107

5.3, I Conventional mills

to to
1 p
2 r
( ol
k l
W in
• p
ut
A .
ll
o • For a
w mill
in With
g rolls
f turnin
o g at
r
min
g
e absor
ar bed
in torqu
g e is
a thus
n 130
d to
c 190k
o
N m
u
pl pert
in tiber/
g h.
lo For a
ss mill
e with
s rolls
o turnin
f
g at 5
4,
th min-I,
is the
is ab.
sorbe
to d
9. torqu
6 e is
k 80 to
W 115 •
/t
cn per
fi
b t
er tiberf
p h.
er Th.es
h e
o force
u s are
r too
al
th comp
e lex
Milling
for The
detail actual
ed magni
analy tude
sis a-nd
here. direct
hut it ion of
is the
relev forces
ant to will
consi depen
der d on
the factor
main s such
direct as
(linea throu
r) ghput
force .
s (i.e. hydra
exclu ulic
ding load.
torqu feedin
es) g
actin devic
g Oti es.
the mill
top geom
roll, etry,
whic mill
h and
deter trash
mine plate
heads settin
tock. gs,
shaft etc.
and The
bear. forces
ing and
desig their
nsr appro
T ximat
he e
forces magni
in tude
Figur in
e are relati
typica on to
l for a the
conve total
ntion hydra
al ulic
under load
fed 3- F in
roll the
mill. polyg
 109
on of e,
forces B
are: e
Fo c
(0 a
.7 u
2 se
F O
) f
is re
th a
e b
re s
a or
ct pt
io io
n n.
al it
th a
e el
di s
sc in
h a
ar di
g re
e ct
ro io
ll n
s a
q b
u o
e ut
e 20
z to
e 30
_ cl
T o
hi c
s k
is w
th is
e e
m fr
ai o
n m
" th
w e
or a
ki xi
n al
g pl
" a
fo n
rc e
1
 Milling
0
th
e
di
sc
h
ar
g
e
(s
e
e
S
e
ct
io
n
5.
2.
I
Figure
I
5.4;
a
Direct
n forces
d acting
Fi on the
g top
ur coli
e 20 %
5. to 25
3) % of
. the
appli
• F ed
(0.25 hydra
F ) is ulics
the load.
trash depe
plate nding
reacti on
on, trash
which plate
acts settin
about gs,
I (I'
clock • FF
wise (0.17
of •
vertic F,cd)
al. It is the
absor feed
bs roll
reacti
on,
which
acts
 111
along
the
• F
axial •(0,26
plane . F )
to the is the
feed result
roll ant
and is horiz
usuall ontal
y (side
about way»
20 % force
to 25 on the
% Of top
FD in bearin
magni gs —
lude. usuall
y
— Fu
about
(1.06
25 Of
• F, )
the
is the
hydra
overal
ulic
l
load.
result
F
ant
(1.00
fotvea
• E j
ct•
is the
ing
vertic
radial
al
ly (he
force
top
on the
roll
top
throu
bearin
gh the
gs,
bearin
exerte
gs. In
d by
Figur
the
e 5.4
mill
it is at
hydra
150
ulics.
from
vertic
al, but • F -
torqu F ) is
e the
forces gravit
(not ationa
show l
n) force
increa on the
se top
this roll,
angle usuall
to 20s y
to Only
 Milling
about *Con
3 % ventional"
to 5 here
or the refers to
hydra mills with
ulic feed and
loadin discharge
g. rolls at a
Note that Common
this level and
diagram vertically
does not floating
show the top rolls.
rotatory although
forces some
'torques) variations
acting on have
the roll, proved
nor the successful
pinion , Such
torques alternativ
and e designs
separating include;
forces. Fives
Further Cail•s
informati self-
on on setting
hydraulic mills.
loadings With an
is given articulate
in Section d frame
S.3.7. suppollin
g the top
roller.
Walkers
5.3 hydraulics
-in-line
mills with
hydrauli•
and eally
mill loaded
discharge
comp roll.
Although
onent many
mills
s have been
built with
5, 6 or
more
rolls.
Conven these
tional generally
mills include
pressure
 113
feeders conditions
which Of high
may be juice
considere quantity
d as an and high
"add on" tempera.
feeding tare, This
device to is covered
a in Section
conventio
nal mill. IOS
Pressure
feeders
are
therefore 5.3.2
discussed Headst
under the
topic of
ocks
mill The
feeding purpose
(Section Of the
Recent mill
two-roll headstoc
mills ks is to
differ in maintain
many
the
respects
working
from
elements
conventio
nal mills (particul
and are arly the
therefore rolls) in
accorded their
a separate desired
Section orientati
on. This
Norm orientati
al milling on needs
tandem to be
plant is flexible
used for to allow
dewaterin for
g diffuser different
Referen p.
baga.sse„
roll sizes
but the
and
requireme
settings.
nts are
generally The
more basic
difficuh mill
because comprise
of the s three
particular rolls: the
 Milling
top roll. discharge
which rolls each
needs to at from
be able the
to • vertical
•float" below the
upwards top roll).
during Some mill
operalion designers
(Section [e.g.
_5.2.7). Fives
and the Dedini
feed and and
discharge Simisaj
that incline
need to the top
be roll
adjustabl bearing
e guides
sideways forward
(see towards
Figure the feed
5.6). side so
Some that the
reed and hydraulics
discharge act more
bearings directly
can against
packed the
up to resultant
adjust force E
their (Section
vertical 5.2.12).
position. The
Mosl main
traditional forces to
mill be
designs withstood
provide by the
for headstock
normal s are:
roll Intern
centers ally,
oriented the
in aa tensil
isosceles e
triangle. forces
With a betwe
top angle en the
of 709 mill
(i.e. feed rolls.
and Of
 115
which ations
the need
greate to
st is withst
the and
force the
F mass
impos of the
ed by mill
the and
mill the
hydra reacti
ulics on to
on the the
top torqu
roll e of
bearin the
gs mill
and drive.
the di All Of
sehar these
ge. forces are
Irash dynamic.
plate imposing
and fluctuat•
feed ing
reacli stresses
ons on the
(Figur headstock
e s. For this
5.4). reason.
These modern
forces designs
ace usually
far call for
greate fabricated
r than or east
the steel
gravit constructi
ationa on rather
l than the
mass cast iron
Of of early
the mill
mill designs,
and The
mill mill
rolls. bearings
Exter are
nally, carried
the iti the
found headstoc
 Milling
ks, In Walker
order to mills use
he able pins at
to both
remove ends of
the mill and side
rolls. the roll caps.
bearmgs Feat
are ures to
supporte note in
d by Figure
"hearing are the
caps". In hydrauli
early cs in the
designs. top cap.
these one type
Caps Of Side
were roll
secured adjustme
by nt
kingbolts Top roll
that Bearing
passed cap
right
through
mechanis
the
m,
headstoc
Messehae
ks (as in
rr knives
Flgure
under the
5.5). but
front roll
alternativ
(Section
e 573.5)
mountin and
gs use spring-
large loaded
pins for top and
the side discharge
roll cap 11011
hinges in seralærs,
Figure A
5.6) or fourth
keys (as roller is
securing commonl Figure Trad
the top y fined to
roll caps the basic
in Figure three-
5.6) to roller
enable mill. This
easier may be
maintena either:
nce.
Some
 117
"u
nd
erf
ee
d
rol
l",
oft
en
ad
de
d
to
an
exi
6 sli
Figure ng
S.C.: thr
Cross.sec•t ee-
ion of a
rol
Mirrlees
l
Walsen
mill
mil
l to
Hydraulics red
: 2 Cap ire
securing ct
keys; 3 ca
Cap hingc ne
pine: 4 an
Top and d
discharge ass
scrapers; S
ist
Side roll
fee
adjustment
: din
6
g
wh
en
co
nv
Figure
elii
S.7:
Fletche ng
r Smilh to
four- a
roll Da
mill nn
eU
y
ch
• a ute
lig ,
hte
r
 Milling
• a ll mill,
ful the ad
l.*i hoe
jed modifi
fou cation
rth is
rol constra
l. ined by
int limitati
egr ons of
al the
to origina
the l mill.
ori Typical
gin ly (but
al not
mil always
l. ), there
des is no
ign trash
ed plate to
to direct
per the
for cane
m betwee
ext n the
rac underfe
tio ed and
n the
as feed
we rolls. If
ll the
as extra
mil roll is
l driven
fee from
din the
g feed
fun roll by
cti heavy-
on duty
s. chain.
Where no
an signific
underf ant
eed additio
foll has nal
been forces
added are
to a exerted
threero on the
 119
(all d with
compre indepen
ssive). dent
If the fourth
drive roll
by drives.
pinions The
from fourth
the top roll
roll. absorbs
some more er
shear than an
and underfe
tensile ed roll
forces bul less
are than the
involve feed
d. but roll.
these The
are forces
liv involve
ely d are
small. allowed
Wh for in
ere a the
full- initial
sized mill
fourth design,
roll is Some
incorpo such
rated, mills
this is incorpo
almost rate a
always •trash
pinion- plate"
driven cane-
from turner
the top tNtwee
roll. n this
Often and the
on the feed
non•dri roll.
ve Side which
Of the is
mill usually
(Figure mounte
5.7), A d off
few the
mills headsto
have cks.
been Mill
supplie
Milling
for
headstocks secondary
also need 'o damage to
support the bearings
(trash plate and
mill headstocks.
hydraulics. T
mountingshe
scraper main
plates forces
and
Messehaert
acting
knives, onmill[he
bedplatesmost
(juice trays)
heavil
and sundry
y
other stress
ancillaryed top
equipmentroll
(feed and
chutes, its
walkways,bearin
lubricators.
gs are
etc.). descri
bed in
Sectio
ns and
5,3.7.
rollsThese
need
rolls toarebe
usually acco
mmod
ated
d of a shaft
of by the
steel.
n'iech
onto which
is shrunkanical
a
east streng
iron
shell, th Mil of
roll the
breakagesrolls.
There
are fairly
comandare
also
invariably
costly comp—
eting
nol only for
the proce
ss de.
replacemen
t roil, mand
but
for _s.
downtime e.g.
and oftenlarger
diame
 121
ters er
aid Smith
throu that
ghput there
while is an
longer optim
rolls um
aid propo
juice rtion
extrac for
tion. the
Balan shell
cing of
these length
consi =
derati appro
ons. it ximat
has ely 2
been times
theore diana
tically eler d.
and This
em. ratio
pirieal is
ly confir
concl med
uded in
by Walk
Crawf ers
ord standa
1970). rd roll
Culle Sizes
n and depict
McKa ed in
y Table
(1992 5.1.
) and
rnill
manuf
acture
rs
such
as
Fulto
n,
Min-
lees,
Wålk
ers_
Fives 735
Cail
and
Fletch
 5 Milling
110

Shaft, The forces acting On the mill rolls give

rise to shearing. bending. torsion and
compressive stresses (Cullen 1968. Reid 1938),
The top roll is the most highly stressed, since it
consumes about half Of the total mill torque
(Kenl and McKenzie 2001) and is subject to
bending against the reactions of the feed roll,
trash plate and discharge roll Figure 5.4 i. The
stresses typically vary along the length of the
as shown in Figure 5,8. The most important
stress is that from the combined torsion and
bending (the von Mises stress). As shown in the
diagram, the highest von Mises is at the inner
fillet radius on the drive side journal It is
therefore not surprising that most shaft failures
occur at this position. followed by shaft-and-
shell failures towards the drive end ofthe roll,
Because the toll is rotating. the stresses are
pcatedly reversed or fluctuating and the great
majority of failures are Of the fatigue type,
Under fatigue conditions, failure occurs over Combined bencilß-g and tor»øn stress (von M,ses
5Trpssi diagram
time at an average stress level well below thal of
the yield point of (he steel (the gress at which roll shaft (Reid
immediate static failure Will Furthermore. in
fatigue the local stress is eonsiderably increased
above the average in some areas by local stress
raisers. Such a stress raiser is the change of
section at bearing fillet radii. side journal. with the roll located axially from the
The extent to which the stress is raised by a non-drive end.
particular feature is termed the stress concentration Correct specification, and
f SCF). The dimensions of mill roll shafts fall maintenance of rnill rolls are therefore important.
outside of the standard ranges quoted in most The key requirement for good fatigue
fatigue design books. so that engineers such as Reid predicates the usual specification Of a ductile mild
(1988> and Smith have used finite element analysis Steel mate• rial, This is usually a "28/33 loone
to determine the SCFS along This has forged steel", used in its normalized condition.
shown that the average stress is multiplied by an SCF Steels which fall into this general category are SAE
of 1.8 to for a smooth AO mm fillet radius, The SCF 1022 or the BS 970 classification of (formerly EN3)_
can be reduced to about 1.3 by using a 180 mm Simisa and some other manufacturers specify a
radius. 35/40 tonne steel SAE 1045 Or 080M4•O (formerly
However, as pointed out by Reid, the surface tin. ENS). The shaft should be stress-relieved by hold.
ish Of the fillet and adjacent journal is of far greater ing to 7 hours at a temperature between 580 oc and
importance to stress concentration than is the size of 620 oc before final machining when new and again
fillet radius, For example, a groove (caused by poor at each reshelling_
machining. entrapped grit or welding inelusions) Wilh It is important to minimize features that
a root radius of 0.5 mm would have an SCF Of 14.5. cause stress raisers. Reid details the following
Note that this SCF Will amplify ready precautions for all rolls:
5.3.3 Mill rolls Fillets: The
concentrated stress in the fillet, Such a feature is profile of the shaft should axoid any abrupt changes in
highly likely to lead to failure. diameter. Relatively large changes are required to
To reduce failures. Simisa in Brazil and provide axial location at the shoulders of the bearings.
Bundaberg in Australia have designed shafts and these should be filleted with as large a radius as
with very large fillets ( ISO 10 200 mm radius) practicable — preferably > 30 mm radius, but this
on the drive. may limit the depth of the containing shoulder. If the

shell landing is of much greater diameter than the
bearing journals, it may be beneficial to provide
double fillets to take up the difference in diameters.
Wear grooves ancl surfåce finish: The
surface finish of the fillet and the adjacent
journal is of far greater importance to stress
concentration than the size of the radius.
Shrinkage stresses: Stress concentrations are
produced by shrinkage of the shell onto the
shaft. To minimize these, both shell and
shaft finishes should be accurate and smooth
(shaft finish better than 3.2 Hill). The
shrinkage interference should be between
0.0004 and 0.()()()6 times the diameter of
the shaft landing.
Fretting corrosion: This occurs at the end of
the shell seating onto the shaft. In service,
small relative movement allows juice to
enter between the two surfaces. This causes
crevice corrosion leading to significant
stress concentration factors in a high-stress
zone. The most effective counter to this
phenomenon is to seal the edge of the joint
with a flexible adhesive or mastic
compound. preferably protected by a
mechanical cover seal bolted to the shell.
Surface de.f&cts.• Defects or inclusions
within the original shaft forging may cause
fatigue failure. More common are surface
defects due to welding — either from
building up of worn journals or inadequately
earthed rolls while surface roughening is
being applied.
Residual stresses: Initial machining. journal
repairs (welding) and re-machining all
induce surface stresses. The machining
stresses may of necessity be induced after
the stress relief treatment. The final
machining should therefore be undertaken
with care. using fine cuts.
Bearing journals. The journal diameter is
determined primarily by the needs to
transmit power and withstand bending,
whereafter its length needs to be sufficient
to limit the bearing pressure. The longer the
journal. the greater will be the shaft bending
force and the nuore severe the effects of
shaft misalignment in service. There should
be a sufficient difference in diameters (> 60
mm) between the shell landing and the
journal to provide a shoulder for axial
containment of the roll.
123
As discussed in Section 5.3.8, bearing pressures for
conventional bronze bearings should normally be limited
to 9.0 to 1 1.0 MPa. These considerations usually
determine journal dimensions with a length of 1.20 to
1.25 times the diameter (as in Table 5.1). The journal
diameter is usually 50 % to 60 % of the roll diameter.
Shell. The favored specification for mill roll shells
used to be an "open-grained cast iron", since this
produced a rough finish to aid feeding. However, with
higher loads and stresses and the development of roll
surface roughening techniques such as carbon-arcing and
subsequently hard welding, a close grained. higher tensile
material is now preferred. The material should be free
from blowholes and cracks. The shell should be cast in an
upright position to allow effective removal of slag
inclusions.
Care to avoid stress raisers, correct stress relief
treatment and magnetic and ultrasonic testing of
shafts for defects will minimize the chances of mill
roll failures. If available. it is advisable to employ an
independent inspection authority to oversee the
manufacture, repair and re-shelling of mill rolls.
Flanges. Most top rolls are fitted with bolted on steel
flanges to contain the bagasse within the pressure zone
between the top roll and feed roll trash plate and
discharge roll. These flanges need to provide a lateral
clearance — usually about 5 mm each side — for axial
roll movement and tipping of the top roll.
Some mills successfully use "fixed flanges". These
are strong, wear-resistant plates mounted securely onto
the headstocks. They are profiled to cover the sides of the
pressure zone.
Benefits of this system are lower cost and more juice
drainage area than with conventional flanges. A
disadvantage is that bagasse buildup can cause wear on
the ends of the rolls if the flanges are not correctly
mounted.
Rc@'rcnces p.
1 12
5.3-4 Roll grooving
The milling model assumed simple cylindrical
rollen_ In practice, these would be extremely
inefticient devices. Until the mid-20i2' century.
milling tandems were often preceded by u
"crusher" , whose principal function was to break
up the cane stalks. Typical of these devices
 5 Milling
was the Krujen'hki crusher. which comprised two
rolls with coarse transverse zigzag grooves cast
into the shells. Better preparalion equipment —
particularly shredders — replaced the function of
such crushers. Now mill rolls are al
exclusively circumferentially grooved.
There are several reasons for the use of
grooving on mill
The tollet grooving assists in breaking up the
This is a relatively unimportant function
if the Cane already been well prepared
milling, e.g. to 90 PI by a heavy-duty shredder.
Grooved rolls present a larger surface area in
contact With the and hence better traction. The
cane does nol pack into the vee at the bottom of
the groove, thus providing a natural drainage path
for the expressed juice.
The inclined faces Of the roll teeth provide
additional extraction force on the cane without
increasing the hydraulic (or other) loading on the
rolls, i.e. without increasing the bending stresses
its shaft as shown in Figure
In Figure 5.9, the mill hydraulics apply a radial
force F through the shaft onto the upper roll. If the
roll grooving angle is e, this Will enable the toll
surface
5-35 Messchcrerr grooves
Figure Force exerted by the roll surface on bagasse
to apply a squeezing force normal to the roll of F cosec
(9/2). Thus. if 0= 450. 2.61 • F This additional force is
carried by stresses entirely contained within the shell
material (between adia. cent teeti0.
The main disadvantages of mill roll grooving are:
The roots of the grooves constitute "stress raisers"
that can lead to fatigue failure of the shell and shaft.
For the same effective work opening between two
rolls, the free gap to pass any extraneous solid
objects such as tramp iron or rocks is reduced.
increasing likelihood of roll damage, Common
dimensions of mill roll grooves are:
Pitch: From 25 mm 10 75 mm with 50 mm probably
the most Widely used. Groove included angle:
From 400 10 practice, mill roll grooves are
genet-ally machined to a profile with a small flat (2
—4 mm wide) across the top of the teeth for
strength purposes (as shown in Figure 5.9), also
assists in applying welding for surface roughening.
The rooLs Of grooves should he sharp or munded to
a small radius (say 1.5 mm) to allow a juice
drainage path.
Norrnal practice is to use the same grooving profile
on all rolls of a mill (erg. 50 mm pitch. groove
angle). In this case. the grooving of top roll of a A-roll
mill must be arranged to mesh Wilh that feed and
discharge Thus, if the top roll configuration has a tooth
at the cænter or midplane. then the iced and discharge
rolls must have grooves at the mid-plane.
Some engineers favor large pitch grooving on the
feed roll (to improve feeding and mesh securely with
the trash plate)v with smaller grooving on the top and
discharge rolls (to reduce mesh dep:h and increase
drainage channels at the final squeeze). This can
accommodated by using double the pitch on the feed
roll (e.g. 50 mrn on feed, 25 mm on top and discharge
Jn this case. the reed discharge rolls should both
have a tooth at the midplane. meshing with a groove at
the mid-plane of the top roll.
Hugen 1986404 makes reference to "universal
rolls", where the grooves are arranged with the mid. dle
of a tooth flank at the center of the roll, All rolls then
have idenlicul grooving, but must be reversible end for
endw This requires a costly shaft design and the concept
is therefore rarely used. Simisa (Brazili have introduced
a design with common grooving for Factor /
circumsnuw-c
Coarse preparation (e.g. no shredder or light duty shredder'

Fine ptvp;vation (heavy duly
shredderl or mill oiumdem
Final mill
Heavily loaded — throughput Iwiority
Ligh[ly loaded landern — extraction priority,
dischargc rolls in deep mesh with
Diffuser dewatering
High imbibition rates
High tramp incidence
side and top rolls, but with the top roll offset
axially from the Side rolls by half a pitch,
Sugar engineers have widely varied theories
and preferences for roll grooving configuration,
often related to the particular circumstances Of
their own mill, From a combination Of Wide
experience. the views Of many engineers and the
application of logical theory, the guidelines in
Table are suggested.
practice. 50 mm pitch. 45' (or S(P) angle
grooving is a compromise that is probably suited
to most circumstances. There are significant cost
ad. vantages hav ing a common 100th profile
through Out the tandem (spares holding,
interchangeability), This profile usually tecds well
and drains well. It allows good mesh with trash
plate and scraper teeth. It maintains profile
satisfactorily. which is sometimes a problem With
finer pitches,
125
Large-pitch grooving (feeding)
Narrow-angle grooves (Cor drainage)
Wide-angle grooves (strength)
— termed grooves — at the roots of the
normal grooves in the feed roll, as shown in Figure S .
10- Messchaerl grooves are sometimes used in
discharge roils (usually not deeper than 25 mm in this
roll) and in pressure feeder rolls, In all Cases. drainage
through the grooves is downward by gravity They
never used on top rolls. since most of the drainage
would then be into the discharged bagasse.
The grooves should be machined between 4 mm
and 6 mm wide (but usually wear wider in serv'ice)This
is narrow enough to prevent much ingress of bagasse
fiber (the bridging effeec) but sufficient to allow for the
use of chin (3 mm to 5 mm) scraper "knives" that clean
out the grooves every roll revolution (Figure 5.6). The
grooves are usually 25 mm to mm deep. For
mechanical strength reasons, they should not be deeper
than the projected face angle of the next tooth. For the
same reason, they are often only machined in every
second roll groove, but performance is best if in every
groove. Messchaert grooves are sometimes placed only
every 4 th groove, but there seems no logic to this — roll

5—3.5 Messchaert grooves

The bottom Of the mill roll groove provides an
important channel for juice drainage backward
from the pinch point between two rolls. This is
possible because the cane / bagassv fibers tend to
bridge across the sharp vee al the bottom Of the
groove. However. the channel left here is ot- very
small cross-section and the volumes of juice (o be
drained eun be large — particularly at the first mill
and at subsequent mills when high imbibition rates
are applied.
The avai lable drainage channel can be Figure 5.10: grooves (dimensions in mm )
increased considerably by machining additional strength is not improved and they are too far apart to
deep grooves
provide drainage assistance across the intermediate
Reeotnmcndotion
space.
Large-pitch grooving break up cane)
Finer-pitch grooving
Large-pitch grooving
Finer-pitch grooving 5.3.6 Lotus rolls
Largc•pitch grc»ving C feeding) Finer-pitch Messchaert grooves cannot be used in top rolls
grooving go protect tooth damage» because there would be no easy outlet for the juice except
 5 Milling
into the bagasse exiting the mill. They would also
seriously weaken the roll that is most highly stressed and
most frequently broken. Drainage from the upper surface
of the bagasse passing through the mill is indeed a major
problem, since the juice must flow in the roots of the
grooves all the way back to before the first squeeze. This
problem prompted the "Lotus roll" concept of providing
an alternative drainage passage from the top roll.
The Lotus roll was invented and first installed in
Taiwan by Bouvel (198()). Il comprises a roll with a cast
steel shell containing a number of radial drainage holes
from the root of each groove, spaced at regular intervals
around the circumference. These holes drain into axial
channels running across the width of the roll, out of
contact with the cane being milled, and discharging to the
outside flanks of the Lotus roll. Hardened plugs with
small orifices are inserted into the inlets of the radial
drainage holes to preclude large particles that might block
the subsequent passages and to resist wear of the holes
(maintain orifice profile).
The Lotus roll principle has been used successfully in
a number of mills, including an application for diffuser
bagasse dewatering at Maidstone in South Africa where
final bagasse moisture was reduced by 2.0 to 2.5
percentage points while operating properly. The main
problem is in keeping both the radial and the axial
passages clear of bagasse particles. Once drainage is
blocked, the rolls offer no advantage. As a result,
although they have been tried In many factories and many
countries, few are In service.
5.3.7 Mill hydraulics and loadings
Early mills had all rolls mounted in fixed
M
5.3.8 ill bearings
hydraulic pistons on the drive side to counteract the
axes. However, to gain the benefits of constant
pinion forces).
pressure, it is necessary to allow at least one roll
to "float". This is usually the top roll. In order to
apply the necessary downward load, springs or
weights operating through levers have been
used, but hydraulic loading is now almost
universal.
Most three- and four-roll mills have
hydraulic rams mounted in the headstocks or
bearing caps, acting vertically downwards onto
the bearings of the top roll (see Figure 5.6). The
pressure on these rams is provided by oil from a
high-pressure pump. The oil system needs to
accommodate changes in volume as the rams
move with the float of the top roll. For this
purpose, an accumulator is generally
incorporated.
The most common type is the Edwards gas-
oil accumulator, comprising a steel bottle
enclosing a synthetic rubber bladder inflated
with an inert gas (nitrogen). The oil circuit is
connected into the bottle, filling the remaining
void outside the bladder, which expands or
contracts to accommodate volume changes. The
accumulator should be located as close as
possible to the mill to minimize frictional flow
damping. This device operates at the full
pressure applied to the pistons of the mill
hydraulics.
Other systems in use are designed to operate
at lower accumulator pressures. These systems
therefore generally make use of difTerent sized
pistons within the fluid circuits to amplify the
final hydraulic force:
In the dead weight system, a small diameter
piston at the accumulator displaces oil that
operates on a large diameter piston at the
mill.
In the air / oil system, the air operates on a
large diameter piston (or diaphragm)
connected to a small diameter piston
pressurizing the oil that operates on the large
piston at the mill. (e.g. 0.6 MPa air pressure
operating on a 400 mm diameter surface will
produce a force of 75.4 kN. This force on a
60 mm diameter piston will generate 26.7
MPa pressure in the oil circuit).
Typically, hydraulic systems operate at pressures of 1
8 MPa up to 30 MPa. To overcome the separating
forces generated by the mill pinions, the pinion side
hydraulic pressure should be maintained 0.9 to 2.0
MPa higher than the non-pinion side. (Some mills use
larger
For gixæn performance, the total load required
from the hydraulics is proportional to the projected
top roll area d • I. Most mills are proxided with
ram sizes that can apply a force of 2.2 to 3.5 MN
per m projected top roll area.
Crawvforcl (1970) concluded that little is
gained in extraction by loading mills to beyond the
equivalent of about 3.0 MN per m- projected top
roll area, and that such loads already stress the roll
shafts close to safety limits. Australian engineers
generally consider this figure to be a practical
maximum.
American practice prefers lower loadings, with
Farrel mills usually designed for a maxilnum of
about 2.3 MN per m 2 . Many industries and mills
prefer to operate at below 2.0 MN per 111 2 .
particularly with old plant.

Example: A typical design for a modern mill
with top roll shell size of 1050 X 2130 mm is
supplied with 350 mm diameter hydraulic rams, to
operate at 25 MPa hydraulic pressure. For this
mill:
Load applied by each hydraulic: 25 0.35 2 / 4
= 2.41 MN
Total load from two hydraulics: — 4.81
Projected area of top roll: 2.13 • 1.052.24
mHence, total force per m- 2.2 MN/m 2
Hugo/ (1986) and some other authors discuss
top roll loadings in terms of "specific hydraulic
pressure", defined as the total hydraulic load
divided by (top roll length X diameter/ 10). This
purports to approximate the "average bagasse
pressure experienced in the mill", but is not
scientifically based and is not a pressure actually
experienced at any point within the mill. It can be
confusing. The use of the simple measure of total
force per projected area is preferred.
It is generally advisable to operate mills at the
highest hydraulic pressure permitted for reliable
service from the equipment. Murcv (1 96()a: 138)
established the relationship between torque on a
pair of rolls and top roll load as:
MocF.d (5.28)
where:
M torque in MN • m, F
top roll load in MN, cl
top roll diameter in m.
For practical operating pulposes. note the following
relationships:
Power absorbed load applied.
For equal extraction, load required roll diameter.
Extraction increases with load, but at a diminishing
rate. A limit is eventually reached where additional
load is merely translated into increased reabsorption.
Mechanical stresses on mill equipment (particularly the
rolls) load applied.
5.3.8 Mill bearings
By far the majority of mill bearings are of hollow
(ported) construction, either cast entirely of bronze or
comprising a steel housing with a bronze lining. The
bottom half of the top bearing is of solid bronze. A
typical alloy for mill bearings comprises 84 % copper,
10 % tin, 3 % lead and 3 % zinc, but other alloys are
also used.
127
Cooling water is passed through the porting. The
water outlets are usually directed into open tun dishes
where the ternperature can be checked to warn of any
incipient problems.
Various materials other than bronze have been tried
as bearing materials. White metal has a lower
coefficient of friction but a lower melting point and
lower mechanical strength. It is therefore more
vulnerable to lubricant or cooling water failures or dirt
ingress. Plastics and other non-metallic materials have
failed due to their poor heat conducting propefties.
Lubrication. The maximum permissible bearing
pressure for bronze bearings is usually 9.0 to I I .0
MPa, depending on the design and lubrication. Because
of this extremely high pressure and the low velocity. a
lubricant with high viscosity yet good flow
characteristics is required. Bitumastic-type oils and
specially formulated greases have been successful.
"Extreme pressure" additives are often incorporated.
either in the standard formulation or added specifically
to a bearing that is overheating. Certain synthetic oils
are able to cope with the duty, but are high cost and an
expensive option for this total loss application.
Independent positive di splacement purnps should
be used for the lubricant supply to each bearing to
ensure proper distribution. It should be introduced to
the working zone via a carefully shaped channel 45 to
60 0 ahead of the line of maximum pressure. On the side
Re/&renccs p. /46 roll
bearings, this maximum pressure line is approximately
opposite to the top roll center. On the top roll. this line
is usually offset 15 0 to 25 0 towards the front (feed side)
of the mill (Section 5.2. I I and Figure 5.4). This is due
to the higher compression at the discharge than at the
feed opening. Other forces (from underfeed roll,
trash plate and friction) affect the position of
maximum pressure, but to a lesser extent.
As the top roll floats. the top bearings have to slide up
and down in the headstocks. Because the resultant of the
forces on this roll is ofTset from vertical, significant
lateral forces are exerted on the sliding faces in the
headstocks. These are therefore usually fitted with wear
pads and should be lubricated. The top bearing housings
in some headstocks are inclined forward (towards the
feed) to align more directly with the expected resultant
force.
Roller bearings. An alternative to bronze
bearings is spherical roller bearings. These are
standard for some new two-roll mills. Advantages
are:
Low friction:
 5 Milling
Minimal lubricant use and no contamination of 5.3.10 Trash plates and scrapers
juice;
No cooling water needed: The purpose of the trash plate (or "turn plate") is to
No wear of roller journals: direct the cane the feed opening (where it has been
compressed with some juice extraction ) to the
Tolerant of small misalignments: Reduced
discharge opening for further compression and
roll length between centers (lower bending
extraction. To achieve this, it needs to intercept the
stress).
bagasse while still under some compression and
Disadvantages are:
transfer it with the least possible loss of compression
Must be effectively protected from juice —
but minimum friction into the discharge opening.
difficult with conventional mills:
The trash plate settings (Section 5.7.6) are
Drive-side bearing landings must be larger designed to achieve this. At these settings, the bagasse
than those of pinions (for assembly): High remains under considerable compression, generating
cost and not repairable. both friction and wear and upward pressure against the
top roll. Indeed, the trash plate generally absorbs
approximately 20 % of the total hydraulic load applied
5.3.9 Mill pinions to the top roll (G01nez and Echeverri 2001 j . Trash
plate wear reflects the groove profile of the top roll
The pinions used to drive the feed and
discharge rolls from the top roll need to be able to
operate at a relatively wide range of center
distances, to accommodate differing roll sizes and
settings as well as axial misalignment from the
float of the top roll. This presents unique problems
for the pinion design and conventional involute
tooth profiles and dimensions are not appropriate,
To meet the special requirements. the profile
usually employed for mill pinions is a compromise
that has longer teeth with longer addendum and
dedendum, greater back clearance and a more
curved tooth face. As a consequence of this
compromise, transmission efficiency is reduced to
85 % to 90 % (compared to 96 % for pure involute
pinions under equivalent conditions).
With this profile, the tooth contact angle of pinions
operating at the optimum or "median" center distance
is approximately 25 0 from the circumferential tangent
(i.e. 65 0 off radial). The contact angle is less when
closer in mesh and more when further apart. This tooth
contact angle generates a separating force that is
related to the angle and is greater for larger angles.
Most mill designs have all pinions on the drive side
of the mill. but some have double pinions (extra cost)
or alternating, with one on the "tail" side in order to
balance the separation forces.
Some mills have been operated successfully
without any discharge roll pinion, the roll being driven
by the top roll via the bagasse. This practice places
excessive stresses on the top roll and is not widely
adopted.
As with mill bearings, the high pressures and low
rubbing velocities on pinion teeth require a high
viscosity lubricant. Lubrication is usually by oil bath,
often with the same lubricant used for Che mill
bearings.
5.4 mills
Tr y
ash techno
plates logy.
may trash
be plates
cast in can be
close- cast
graine with
d cast their
iron. teeth,
sphero saving
idal signifi
graphi cant
te machi
(SG) ning
iron or costs.
equisa 'T
lents. o
semi- prolon
steel g trash
(cast plate
iron life. it
plus is now
scrap comm
steel), on
cast practi
steel ce to
or hard-
stainle face
ss the
steel. upper
The surfac
durabi e of
lity trash
and plates
cost (usual
tends ly
to with a
increa chrom
se in e
the carbid
order e
listed. materi
With al). It
the is
precisi import
on of' ant
moder not to
n hard-
foundr face
the slidin
area g
aroun and/or
d rotatin
roots g) to
of the be
trash able to
plate pull
teeth. the
as this worn
can trash
machi plate
ne otT into
the tight
tips of mesh
the with
feed the
roll front
teeth roll
and teeth.
preve Sc
nt rapers
good or
trash "scrap
plate er
seatin plates
g " are
along used
the to peel
flanks off the
of the discha
teeth rged
T bagass
he e from
trash the
plates top
are and
mount discha
ed by rge
bolts rolls
and (see
spigOt Figure
s on s 5.5
"dumb and
turner 5.6).
s". Scrap
These ers are
are not
adjust requir
able ed to
(by maint
ain etent
any foundr
compr ies are
ession able to
and supply
are scrape
theref rs
ore with
subjec cast
t to teeth,
lower
forces
than
trash
plates. 5.4
Conse
quentl
y,
Tw
lower o-
grade
tnateri
roll
als mill
can be
used
s
for
their 5.4.
constr
uction
1
—
usuall Stor
y east
iron or
k-
SG Wer
iron if ksp
the
scrape
oor
r dev
needs elop
a
curve
men
d t
profile
, or T
from o
lililcl addres
steel s the
plate challe
if not nge of
curve dewat
d. ering
Comp highm
oistur
e, hput
high- capaci
tempe ty as a
rature three-
diffus roll
er mill.
bagass For
e, this.
Stork the
Werks roll
poor sizes
turned of the
back tworol
to the l mill
simpli would
city need
and to be
lower increa
cost of sed to
a two- the
roll extent
mill that
(de the
Boer combi
1969). ned
Furthe mass
r con e (volu
siderat me) of
ion of the
the two
theore rolls is
tical nearly
design equal
requir to that
ement of the
s led equiva
to the lent
conclu three-
sion roll
that a mill
two- (de
roll Boer
mill 1972).
could The
offer two-
the roll
same mill
extrac would
tion have
and consid
throug erable
advant was at
ages Ord
in River,
sinnpl using
icity. four
no horizo
trash ntally
plate dispos
and ed
power two-
savmo roll
s. mills.
5.4. each
fed by
2 a
ST toothe
G- d
feeder
FC and
B linked
by
Fa
pressu
ced
re
with
chutes
the
. This
increa
prove
sing
d
compl
some
exitv,
what
power
proble
requir
matic,
elnent
partic
s and
ularly
cost of
in
multi-
relatio
roll
n to
mills,
the
Austra
applic
lian
ation
engine
of
ers
imbibi
also
tion
revert
(Batst
ed to
one et
two-
al.
roll
2001
mills.
Howe
'The
ver, it
first
promo
cornm
ted
ercial
furthe
design
 r conce
develo pt of
pment cocurr
. ent,
gravit
y-
assiste
5.4.3 d
Bun draina
dab ge, to
develo
erg' p a
s new
hig type
of
h vertic
extr ally
acti fed
two-
on roll
mill mill.
B T
undab he
erg princi
Found ple of
ry operat
Engin ion is
eers funda
built menta
on the lly
theori differe
es of nt
cle from
Boer that of
and conve
SRI ntiona
resear l
ch millin
into g in
bagass that
e • the
•bridg millin
ing g
across takes
the place
roots vertic
of ally
groov and in
es and the
added manne
the r of
juice the
draina extrac
ge. ted
This is juice
illustr is
ated in expres
Figure sed
5. I l. into
The the
cane low-
is fed pressu
vertic re
ally zone
via a in the
Donne groov
lly es.
chute Sh
betwe ortly
en two after
larger- passin
than- g
usual throug
diame h the
ter maxi
rolls. mum
These compr
rolls ession
have area.
deep specia
Messc lly
haert- design
type ed
groov nose
es plates
betwe and
en scrape
every r
tooth. blades
In the separa
extrac te the
tion bagass
zone, e and
the extrac
bagass ted
e juice.
bridge The
s juice
across is
these remov
groov ed
es and cocurr
ent linkin
and g the
led torque
away arms
via the of the
trays two
under roll
each dri
roll. ves.
T M
he ill
recom contro
mende l is
d achiev
drive ed by
uses varyin
either g the
hydra width
ulic of the
motor Donne
s or lly-
variab type
le feed
speed chute
electri to
c maint
motor ain a
s with desire
high d
reduct torque
ion on the
epicyc mill
lic drives
gears :
on widen
each ing
roll. the
In chute
both increa
option ses the
s. the eotnpa
torque ction
reacti and
on is torque
contai , and
ned vice
within versa.
the T
mill his
itself mill is
by report
ed to
be
able to
provid
e
throug
hputs
and
extrac
tion
rates
compa
rable
with
Inulti-
roll
mills.
while
absorb
ing a
total
of
about
1 .4
(kW •
h)/tc
(equiv
alent
to 9.5
(kW •
h)/
tF).
This

Ik'c:/önen
cvs p, 146