The internal cache is high-speed memory built into the processor.
 This is a place to store frequently used data instead of sending it to slower devices
(speed is relative in computers) such as RAM and hard disk drives.
11. CISC vs. RISC Processor. (May-16,May-15)

CISC-Complex Instruction Set Computing
 Most PC's use CPU based on this architecture.
 For instance Intel and AMD CPU are based on CISC architectures.
 Typically ClSC chips have a large amount of different and complex instructions.
 The philosophy behind it is that hardware is always faster than software therefore one should
make a powerful instruction set, which provides programmers with assembly instruction to do a
lot with short program.
RISC-Reduce Instruction Set Computing
 RISC chips evolved around the micl-1980 as a reaction at CISC chips.
 The philosophy behind it is that almost no one uses complex assembly language instructions as
used by CISC- and people mostly use compilers which never use complex instructions.
 Therefore fewer, simpler and faster instructions would be better than the large complex and slower
CISC instructions.

 However more instructions are needed to accomplish a task.

 Finally, it's easier to write powerful optimized compilers, since fewer instructions exist.
 Apple for instance uses RISC chips.
CISC RISC
Emphasis on hardware Emphasis on software
Includes multi-clock complex instruction. Single-clock , reduced instruction only
Memory to memory –“LOAD” and Register to register- “LOAD” and
“STORE” incorporated in instructions. “STORE” are independent instruction.
Small code size, high cycle per second Low cycles per second ,large code size
Transistors are used for storing complex Spend more transistor on memory registers.
instruction
12. What is an expansion of buses?

 Expansion buses connect devices to the motherboard using the motherboard's data bus.
 They allow the flow of data between internal and external devices that make up the computer
system.
 Early computers moved data between devices and the processor at about the same rate as the
processor.
 As processor speeds increased the movement of data through the bus became a bottleneck.
 Therefore, the design capability of the buses needed to evolve, too.
 Designers divided the external data bus into two parts:
 System bus. This supports the CPU. RAM. And other motherboard components and runs at
speeds that support the CPU.
 Expansion bus. This supports any add-on devices by means of the expansion slots and runs at a
steady rate, based on the specific bus design.
13. Explain in detail Bus organization & Bus standards.(Dec-15)

 Bus standards are necessary to connect external peripherals to the system and they are work on
proper clock cycle speed.
Bus Width
 A bus is a channel over which information flows.
 The wider the bus the more information can flow over the channel.
 For example a wider highway can carry more cars than a narrow one.
Bus speed
 The speed of the bus reflects how many bits of information can be sent across each wire per
second.
 This would be analogous to how fast the car is driving on our analogical highway.
 Most buses transmit one bit of data per line, per clock cycle, although newer high performance
buses like AGP may actually move two bits of data per clock cycle, doubling performance.
Bus Bandwidth
 Bandwidth also called throughput, refers to the total amount of data that can theoretically be
transferred on the bus in a given unit of time.

 Using the highway analogy, if the bus width is the number of lanes, and the bus speed is how fast
the cars are driving, and then the bandwidth is the product of these two and reflects the amount of
traffic that the channel can convey per second.
Bus Interfacing
 On a system that has multiple buses, circuitry must be provided by the chipset to connect the
buses and allow devices on one talk to devices on the other.
 This device is called a “bridge”, the same name used to refer to a piece of networking hardware
that connects two dissimilar networks.
Bus Mastering
 On the higher-bandwidth buses, a great deal of information is flowing through the channel every
second. Processor is required to control the transfer of this information.
 The processor is a “middleman” and it is far more efficient to “cut out” the middleman and
perform the transfer directly.
 It is done by having capable devices take control of the bus and do the work themselves; devices
that can do this are called bus masters.
Bus Organization
 A bus is a collection of wires, thorough which data is transmitted from one part of a computer
to another.
 When used in reference to personal computers, the term bus usually refers to internal bus.
 This is a bus that connects all the internal computer components to the CPU and the main
memory.
 There is also an expansion bus that enables expansion boards to access the CPU and memory.
 Most modern PC’s have at least four buses.
 The Processor bus This is the highest level bus that the chipset uses to send information to
and from the processor.
 The Cache Bus Higher level architectures, such as those used by the Pentium Pro and
Pentium II employ a dedicated bus for accessing the system cache.
 This is sometime called a backside bus.
 The Memory Bus This is a second level system bus that connects the memory subsystem to
the chipset and the processor. In some systems, the processor and the memory buses are the
same thing.
 The Local IO Bus This is a high speed input/output bus used for connecting performance
critical peripherals to the memory, chipset and processor. For example, video cards, disk
storage devices, high speed network interfaces generally use a bus of this sort. The two most
common local IO buses are VESA local bus and PCI bus.
 The Standard IO Bus This bus is used for slower peripherals like mice, modems, regular
sound cards, low speed networking. It is also compatible with older devices.
14. Explain in detail Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) Bus(May-16,May-
15,Dec-14)
 ISA stands for Industry Standard Architecture which is the most common bus in the PC world.
 The ISA bus is still stay in the newest computers. Despite the fact that it is largely unchanged since
it was expanded to 16 bits.
 The ISA bus eventually became a narrow to performance and was enlarge with additional high-
speed buses.
 There are still many devices for which the ISA's speed is more than sufficient (an example of
standard moderns).
8 bit PC Bus slot

 The original ISA bus on the IBM PC was 8 bits wide, reflecting the 8 bit data width of the Intel
8088 processor's system bus, and ran at 4.77 MHz.
 With the speed of the first 8088s. The IBM AT was introduced which was use the Intel 80286.
 The ISA bus provides reasonable throughput for low-bandwidth devices and virtually assures
compatibility with almost every PC on the market.
 The ISA bus has divided in two units, internal unit and external unit, which are work with the other
devices.
 The internal ISA bus: This is used on the simple ports, like keyboard, diskette drive serial and
parallel ports.
 The External expansion bus: This can be connected with l6 bit ISA adapters.

Internal and External Units of ISA Bus
15. Explain in detail Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) Bus.

 MCA stands for "Micro Channel Architecture" was IBM's attempt to replace the ISA bus with
something bigger and better.
 MCA is 32 bits wide and offers several significant improvements over ISA.
 It had far superior throughput to the ISA bus. The MCA bus supported bus mastering adapters for
greater efficiency, including proper bus arbitration.
 MCA automatically configured adapter cards. So there was no need to fiddle with jumpers.
 The two main reasons for MCA would be failure in the marketplace.
 First, they made MCA incompatible with ISA- this means ISA cards will not work at all in an
MCA system.
 Second, IBM decided to make the MCA bus proprietary.
16. Explain in detail Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) Bus

 EISA stands for Extended Industry Standard Architecture.

 Compaq developed EISA standards bus.
 Compaq avoided the two key mistakes that IBM made. First, they made it compatible with the ISA
bus. Second. They opened the design to all manufacturers instead of keeping it proprietary, by
forming the non-profit EISA committee to manage the design of the standard.
 EISA was similar to MCA both in terms of technology and market acceptance: it had significant
technical advantages over ISA,
 Some of the key features of the EISA bus:
1. ISA Compatibility: ISA cards will work in EISA slots.
2. 32 Bit Bus Width: Like MCA, the bus was expanded to 32 bits.
3. Bus Mastering: The EISA bus supports bus mastering adapters for greater efficiency.
4. Plug and Play: EISA automatically configures adapter cards, similar to the Plug and Play
standards of modern systems.
17. Explain in detail VESA Local Bus (VLB)
VESA Bus Design

 VESA stands for the Video Electronics Standards Association, a standards group that was formed
to address video-related issues in personal computers.
 This is the first local bus to gain popularity.
 The VESA local bus (also called VL-Bus or VLB for short) was introduced in 1992.
 The major reason for the development of VESA or VLB was to improve video performance in
PCs.
 It is an extension of the ISA bus, an ISA card can be used in a VLB slot.
 There were also several key problems with the VLB implementation.
1) The design was strongly based on the 486 processor. And adapting it to the Pentium caused a
host of compatibility and other problems.
2) The bus itself was tricky electrically; for example, the number of cards that could be used on
the bus was low (often only two or even one), and occasionally there could be timing problems on
the bus when more than one card was used.
3) The bus did not support bus mastering properly since there was no good arbitration scheme, and
did not support Plug and Play.
18. Explain in detail Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCl) Local Bus (May-
16,May-15,Dec-14)
 The most popular local I/O bus, the Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus was developed
by Intel and introduced in 1993.
 It is geared specifically to fifth and sixth generation systems, although the latest generation 486
motherboards use PCI as well.
 PCI allows developers to design cards that will work in any PCI-compatible machine. It
overcomes the limitations of ISA, EISA, MCA, and VLB. And it offers the performance needed
for today's fast systems.
 There are many similarities between PCI and the older VLB specifications.
 Both are local bus systems with 32-bit data paths and burst modes. Also. the original PCI design
operates at 33 MHz roughly the same speed as the VLB.
 The following sections provide the functioning of the PCI bus in various areas.
 PCI Bus performance-The PCI bus provides superior performance to the VESA local bus. PCI is
the highest performance than general I/O bus currently used into PCs. This is clue to several
factors:
1. Burst Mode: The PCI bus can transfer information in a burst mode.
2. Bus Mastering: PCI supports full bus mastering. which leads to improved performance.
3. High Bandwidth Options: The PCI bus specification version 2.1 calls for expandability to 64
bits and 66 MHz speed; if implemented this would quadruple bandwidth over the current
design.
 PCI Expansion Slots- The PCI bus offers more expansion slots than most VLB implementations.
Most PCI systems support 3 or 4 PCI slots. Also, the PCI bus offers a great variety of expansion
cards compared to VLB. The most commonly found cards are video cards, high-speed networking
cards. Hard disk drives are also on the PCI bus but are normally connected directly to the
motherboard on a PCI system.
 PCI Internal Interrupts- The PCI bus uses its own internal interrupt system for dealing with
requests from the cards on the bus.
 PCI Plug and Play- PCI systems were the first to popularize the use of Plug and Play. The PCI
bus is part of the Plug and Play standard developed by Intel with co-operation from Microsoft and
many other companies. The PCI chipset circuitry handles the identification of cards and works
with the operating system and BIOS to automatically set resource allocations for compatible
peripheral cards.
19. Explain in detail Accelerated Graphics Port

 In the early days of PCI, the major market for that technology was the high performance display
adapter.
 Today, the PCI market includes NICs, sound cards, Ultra Direct Memory Access (UDMA)
controllers, and DVD (digital video disc) interfaces.
 The variety of devices posed a problem for display-card designers: Having more cards on a single
bus slowed down the performance, just when the increasing popularity of 24-bit graphics and 3D
rendering called for greater demands on the display system.
 The search was on for yet another interface; this time, the solution was a single slot tuned for the
display adapter. Once again, Intel led the way and developed the Accelerated Graphics port
(AGP).
 The AGP removes all the display data traffic from the PCI bus and gives that traffic its own 525-
MB-per-second pipe into the system's chip set and, from there, straight to the CPU. It also
provides a direct path to the system memory for handling graphics. This procedure is referred to as
Direct Memory Execute (DIME). AGP connectors are found only on Pentium Il-based and later
computers or on similar CPUs from non-Intel vendors.
20. Explain in detail IEEB 1394 FireWire High-Performance Serial Interface.

 IEEE 1394, known also by its Apple trade name of FireWire. While connecting external
peripheral, IEEE 1394 has been a possible replacement of SCSI. This high-speed serial interface
allows up to 62 devices on a chain, at data transfer rates of up to 50 MB per second.
 This new interface offers several advantages: a hot swap capability (the ability to add and remove
components while the machine is running), small and inexpensive connectors, and a simple cable
design.
 Right now, few devices support1394, but it is seen as a viable method for connecting multimedia
devices like camcorders and other consumer electronic devices to PCs.
21. Explain in detail Universal Serial Bus
 The newest addition to the general PC bus collection, the USB connects external peripherals such
as mouse devices, printers, modems, keyboards, joysticks, scanners, And digital cameras to the
computer.
 The USB port is a thin slot, most new motherboards offer two located near the keyboard.
 They can also be provided through an expansion card.
 USB supports isochronous (time-dependent) and asynchronous (intermittent) data transfers.
 Isochronous connections transfer data at a guaranteed fixed rate of delivery.
 This is required for more demanding multimedia applications and devices.
 Asynchronous data can be transferred whenever there is no isochronous traffic on the bus.
 USB supports the following data transfer rates, depending on the amount of bus bandwidth a
peripheral device requires:
 1.5 megabits per second (Mbps) asynchronous transfer rate for devices. such as a mouse or
keyboard, that do not require a large amount of bandwidth.
 12 Mbps isochronous transfer rate for high-bandwidth devices such as modems, speakers,
scanners and monitors. The guarantees data-delivery rate provided by isochronous data transfer is
required to support the demand of multimedia applications and devices.

22. Explain in detail System Controller.

 The system controller connects the system CPU to system memory, PCI bus. I/0 ports, and
external communication links.
 While the CPU’s task in the system is to process data.
 System controller's main function is to coordinate data movement in the system.
 The system controller contains all the major functional modules required for most system on a
chip application.
 The entire system control function can be easily integrated into a single Programmable Logic
Device (PLD).
23. What is BIOS? Explain in detail BIOS component(Dec-14)

 BIOS stand for Basic Input/Output system.
 The system BIOS is the lowest-level software in the computer; it acts as an interface between the
hardware, especially the chipset, processor and the operating system.
 The BIOS provides access to the system hardware and enables the creation of the higher-level
operating system like DOS, Windows, and Linux etc.
BIOS component
1. BIOS ROM :
 The main hardware component of the system BIOS is the system BIOS ROM itself.
 This is normally located in an electrically-erasable read-only memory (EEPROM)
chip, which allows it to be updated through software control. This process is
commonly called flashing BIOS.
 Under normal circumstances, the BIOS ROM is permanent.
 If for some reason the BIOS ROM were to become corrupted for example, you might
find your PC left in a state where it could not be booted. In this situation. you might
have to physically replace the BIOS ROM. but this is a very rare happening.
2. BIOS CMOS Memory:
 CMOS stands for "Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor". This is one type of
technology, used to make semiconductors (integrated circuits) such as processors,
chipset chips, DRAM, etc.
 CMOS has the advantage of requiring very little power compared to some other
semiconductor technologies.
 This is why it was chosen for this use.
 So that the amount of power required from the battery would be minimal. and the
battery would be able to last a long time.
 The BIOS settings must be saved in non-volatile memory so that they are preserved
even when the machine power is off.
 A special type of memory is used to store this information called CMOS memory.
and a very small battery is used to trickle a small charge to it to make sure that the
data it holds is always preserved.
 These memories are very small typically 64 bytes.
 This non-volatile memory is sometimes called NVRAM (Non Volatile RAM).
 The most of motherboard allow to clear the CMOS memory when require, when this
is helps someone set the CMOS setup password and forgot it.

24. Explain in detail BIOS function.(Dec-15,May-15,Dec-14)

BIOS power-On Self Test (POST)
 The first thing that the BI0S do when it boots the pc is to perform what is called the Power-on
Self-Test, or POST for short.
 When the PC is first turned on, its main system memory is empty, and it needs to find instructions
immediately to tell it what to run to start up the system. this it finds within the BI0S program
which is stored on CMOS memory.
System BOOT sequence(May-16)
1. The internal power supply turns on and initializes. The power supply takes some time
until it can generate reliable power for the rest of the computer, Therefore, the chipset
will generate a reset signal to the processor (the same as if you held the reset button down
for a while on your case) until it receives the Power Good signal from the power supply.
2. When the reset button is released, the processor will be ready to start executing. When the
processor first starts up, there is nothing at all in the memory to execute of course
processor makers know this will happen, so that the processor always look for
preprogram. At the same place in the system BIOS ROM for the start of the BIOS boot
program. this is normally location FFFF0h. This location just contains a “jump”
instruction telling the processor where to go to find the real BIOS startup program.
3. The BIOS performs the power-on self test (POST). If there are any fatal errors, the boot
process stops. POST beep codes can be found in this area of the Troubleshooting Expert.
4. The BIOS looks for the video card. In particular, it looks for the Video card’s built in
BIOS program and runs it. This BIOS is normally found at location c000h in memory.
The system BIOS executes the video card BIOS, which initializes the video card' Most
modern cards will display information on the screen about the video card.
5. The BIOS then looks for other devices' ROMs to see if any of them have BIOSes.
Normally, the IDE/ATA hard disk BIOS will be found at C8000h and executed. If any
other devices BIOSes are found, they are executed as well.
6. The BIOS displays its startup screen.
7. The BIOS does more tests on the system, including the memory count-up test which you
see on the screen. The BIOS will generally display a text error message on the screen if it
encounters an error at this point.
8. The BIOS performs a "system inventory" of sorts, doing more tests to determine what sort
of hardware is in the system' Modern BIOSes have many automatic settings and will
determine memory timing (for example) based on what kind of memory it finds. Many
BIOSes can also dynamically set hard drive parameters and access modes, and will
determine these at roughly this time. Some will display a message on the screen for each
drive they detect and configure this way. The BIOS will also now search for and label
logical devices (COM and LPT ports).
9. If the BI0S support the Plug and Play standard, it will detect and configure plug and Play
devices at this time and display a message on the screen for each one it finds.
10. The BIOS will display a summary screen about your system's configuration. Checking
this page of data can be helpful in diagnosing setup problems, although it can be hard to
see because sometimes it flashes on the screen very quickly before scrolling off the top.
11. The BI0S begins the search for a drive to boot from. Most modern BIOSes contain a
setting that controls if the system should first try to boot from the floppy disk (A:) or first
try the hard disk (C:). Some BIOSes will even let you boot from your CD-ROM drive or
other devices, depending on the boot sequence BIOS setting.
12. Having identified its target boot drive, the BlOS looks for boot information to start the
operating system boot process. If it is searching a hard disk. it looks for a master boot
record at cylinder (), head(), sector 1 (the first sector on the disk) if it is searching a
floppy disk, it looks at the same address on the floppy disk for a volume boot sector.

13. If it finds what it is looking for, the BlOS start the process of booting the operating
system, using the information in the boot sector. At this point, the code in the boot sector
takes over from the BIOS. If the first device that the system tries (floppy, hard disk, etc.)
is not found, the BIOS will then try the next device in the boot sequence, and continue
until it finds a bootable device.
14. If no boot device at all can be found, the system will normally display an error message
and then freeze up the system.
This process is called a "cold boot" (since the machine was off, or cold, when it started). A “warm
boot” is the same thing except it occurs when the machine is rebooted using {Ctrl} + {Alt} +
{Delete} or similar. In this case the POST is skipped and the boot process continues roughly at step 8
above.
BIOS Startup Screen
 When the system BI0S starts up, you will see its familiar screen display, normally after the
video adapter displays its information. These are the contents of a typical BIOS start up
screen:
1. The BIOS Manufacturer and Version Number.
2. The BIOS Date: The date of the BIOS can be important in helping you determine its
capabilities.
3. Setup Program Key: The key or keys to press to enter the BIOS setup program. (This is
usually {Del}, sometimes {F2}, and sometimes another key combination.
4. System Logo: The logo of the BIOS Company or in some cases the PC maker or
motherboard manufacturer.
5. The BIOS Serial Number: This is normally located at the bottom of the screen. Since
BIOSes are highly customized to the particular motherboard, this serial number can be used
in many cases to determine the specific motherboard, this serial number can be used in many
cases to determine the specific motherboard and BIOS version you are using.
25. Explain chipset with its advantages. (May-16)

 The specialized chips on a computer's motherboard or expansion card are called chipset.
 The chip sets are a bunch of intelligent controller chips.
 It controls communications between the processor and external devices. Generally chipset contain
more than one chip into single chip.
 The chipset manufacturers are generally independent from the manufacturer of the motherboard.
 Current manufacturers of chipsets for PC-compatible motherboard include NVIDIA.
 AMD, VIA Technologies, Sis, Intel, Broadcom etc.
 Some server manufacturers also develop custom chipsets for their products.
 In home computers game consoles and arcade game hardware chipset was used for the custom
audio and graphics chips.
 Most of the manufacturer are include in their chipsets are floppy disk control circuitry, a connector
for an embedded controller (IDE) hard disk, input/output ports like parallel port, serial port, USB
ports etc, keyboard, mouse and games ports.
 Some chipset manufacturers are provide video (VGA) circuitry into their products as well.

Intel i7 chipset Advantages:

 Affordable prices for being a quad-core
 45nm node technology allows for efficient cooling and over clocking.
 IMC or integrated memory controller lets the chip connect directly to memory
 Four cores allows for handling software that requires lots of computations.
26. Explain in detail North Bridge & South Bridge.(Dec-15,May-15,Dec-14)

North Bridge:
 A Northbridge or host bridge is a microchip on some PC motherboards and is connected directly
to the CPU (unlike the Southbridge) and thus responsible for tasks that require the highest
performance.
 The Northbridge is usually paired with a Southbridge, also known as I/O controller hub.
 In systems where they are included, these two chips manage communications between the CPU
and other parts of the motherboard, and constitute the core logic chipset of the PC motherboard.
 The Northbridge typically handles communications among the CPU. in some cases RAM, and PCI
Express (or AGP) video cards, and the Southbridge.

 Some Northbridge also contain integrated video controllers, also known as Graphics and Memory
Controller Hub (GMCH) in Intel system.
 Because different processors and RAM require different signaling, a given Northbridge will
typically work with only one or two classes of CPU’s and generally only one type of RAM.
South Bridge:
 The South Bridge is one of the two chips in the core logic chipset on a personal computer (PC)
motherboard, the other being the North Bridge.
 The South Bridge typically implements the slower capabilities of the motherboard in a North
Bridge/South Bridge chipset computer architecture.
 The South Bridge can usually be distinguished from the North Bridge by not being directly
connected to the CPU rather the North Bridge ties the South Bridge to the CPU.
 Through the use of controller integrated channel circuitry, the North Bridge can directly link
signals from the I/O units to the CPU for data control and access.
 A south bridge chipset handles all of a computer's I/O functions such as USB, audio, serial, the
system BIOS, the ISA bus, the interrupt controller and the IDE channels.
27. Explain in detail different types of Memory. (May-16,Dec-14)

Static Memory:
 This memory approaches assume that the addresses don't change.
 The static memory allocation may be through absolute addresses or through PC relative
addresses, but in either case the compiler or assembler generates a set of addresses that
cannot change for the life of a program or process.
Dynamic Memory:
 These approaches assume that the addresses can change.
 The two most common dynamic approaches are the use of stack frames and the use of
pointers or handlers.
 Stack frames are used primarily for temporary data. Handles and pointers are used for
keeping track of dynamically allocated blocks of memory.
Permanent Memory (Non-Volatile)- Examples of non-volatile memory include:
1. ROM
 PROM
 EPROM
 EEPORM
2. Flash Memory
3. Computer Storage Devices
 Hard Disk
 Floppy Disk
 CD-RW
 DVD
 ZIP Drive.
ROM(Read Only Memory)
 ROM is typically used to store things that will never change for the life of the computer such
as low level portions of an operating system.
 Some processors might have RAM and/or ROM built into the same chip as the processor,
normally used for processors used in standalone devices, such as arcade video games, ATMs,
microwave ovens, car ignition systems, etc.
 Computers almost always contain a small amount of read-only memory that holds
instructions for starting up the computer.
 It is non-volatile which means once you turn off the computer the information is still there.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) :

 A PROM is a memory chip on which data can be written only once.
 Once a program has been written onto a PROM it remains there forever.
 Unlike RAM, PROM's retain their contents when the computer is turned off.
 The difference between a PROM and a ROM (read-only memory) is that a PROM is
manufactured as blank memory, whereas a ROM is programmed during the manufacturing
process.
 To write data onto a PROM chip, you need a special device called a PROM programmer or
PROM burner.
 The process of programming a PROM is sometimes called burning the PROM.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)
 EPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light.
 Once it is erased, it can be reprogrammed.
 An EEPROM is similar to a PROM, but requires only electricity to be erased.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)
 EEPROM Pronounced double-ee-prom or e-e-prom, an EEPROM is a special type of PROM
that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge.
 Like other types of PROM, EEPROM retains its contents even when the power is turned off.
 Also like other types of ROM, EEPROM is not as fast as RAM. EEPROM is similar to flash
memory (sometimes called flash EEPROM).
 The principal difference is that EEPROM requires data to be written or erased one byte at a
time whereas flash memory allows data to be written or erased in blocks. This makes memory
faster.
Flash Memory
This is a solid-state, nonvolatile, rewritable memory that functions like RAM and a hard disk
combined integrated with a USB (Universal Serial Bus) interface
 If power is lost, all data remains in memory.
 Because of its high speed, durability, and low voltage requirements, it is ideal for digital
cameras, cell phones, printers, handheld computers pagers and audio recorders.
 SB flash drives are typically removable and rewritable, and physically much smaller than a
floppy disk.
Temporary Memory-Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Also known as Volatile Memory.

 Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information.
Most modern semiconductor volatile memory is either Static RAM (SRAM) or dynamic
RAM (DRAM).
 RAM is Random Access Memory, and is the basic kind of internal memory.
 RAM is called "random access" because the processor or computer can access any location in
memory.
 RAM has been made from reed relays, transistors, integrated circuits. Magnetic core or
anything that can hold and store binary values.
 Most modern RAM is made from integrated circuits.
 Static R/.M is called static because it will continue to hold and store information even when
power is removed. Magnetic core and reed relays are examples of static memory.
 Dynamic RAM is called dynamic because it loses all data when power is removed.
 Transistors and integrated circuits are examples of dynamic memory.
 It is possible to have battery backup for devices that are normally dynamic to turn them into
static memory.
Cache Memory(What is Cache Memory? explain memory caching & disk caching)
 Pronounced cash, a special high speed storage mechanism.
 It can be either a reserved section of main memory or an independent high speed storage
device.
 Two types caching are commonly used in personal computers.
 Memory Caching & Disk Caching
Memory Caching:
 A memory cache, sometimes called a cache store RAM cache, is a portion of memory made
of high speed static RAM (SRAM) instead of the slower and cheaper dynamic RAM
(DRAM) used for main memory.
 Memory caching is effective because most programs access the same data or instruction over
and over.
 By keeping as much of this information as possible in SRAM, the computer avoids accessing
the slower DRAM.
 Some memory caches are built into the architecture of microprocessors. The Intel 80486
microprocessor, for example, contains an 8K memory cache, and the Pentium has a 16K
cache. Such internal caches are often called Level 1 (L1) caches.
 Most modern PCs also come with external cache memory, called Level 2 (L2) caches. These
caches sit between the CPU and the DRAM.
 Like L1 caches, L2 caches are composed of SRAM but they are much larger.
Disk Caching:
 Disk caching works under the same principle as memory caching, but instead of using hugh-
speed SRAM.
 A disk cache used conventional main memory.
 The most recently accessed data from the disk (as well as adjacent sectors) is stored in a
memory buffer. When a program needs to access data from the disk, it first checks the disk
cache to see if the data is there.
 Disk caching can dramatically improve the performance of applications, because accessing a
byte of data in RAM can be thousands of times faster than accessing a byte on a hard disk.
 Many cache system use a technique known as smart caching, in which the system can
recognize certain types of frequently used data.

System Memory(Dec-15)
1. Dual Inline Package (DIP)

 Early versions of RAM were installed as single chips, usually l-bit-wide DIP (dual inline
package)
 In some cases, this was soldered right onto the motherboard, but most often it was seated in a
socket, offering a simpler method of removal and replacement.
 As the amount of memory and the need for speed increased, manufacturers started to market
modules containing several chips that allowed for easier installation and larger capacity.
 These modules come in a variety of physical configurations.
2. ZIP
 The Zip drive is a medium-capacity removable floppy disk storage system that was
introduced by Iomega in late 1994.
 Originally, Zip disks launched with capacities of 100 MB, but later versions increased this to
first 250 MB and then 750 MB.
 They are stable, inexpensive, and easy to work with.
3. Single Inline Pinned Package (SIPP)(Dec-15)
 One of the first module forms of DRAM, the SIPP (single inline pinned package) is a printed
circuit board with individual DRAM chips mounted on it.
 SIPP module looks like a rectangular card with a single row of pins along one edge.
4. Single Inline Memory Modules (SIMM 30-pin)(Dec-15)

 SIMMs (single inline memory modules) quickly replaced SIPPs because they are easier to
install.
 They are similar to SIPPs with one exception, they require no pins.
 30-pin SIMMs has 30 contacts in a single row along the lower edge.

 A 30-pin SIMM can have as few as two or as many as nine individual DRAM chips.
 Although SIMM modules can have pin counts as high as 200, in PCs, 30-pin and 72-pin
versions are the most common.
 A typical motherboard of the time offered four SIMM sockets capable of taking either single-
sided or double-sided SIMMs with module sizes of 4, 8, l6,32 or even 64MB.
5. Dual Inline Memory Modules (DIMM)

 As memory subsystems standardized around an 8-byte data interface, the Dual Inline
Memory Module (DIMM) had replaced the SIMM as the module standard for the PC
industry.
 DIMMs have 168 pins in two (or dual) rows of contacts, one on each side of the card.
 With the additional pins a computer can retrieve information from DIMMs, 64 bits at a time
instead of the 32-bit or l6-bit transfers that are usual with SIMMs.
6. RIMM
 The name is not an acronym, but a trademark of Rambus Inc.
 RIMM connectors have a form factor similar to DIMMs and fit within the same board area as
the footprint for a DIMM connector.
 They have 184 pins compared to a DIMM's 168, but use the same socket specification as a
standard 100MHz DIMM.
 The major elements to a Rambus memory subsystem include a master device that contains
the Rambus ASIC Cell (RAC) and Rambus Memory Controller (RMC), Direct Rambus
Clock Generator (DRCG), RIMM connectors, RIMM memory modules, and RIMM
continuity modules.
7. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
 DRAM chips are large, rectangular arrays of memory cells with support logic that is used for
reading and writing data in the arrays, and refresh circuitry to maintain the integrity of stored
data.
 Memory arrays are arranged in rows and columns of memory cells called word lines and bit
lines, respectively.
 Each memory cell has a unique location or address defined by the intersection of a row and a
column.
 DRAM is cheaper than SRAM and uses half as many transistors.
 When speaking of DRAM SIPPs and SIMMs, we use two values to determine how much
memory a unit can hold
 Width 1 bit, 4 bits (a nibble), 8 bits (a byte), or 16 bits (a word), and so on.
 Depth How deep the chip is: 256 KB, 1 MB, 4 MB, 8 MB, 16 MB,32 MB and so on.
 Calculate chip size by multiplying depth by width; the result is measured in bits.
 One KB of memory is equal to 8l92 bits (1024 * 8).
 One MB is equal to 8,388,608 bits (1024*1024*8).
8. SDRAM
 This key feature of SDRAM gives it an important advantage over other, asynchronous
memory types, enabling data to be delivered off-chip at burst rates of up to 100MHz
 Once the burst has started all remaining bits of the burst length are delivered at a 10ns rate.
 With SDRAM an on-chip burst counter allows the column part of the address to be
incremented very rapidly which helps speed up retrieval of information in sequential reads
considerably.
9. DDR SDRAM
 Traditionally, to synchronize logic devices, data transfers would occur on a clock edge.
 As a clock pulse oscillates between 1 and 0, data would be output on either the rising edge
(as the pulse changes from a 0 to a 1) or on the falling edge.
 DDR DRAM works by allowing the activation of output operations on the chip to occur on
both the rising and falling edge of the crock, thereby providing an effective doubling of the
clock frequency without increasing the actual frequency.
 DDR memory chips are commonly referred to by their data transfer rate. This value is
calculated by doubling the bus speed to reflect double data rate.
10. SLDRAM (Synchronous-Link DRAM)
 SLDRAM boasted higher performance and competed against RDRAM.
 SLDRAM was an open standard and did not require licensing fees.
 The specifications called for a 64-bit bus running at a 200, 300 or 400 MHz clock frequency.
 This is achieved by all signals being on the same line and thereby avoiding the
synchronization time of multiple lines.

11. DRDRAM (Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory)

 RDRAM (Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory) is a memory subsystem that promises
to transfer up to 1.6 billion bytes per second.
 The subsystem consists of:
 Random access memory GAM),
 RAM controller
 Bus (path) connecting RAM to the microprocessor
 Devices in the computer that use it.
 Direct Rambus (DRDRAM), a technology developed and licensed by the Rambus
Corporation, is the latest version and is expected to help accelerate the growth of visually
intensive interfaces such as 3-D, interactive games, and streaming multimedia.
 Rambus is intended to replace the current main memory technology of dynamic random
access memory DRAM).
 The components that are inserted into motherboard connections are called Rambus in-line
memory modules (RIMMs). They can replace conventional dual in-line memory module.
12. FPM (Fast Page Mode) DRAM
 All types of memory are addressed as an array of rows and columns, and individual bits are
stored in each cell of the array.
 With standard DRAM or FPM DRAM, which comes with access times of 70ns or 60ns, the
memory management unit reads data by first activating the appropriate row of the array,
activating the correct column, validating the data and transferring the data back to the system.
 The column is then deactivated, which introduces an unwanted wait state where the processor
has to wait for the memory to finish the transfer.
 The output data buffer is then turned off, ready for the next memory access.
 FPM can achieve a burst rate timing as fast as 5-3-3-3. This means that reading the first
element of data takes five clock cycles, containing four wait-states, with the next three
elements each taking three.
 DRAM speed improvements have historically come from process and photolithography
advances.
13. EDO (Extended Data Out) DRAM
 Extended Data Out DRAM comes in 70ns, 60ns and 50ns speeds. 60ns is the slowest that
should be used in a 66MHz bus speed system (i.e. Pentium l00MHz and above).
 EDO DRAM doesn't demand that the column be deactivated and the output buffer turned off
before the next data transfer starts.

Unit-I: Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology For Diploma Studies 1. Define The Following Term: Computer

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Unit-I: Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology For Diploma Studies 1. Define The Following Term: Computer

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Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology for Diploma Studies Unit-I

1. Define the following term:

2. Write a short note on classification of computer

1 Dept: CE CMT (3350701) Chintan N. Kanani

 This PC has low cost and smaller size.

 In past it basically associated with centralized rather than distributed computing.

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 A minicomputer is a multi-user computer that is less powerful than a mainframe.

 A workstation is a powerful, high-end microcomputer.

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3. Explain Personal Computer Configuration.(Dec-14)

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4. Difference between PC, PC-XT and PC-AT(May-16,Dec-15)

 One serial and one parallel port

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 Up to 8 GB Hard disk drive

5. What are General faults of computer system(May-16)

6. List out Basic Parts of Laptop Computer.(Dec-14)

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10. Inverter Board

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Block diagram of Motherboard

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8. Explain in detail different types of Mother board.

amount of free space inside the computer case.

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10. What do you mean by CPU? Describe its working in brief

 CPU- Central Processing Unit.

11. CISC vs. RISC Processor. (May-16,May-15)

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 However more instructions are needed to accomplish a task.

12. What is an expansion of buses?

13. Explain in detail Bus organization & Bus standards.(Dec-15)

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8 bit PC Bus slot

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Internal and External Units of ISA Bus

15. Explain in detail Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) Bus.

16. Explain in detail Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) Bus

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 EISA stands for Extended Industry Standard Architecture.

17. Explain in detail VESA Local Bus (VLB)

VESA Bus Design

19. Explain in detail Accelerated Graphics Port

20. Explain in detail IEEB 1394 FireWire High-Performance Serial Interface.

21. Explain in detail Universal Serial Bus

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22. Explain in detail System Controller.

23. What is BIOS? Explain in detail BIOS component(Dec-14)

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24. Explain in detail BIOS function.(Dec-15,May-15,Dec-14)

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25. Explain chipset with its advantages. (May-16)

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Intel i7 chipset Advantages:

26. Explain in detail North Bridge & South Bridge.(Dec-15,May-15,Dec-14)

24 Dept: CE CMT (3350701) Chintan N. Kanani

27. Explain in detail different types of Memory. (May-16,Dec-14)

25 Dept: CE CMT (3350701) Chintan N. Kanani

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) :

 Also known as Volatile Memory.

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