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An Introduction to
(
The Design of
Curtain Walls, Aluminum Windows ,
Glass Walls, Skylights and Canopies

('

(
Y. S. ZHOU

f'

WILSON Curtain Wall Consultant (HK) Limited

l' )

WILSON Curtain Wall Consultant (HK) limited

Room 1821, New Commerce Centre
19 On Sum Street, Shmin, New Territories, HK
Tel: (852) 2645 1802, Fax: (852) 2645 1824
E-mail: WilsonZ@curtainwall.biz.com.hk

Web site: CurtainWall.com.hk

Copy right (2002): Wilson Curtain Wall Consultant (HK) Limited

All rights reserved.'

\
No parI of this publication may be reproduced, slored in a retrieval system, l

or transmilled in any form or by any means, electronic. mechanical, photocopying, recording. I

or otherwise without prior wriuen permission of the publisher.

ISBN 962-86637-2-0

Printed in Hong Kong

10987654321

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Course Notes on Curtain W all Design WILSON Curtain wali Consultant (HI<) LJd.­

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ,v 2.1 6 Quali ty Requirements for Glass 22

2.17 Codes La be Followed for Glass Design 22

PREFACE 1

3. DESIGN USING ALUMINUM ­

1. INTRODUCTION TO THE DESIGN OF
STRUCTURAL CALCULATIONS FOR

BUILDING FACADES 3
MULLIONS AND TRA..'1S0MS 23

1.1 Definition of a Curtain Wall 3

3.1 Codes for Aiurrunum Design 23

1.2 Types of Building Fa~ade Systems :rhat Will

3.2 Phys ical Properties of Aluminum 23

Be Discussed in Th is Book 3
3.3 Permissible Stresses for Aluminum Alloy

6063 Extrusions 23

2. DESIGN USING GLASS 8

3.4 Fin ishes for Aluminum Alloys 25

2;1 General 8
3.5 SlruclUral Calcul ation 25

2.2 Production of A nnealed Float Glass 8

2.3 Mechanical/Physical Properties of Glass 8

4. DESIGN OF A CURTAIN WALL 42

2.4 Ultimate Bendi ng Stresses of Glass 9

4.1 Design of the Connections between a

2.5 Allowable Bending Stresses 9

M ullion and a T ransom 42

2.6 Selection of Glass Using Timos henko

4.2 Design of Adaptors and Beads (Clipped in or

Formu las for Structural Calculations 9

Screwcd/Clamped on to Ihe Main Frame) 42

2.7 Calcu lation Using the Diagrams of BS 6262

4.3 Design of Cappings 46

13
4.4 Minim um Edge Cover for Glazing 48

2.8 Calculalion of OetJeclions and Bending 4.5 Correct Use of Weep Hol<:s 50

Stresses for Laminated Glass and Double 4.6 Fixing of a CUrlain Wall to a BuUding

Glazing Glass Panels 13· Structure 52

2.9 When Should We Use Tempered Glass? 16

4.7 Expansion Joints 58

2.10 Causes to Glass Breakage 17

4.8 Thermal Insulation 60

2.11 Under What Cond itions the T empered Glass

Should Not Be Used? 18

5. DESIGN USING SEALANT 62

.
2.12 Reflective G lass 19
5.1 Sealant Types Based on Uses 62

2.13 Laminated G lass 19

5.2 SealaO! Application 62

2.14 Correct Use of SafelY Films for Glass 20

5.3 Sealant Tests 63

2.15 Low E Glass 21

5.4 Allowahle Stresses 63

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 Course Noles on Curtain Wall Design W ILSON Curtain Wall COnslAtanl (HK) u o.

5.5 Calculation for Sealant Bite 64 86

5.6 Sealant for Double Glazing Units 65 9.3 Panels Hung on a Frame Sh ould Ha,:,e a
5.7 Jo int of Weather Sealant 65 Locking System to Avoid Upli ft. 86
5.8 A Field Sealant Adhesion Test 66 9.4 Ins tallati on Tol era nces When Halfen
Channels Arc Use 86
6. SCREWS, RIVETS AND METAL LUGS 9.5 Panels Fixed A round Its Edges with Screws
67 89
6.1 Screws 10 Be Stainless Steel to Avoid 9.6 Metal Roof Claddings 89
Rusting Stains 67
6.2 Ri vets 68 10. DESIGN FOR GLASS WALLS,
6.3 Example: Sashes Detached from a CANOPIES AND SKYLIGHTS 95
Residential Building 68 10.1 Glass Walls 95
6.4 Bow to Calculate a Screw? 69 to. 2 Skyl ights a nd DOm es 106
6.5 Excrci!;es 70 10.3 Canopies 107
6.6 Metal Lugs 71 lO A Glass Doors 108

7. HOW TO DESIGN A WINDOW SYSTEM 11. HOW TO DETERMINE.DESIGN WI ND

73 PRESSURES ON A BUILDING
7. 1 Typical Window Sections 73 ENCLOSURE 111
7.1 Calculation of Metal Lugs 75 ll.\ The W ind 11 1
7.3 Expansion Joi nls 76 11 .2 T yphoons 111
11.3 Boundary Layer Wind·Flo\v 111
8. HOW TO DESIGN A STONE CLADDING 11 .4 General Distribution of Wind Pressures o n
SYSTEM 78 Buildi ng Su rface 113
8.1 General 7" 11.5 How to Use Hong Kong Wind Code to
8.2 SlOne Dat a 78 Determine the DeSign Wind Pressures on a
8.3 Typical Fixings for Stone Panels 79 Buil ding Enclosure 114
8.4 Fixings 10 Concrete: A nchor Bol ts or 11 .6 Wi nd Tun nel Tcsl~ 115
Embeds? 83
8.5 Will Mid-Span Support Reduce the Bending 12. MOCK- UP T ESTI NG 117
Stress in a Slone Panel? . 83 12.1 Why Should Curt<l in Walls Be Tested? 117
8.6 Installation Tolerance 84 12.2 Mock- Up Size 118
8.7 Expansion Joints 84 12.3 Other T ests 118
12.4 T est Required hy Hong Ko ng Housing
9. HOW TO DESIGN A METAL CLADDING Authorit y 118
SYSTEM 86 1 2.5 T~sl Equipmem 118
9.1 Fi xings for Metal Cladding Systems 86 12.6 T esting Procedu res 119
9.2 Calculalion Should Include Local Bending,

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 Course Notes oro Cunalro Wall Desi gro WILSON Curtalro Wall Consultarot (HK) Ud.

13. FIRE RESISTANCE REQUIRED BY BD

TO SKYLIGHTS AND CURTAIN WALLS

122

. 13.1 Objectives of a Fire Resisling Construction

122
13 .2 How \0 Achieve the Objectives? 122

l3 .3 Requitemems for Skylights. and Curtain

Walls 123

14. DEFINITIONS OF THE TERMS USED IN

CURTAIN WALL DESIGN 124

REFERENCES 130

I
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Course Notes on Curtain W all Design
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sincere thanks are due 10 all the attendees who
registered and attended the COUTse I organized in th e
summer of 2001. They have given me g reat pressure
to write thi s book. Without their push, I would not
have spent so much time on the book and published
it so soon.
I am grateful to the anendees who had responded
to my request for commeniS on the drafl course notes
in early September 2001. Many good suggestions
have been received since the n from M ark Ho, Eric
C han, Andy Chung, Danny Choi , Anne Kwok, Lung
Xia, Andy Chan, Anson Chan and Wilson Chan and
o the r a nonymo us persoos who gave me o ol y thdr
good suggestions but not their namt!s.
I am extre mely grateful 10 my w ife Yazhcn HU
who has constantly supported me o n my new
bus iness and 00 my effort in writing Ihis book. I
dedicate this book to her for her love, suppon.
encouragement and understanding.
,v
l
WilSON Cunain W all Consultant (HK) ltd. L,
l
Many thanks are also d ue to my frie nds in c urtain
w all ami aluminum window industry in Hong Kong
w ho have supported me o n my new business in the
area of curtain wall consultancy. They have shown
{heir confidence in the COI\s ultiog service I provide
however new my company is. Without their support ,
I would not have the ~onfidefl(':c and financial
capability to finish this book a nd puh lish it.
My sincere thanks art! also due to myoid
colleagues anll fr ie nd:; Jea n Lopez and PClcr Li w ho
have constantly promoted the course I organized last
s ummer to the iT new colleagues in their new working
places.
Wilson ZHOU
J une 2002
,
Cour$e Notes on Curl"l,. Wall De$ig,.
PREFACE
Since enlered Ihis fie ld in 1995. J lried very hard 10
find a book on engi neering design for curlain walls
which will cover all the aspects o r curtain wall
design incl udi ng designs, structural calculations.
submissions and mock-u p testing etc. I was surprised
to see how little I could find. A book recenlly
published by The Inslilution of Structural Engineers
(1999) covers many practical problems which
engi neers afe imeresled. However, the curtain waH
design was not d iscussed Oluch in this book. M.
McEvoy (1994) discussed the external walls to very
much detail. However, his discussion covers only the
usual windows, doors. rather Ihan Ihe curtain walls
which are Ihe main fa'iade syslcm in Ho ng Kong for
commercial build ings. The book was wrinen with
Iiule e ng.ineering issues discussed.
In the summer or 2001 wh ile I was working in J
A Shillinglaw & Associates I organized a COUlse on
Curtain Wall design and prepared a course notes for
the attendees. Since then , many comments and
suggestions have been received rrom the allendees
about the course and aboul the notes. T his book has
incorporaled many of the comments I have rece ived
aboUllhe said nOleS.
A1lhough the title fo r this course nOics is Curtain
Wall Design , J havc covercd in this book all Ihe
far;ad l! systems we will usc to enclose a building or
as cladding to decorate building walls. In addition to
lhe curt:lin wall design I will discuss a lso about
<:kyIighls. can('lpic<:, aluminum windows, window
walls and glass walls whose designs arc similar to
the curtain wall design. I will also discuss about
stone claddings and metal c\add ings. I will be very
happy if this book can give a liule help to the
archilcclS, Structural engineers, developers and
cunain wall and window conlraClo rs in Hong Kong
or anywhere in Ihe world 10 bener understand curtain
wall systems and other building fao:;ad e systems.
Following will be discussed in this Course Notes:
1. G lass d esig n
I1re res islant sCll lam elc)
which covers:
• Allowable stress for a sealant.
• Glass types (l1oat a nneakd, heat slTc nglhe ncd,
lempered, laminated and wired g lass elc) 10 be used
in c unain walls and windows etc.
WILSON Cunaio Wall Corisullanl (HI<) lid.
• Calculalion 10 c heck the bending stress a nd
dei1cction of a glass panel with Timoshenko
fo rm ulas.
• Calculation for the glass panels w ith the diagrams
in 8S6262 o r AS1288.
• Allowable bending stresses.
• Allowable deflections.
• Causes to glass fai lures.
2. Aluminum d esig n
which covers
• Calculalion of a mullion with formu las and wilh
software.
• Calculation for a transom under triangular
loading or trapezoidal loading d istribul ions.
• CalculaTion fo r a screw.
• Determination o f allowable stresses in an
aluminum section-check localtlateral buckling of the
aluminum section.
• DeterminUlion of wind pressures on <I c unain
wall - with Hong Kong wind code or wi th wi nd
tunnei leslS.
• Anodized coat ing to a luminum sections
3. Cur ta in wall d esign
which covers
• Uesign for II stick system-design 0 1 a Iypical
mullion, typical transom, conneclion between the
mu llion and transom, I1xing of Ihe glass panels to
aluminum sections
• Design c f a unitized curtain wall system - design
o f a Iypical split mu ll ion , typical lTansorn atlhe Slack
joint. Correct usc of the pressure equalization
principle.
• Design to prevent water leakage.
• Design 10 prevent cracking noise in a curtain wall
system.
4. Design us ing sea la nt
which covers
• Sealant Iypes (weather sealant, struclUral sealant.
• Calculatio n of a sealant bile for pane ls of various
shapes.
• Sealant teSls
1
Course Notes on Conain Wall Desigrl W tLSON Con ain Wall Consultant (HK) lld_

ensur!: .lhat none of Ihe problems mentioned occur. I

S. Window Design find thai a review of the structu ral calcuhvions and
which covers design drawings by a curtain wall professional is
• Typical window sections fundamental. A com mon mistake in a structural
• Typical fixings for windows - metal lugs. anchor calculation is that the calculations to the pull-out
bolts + steel plates etc. dfect from screws or bolls on the a luminum or steel
• Calculmion for metal lugs and drive pins. threads 3re often overlooked .
• Rusting to metal lugs and how to avoid . In this course notes I am not concentrating on
aesthetics which is th~ arc hitect's job. I am going 10
6. MetaVstone cladding design
work through the mechanical I structural design
which covcrs
proces~es required su thai you as designers (or design
• Metal cladding system-local buckling of a panel
checkers) arc able to check your designs to ensure all
folded on edges; design of fixings for the metal
the components in a system have been designed and
panels; installation tolerance for Halfen channels nr
calculated correctly and will perform well in service
anchor bolts; correct usc of welded washers Of
wilh no water leakage problems and little air
serrated washers
penctralion. A s such, you will know \vhen you have
• Stone cladding system-How to avoid spalling of ij worked through this proceSS you· arc confident that
stone panel at bracket fixings. Typical structural your submission 10 the Buildings Department (DO),
calculations to check the stones. Registered StruclUra l Engineer (RSE) and Client elc.
will be approved as you hav\: co,'ered cvery point
7. Glass wall design and skylight design
correc{)y.
wh ich covers
I have also been an independent checker to check
• Glass wa ll design - Glass wall wit h spiders and the curtain waH designs before they are endorsed by
truss; glass wall with spiders and pretension wires; an RSE and submitted to BD. I find this process can
glass wa ll wilh glass fins as the structure; how to reduce the heavy responsibility o n Ihe RSE and give
achieve the sealant bite at a glass bun joint? Are Ihe RSE more confidence in your design. The
weep holes necessary for the bottom of a glass wall? possibility that the design is rejt!cted by SD is
How to calculate a glass fin. minimized after such a checking process.
• Canopies & Skylights - Typical designs for You may disagree on certain 'iss ues discussed in
aluminum sections, steel frames, fixing of glrt.!:is this courSe notes . I welcome any comment that might
panels: selection of glass . How to availi glas!i cOllle from you stltllat I can improve the notes in its
breakage? How to determine loadings on a c:l1loPY or second euition .
a skylight?

8. Definition of the terms used in Building Fa~adc

Yong She ng ZHOU (Wilson), PhD
design.
Director of
Which covers the vocabulary for bu ilding falla de
WILSON Curtain Wall Consultant (HK) Limited
design.
To!, (852) 2645 1802
Fax: (852) 2645 1824
In addition to the above, the problems Ihe author has t-Illa i I: w ilsonz@cunail\wall.biz.com.hk
encoumered over the last several years such as tht:
structural failure to stack joints between units of a
unitized curtam wall system, failur!:s to expansion
joint of a stick curtain wall system. slippage between
the washers and the brackets under wind load, local
buckling failure of aluminum sections or panels,
glass breakage caused by thermal stress, spontaneous
breakage, or by high bending stress due to wjnd
loading will also be discussed. Once we- are aware of
these problems and how they occur, we will be able
to avoid such failures at as early as the design stages.
The aUlhOf has been asked by contractors and
architects to review drawings and calculations to

2
Course Nolas on Curtail'! Wall D&5Ig'1 WILSON Cunaln Wall Cons ultanl (HK) Ltd.
I. INTRODUCTION TO TIlE DESIGN
OF BUILDING FACADES
1.1 Definition ora Curtain Wall
Curtain wall is 8 building fa!jadc system hung on the
structu r~ of a huilding. It is installed to prOtect the
occupanls against the natural discom fort s such as
wind, water (rain , moisture), dirt (ashes, dusts), heal
(sun , ai r), noise and light (sunshine).
1.2 Types of Building FA~adc Systems That
section details for a visible framing curtain wall
W ill Be Discussed in This Book
system. Such a system is adopted when the architect
A curtain wall is the verticall y installed fa1?de
system mainly with aluminum extrusio ns and glass.
In Ihis course notes, we will covcr every building
fa1?de system including horizontally installed
skyl ighls, metal roofs. and vert icall y installed glass
waJ ls, window walls, metal c1addings and slOne
c1addings etc as well as the cuTlain walls. We shall
also discuss about the ca nopies whic h arc s imilar 10
skylights i n fi xing Ihe glass panels to frames.
a. Curtain walls with glass panels glazed in front
of the aluminum sections with on ly small sealant
(or gasket) joints visible from outside
Such a curtain wall system is call ed "invisible"
mullion ami/or trAnsom t;urtain wall !:iystcm. A
typical section is shown in Fig.l.l. A photu of such a
curtain wall is also shown in Photo 1.1. The c urlain
wall framing is invisible for this curtain wa ll syslem
because the glass is retlective and is glaz.ed onto the
frontal face of the frame and thus the frame is hidden
behind the reflective glass panels.
The installation procedure for s uch a system is
usually as following:
Step 1: Embeds are cast in the concrete at the
locations where mullions are goi ng to be fix ed.
Step 2: Mullions are fixed onlO the embeds with
brackets,
Step 3: Transoms are fixed to the mull ion with
aJuminu m angles and screws.
Slep 4: Glass panels are glazed in faclOries into
glazed units.
Step 5: The glau d units are fixed onto th~ aluminum
frame of the mullions and transoms w ith fix ing bars
(of alu minum or stainless steel).
b. C urtain walls with glass panels clipped onto
al uminum framing
Such curtain wall system is called "visible" mullion
ano transom system. The framing is vis ible bccau.se
of tJ:c capping panels. Fig. L2 shows the typical
wanls 10 see the fra me from outside or the slructural
engineer Wants the glass panels mechanicall y lixed
to the framing (glazing with sealant only is nOl so
favored by some structural engineers as sealant will
creep under long term loading). The inslallalion
procedure for such a system is similar to (he: above
procedure sta ted in seclion 3.
Photo 1.2 shows the appearance of a c urt ain wall
with "visible" framin g.
c. Unitized curtain waU systems
A unitized system is a curtain wall system composed
of units. Each unit is of us ually one floor high and
one bay wide. The units are fabricaled in a fa ctory
with pre - fitt~d spandrel and vision glass panels into
the mullions and transoms. Each unit is composed of
at least onc female mull iun On unc lIid\!. one male
mullion on Ihe olher s ide, one male transom on Ihe
lap and ooe fem ale transom al Ihe bollom of the uni t.
For delails please ref~r to Fig.!.3. The horizontal
joint where two units meet is called a stack joint.
When four units meet l og~ther, Ihere is a hole
through the system at the common corner point
where all the four units meet. This hole is usually
blocked with aU-channel 10 achie\le a continuous
cha nnel wit hin the system and water tighlness of the
systcm ( Fig. 1.3).
PholO 1.3 shows the installation of a unitiz.ed
cu rtai n wall system on site.
d. G lass wall supported wilh glass fin s
3
COOlse NOles Ofl Curtain Wall Design W ILSON Cunaln Wall Consultant (HI<} Ltd .

Mulli on seetio ll behind

Ihe re necti\'c alass

Clamp ing ban; fixed II iln sis screws

nt 300n1l11 c.:mer1

U ·5.h ~pe adapt or

Nor-on \ape

Stn.IClur:)1 sealant (minimum th ickne$5 is 6mm)

Reflective glass (Smnl thick ICmpert<i)

Fig.!.l A section detail for a mullion thai is "hidde n"

behind refl t!Clive glass. Reflective glass pancl~ arc
glazed 0 010 U·shape adaplOfS. The glass panels wilh
adapto rs are clamped on Ihe mullion box with ciampi'lg
bars and screws.
Mullion hidden behind
the re nectil'e glass

rr: Mull,or. ",,,IIM ~hmu

:he 1<11"'1"",, ~1>5>C

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S·sh>po: ad:lpl<>r

a. ok;" ~ ro~

Ih~ locations of Ihc transoms

,- Silicon. ,ul3nl
I Photo 1.1 Appearance of a cu rtain wall with mullion
G..sk!
invisible from outside. Detail of Ihis mull ion is as
shown in Fig. 1. 1.

1lc11«li'~
Capp'n~
Fig,1.2 A section detail for a mullion that is '"Visible"
from oulside. Whal is visible is actually the capping.
Glass panels are set on Norton tapes in S-shape
adaptors. The gap from the other side of the glass pa nel
to Ihe adaptor is filled with structural silicone sealant.
The glass panels together wilh the S-adllptors are
clamped onto the mullion wilh clamping bar.:; and
screws.
glow S uch a glass wall system will usually prov ide a most
tr<lnsparent look through the sySlem, With Ihe
struclUre of the syStem to be glass, the system will
provide leasl block 10 Ihe sight. T he facial glass Will
usually be glazed OntO Ihe fi ns wi th transl ucent
silicone sealant. Spiders might be used when the
fac ial glass needs \0 be connected 10 the fins with
met;hanical fi xing.
P hol9 1.4 shows a typical glass wall supported
with such a tin syslcm.
e. Glass wall with spiders and tru ss systems
When" nice space frame behi nd the glass wall is
desired by the archilecl, o r when a glass fin system is

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CO\.KS!l Notes on Curtain Wall Design WILSON Curtain W all Consultant (H K) Ud .

Ven iCliI joint between units

Gas ket

Neoprene flashing"
I~ wBler barrie r

Photo 1.2 Both mullions and transoms arc "visible"

from outside. Capping panels arc clipped 10 adaptors as
Slac k joint shown in Fig.1.2 10 cover the adaptor and to give a
NeOj>rene fl ashin!) u (oo,;~(mlal joim bclw~en units) comple te appearance of the framing system.

Gn~el

Ph,oto 1.3 A unitized curtain wall is under inSlallation.

U_channc Lat lh. gu lter
acro" lwo neighbori", umts
Fig. 1.3 U pper; A vertical jOin! between split mu llions
wh ich bdong to the neighboring two uniL" respectively.
Lower: A horizOllli11 joint hClween two successive units.
The joint is also called a slack join t.
structurally not so pleasing to the structural engineer,
a stainless Slee l (or mild steel some limes) !russ
system will be provided to support a big glass wall
system. Pho to 1.5 shows such a typical glass wall
system. An alternative design could be to use a heavy
steel box section column to replace suth a truss
system.

5
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Course Noles 00 Curtain Wall Design WIlSON Curtain Wall Consultant (HK) Ltd.

r. Window walls
NO! like curtain walls w hich are hung all the building
structure, window walls are installed between Door
slabs within the building structure rather than hung
outside the building strucrure. As such, the span of the
l
system is usually s maller. lberefore, a wind wall
system is always lighter (cheaper) than a curtain wall
system. It is hard however, to keep a consistent
appearance of a window wall system with the cladding
system at spandrel area when it is viewed from outside
lhe building.

Glass fin Facial glass

~ ~

Photo 1.5 A glass wall suppOrted wi th a spider and

truss system.

spiders and trusses). Canopies are s imilar to the

skylights with regard to the installation of glass to
frames. The frames for the canopies are, however, very
often cantilevered (see Photo 1.7).

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Photo 1.4 A glass wall supported with glass fins. b :<: ':"..'.'_""c.~.~ '.'~'1"-!:,,,#~<,,:·A2}'-
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g. Windows Horizonlal Truss

Windows are the natural lighting openings through the
external walls of buildings, usually residentiai buildings.
TIleir scale is usually smaller than the window walls in •• _ . _ .0." .~.

their height and width. However, as large windows are

getting more popular in today) s residential buildings,
the difference between window waUs and windows are
becoming less clear.

h. Skyligh ts and Caoopies

Skylights are usually similar systems \0 the curtain
...
III
~
...... .....-.;..- ..
walls or glass walls that are installed horizontally or Photo 1.6 A skylight supported with a ~pider and truss
sloped. (Photo 1.6 s hows a skylight fi xed with system.

COtirse NOles on Curtain Wall Oeslgn WILSON Cunain Wall Consultant (HK) LId.

i. Stone claddings and metal claddings

Qadding systems are the building envelope fixed onto
external concrele walls with mechanica1 fixin~. The
tiles pasted onto the concrete waJls are nOI discussed in
this course noles.
Stones 10 be used as c1addings include: granite,
limestone, marble and artificial stone composite.
Metals to be used as the c1addin~ include:
aluminum, stainless steel, gaJvanized steel and copper
etc.

Photo 1.7 A glass canopy. Glass panels are fixed with

bolts to steel framing members that are cantilevered and
fu::ed to a strong horizontal beam. The beam is fixed to
strong stainless steel columns.

7
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Coulse Notes on Curtain W all Oesign WILSON Curtain Wall Consullant (HK) uo.

~- '

2 DESIGN USING GLASS

2.1 Genera l 2.2 P roducti on of A n nealed Float Glass

One of the basic materials for curtain walls, glass Annealed glass is usually produced by a " floa l"
walls. windows and skylights is glass. GlaS$ is used process and glass thus produced is called flo at glass.
in building facades by architects because of its Fig.2.2 shows a working process of a usual floa t
transparency and translucency. Use of glass on glass line. Raw materials containing. all the
buildings a1 the same time worries engineer!> because ingredients for the glass arc ground and blended with
glass is a very britUe material which breaks without recycled broken glass and heated to a temperature
warning and is sometimes an "invisible" malerini due about 150()<'C to 1600°C to cause a chemical reaction
\0 its transparency. to for m molten glass. The molten glass which is a
Fig.2.1 shows a typical cunain wall elevation on liquid under high temperalUre is fed onto a tin bath
which glass panels are fixed with either alu m.in um (tin is a metal which melts at lower temperature than
capping or structural sealan\. Section details for glass does and is also heavier than glass). Controlled
different mull ions could be as show n in Fig.L1 and speed to pull the glass out of the tin bath with rollers
Fig.l.2. (see Fig.2.2) will allow the molten glass to form
The design for the aluminum extruSions and the different thickness, and the thickness is very uniform
fixings to fix the glass panel on to aluminum sections due to the "Iloat" prOCeSS.
will he discussed later. During this leclure , we will At the end of the glass where it is pulled out of
only discuss the seleclion of adequate glass (i\S the tin bath , the glass is cooled down gradually and
thickness and type etc) for different uses. s lowly so thai the glass is "anneaJcd·'.
Glass can be sorted based on [heir heat treatment Changing the speed of pulling out the molten
as Ooat (annealed) glass, Ileat strengthened glass or glass can change the thickness of the t10at glass. T he
tempered glass. glass out of the cooling line is. then checked fo r its
Glass can also be lami nated wi th usually rYB quali ty with a laser scanner. The portion o f the glass
imerlayer. Glass may also be wired. fo und with defects exceeding the allowabl e sizes will
be destroyed . The glass edges where the rollers have
.~
Fig. 1.2 run over will be cut off. The glass cut off and Ihe
.,.. , glass destroyed wi ll be fed back to the raw material
. . .. , as recycled glass. The remaining glass will be cut to
,-,..t:;"
'
.:,:<
'" Fig.i.J the size for fin al usc or for temperi ng if a tempered
" ~'I '' I '- 1'
\. , IJ;'I I I' i
~
, . , I :
:'--+-~
I

~ IIr;­:
-­ glass is to be expected .

],: ; V - .i ~ r j
.•.1;: -.1 ~~~ ., --; ! I j 1 I ,...... 2.3 Mechani cal/Physica l Properties of Glass
...:~ . , .;/ , . I . .I ~

"J'-;:..
~~. ~ :.
..-;' ' h
,,'.'" .....•
.
'I I
' I ',I ;.. .,
"

Glass has the following mechanical and physical

. > ~; 1. .l i . . '. :
." .. "
properties (according to as 6262):
.;-1;,-:.
:{1' ."
. t .,
I•.; . ~
.".1' .
.
.; ~;J'\V(}~>I §j
.\l:. .'p.,. '!I·"! )I Specific weight of glass (similar to stone and
aluminum)
,l ··l .. ~~i ·r ' , ., ' "f •
Ws = 25kN/m 3

Fig.2 .1 An elevation of a curtain wall composed of two Thermal expansion coefficient of glass

syslcms where the mullion is either invisih le or dsihlc

Cth = S.5xl O·(' m/moe

as shown in Figs 1.1 and 1. 2.

Elastic modulus

Course NOIIIS on Cunaifl Wall Design
E = 72000MPa
Softening point
Glass will become sofl at a temperalure
Ts = 720 10 730°C
Melling point
Glass will totally melt into a liquid at a temperature
Tl =1500'C
2.4 Ultimate Bending Stresses of Glass
An o rdinary gJass is elastic right up 10 its breaking
point. So glass is brill Ie and there is no permanent set
(yielding) that duclile material will have to give
warnings of impending failure.
Glass strengt h is very much dependent on its
quality. Any defects in the glass especiall y on the
surfaces or edges can greally reduce Ihe gJass
strength . The average ultimate bending si renglh of a
glass should be determined based on numerous
lesting resulls.
a. Float (annea led) Glass
Annealed glass is Ihe mosi common glass with no
heat trealment . The annealed glass produced from a
Ooat line is called OOal annealed glass or simply
called float glass in Hong Kong. The ultimate
bending stress of an annealed glass is about 50MPa.
b. Heat Strengthened (HS) Glass
Annea led glass which has been heated 10 550°C and
cooled down quickly but at a relatively lower speed
than that for tempered glass is called hem
srrengthened glass. The ullimate bending stress o f
heal strengthened glass is about 2 limes of that for
annealed glass. Tests found that could be 90M Pa to
140MPa depending on the compressive stress in the
glass on its surfaces.
Raw materials Furnace
, ~"C ,~ c , ,.w c
Fig. 2.2 Aoat glass produced on a line ([he Institute of
Structural Engineers (1999» .
WILSON Cunaifl Wall Consullsm (HKJ It(l.
e. Tempered Glass
When float (annealed) glass is heated to 650°C and
cooled ra pidly. the glass will be "Iempered". The
ultimate bending stre ngth of a tempered glass is
about 3-4 times of the float (annealed) glass. Our test
found that the ultimate bend ing stress of a tempered
glass depends on Ihe glass thickness and its
tempering process . Usually, the glass of a thickness
between. 6mm and lOmm can give the highest
bending strength possibly because the glass of
medium thickness can be tempered to a beller (more
uni fo rm, sy mmetrical) pre stressed layers o n glass
s urfaces.
Tests o n le mpered glass Ihat have been witnessed
by the author found that the ultimate bending
strength of a tempered glass could be 120MPa (under
tempered) to f60MPa (over tempered).
{Note: the ultimate compressive stress of a glass
is 820M Pa to lOOOMPa which is much higher than
Lhe ultimale te nsi le stress of the glass. Therefore. the
glass [ajJ ure due to bending happens to the face
under tensi on nOt the face under eompression .1
2.5 Allowable Bending Stress
Allowable bending Stress for float/annealed glass is
aboul 20MPa based on glass th ickness and loading
types (long term or short term loadings).
Allowable bending stress for HS glass is
approximate ly 30MPa based on glass thickness and
also types of loads (lo ng term or s han term load ings).
Allowable bending Stress fo r tempered g lass is
around 50M Pa based again on ~ass thickness and
loading types (long term or sho n term loadings).
T hese will be discussed in detail later.
2.6 Selection of Glass Using Timoshenko
Formulas for Structural Calculation
Tin bath Annealing
9
Coulse NOles 00 Curtain Wall Design
As glass is usually broken due to bending and is
broken at the surface which is under tension , the
calculation shall find the maximum (tensile)
bending stress in the glass panel. Following are the
.formulas for the maximum bending stress of a glass
panel o r any o ther monolithic panels that are not
laminated o r double-glazed panels.
[Note again: the ultimate compressive stress of a
glass is 820MPa to lOOOMPa which is much higher
than ultimate tensile stress, therefore , the glass
failure due to bending happens to the face that is
under tension}.
Calculation for a glass panel under wind pressure
can be assumed as a thin plate under a unifonn load.
2.6.1 Formulas
The formulas listed below should cover Ihe glass
panels or any thin plates under uniform loading (sut.:h
as dead load and wind load ctc.) fixcd with various
fixings. For the glass panels under different loading
distribution andlor of d iffe rent tixings, the
corresponding formula s can be fo und in the books on
structural analysis.
a. A glass which is Four Side-Supported, and is
under a Unirorm Load such as Wind Load
The highest stress happens al the glass center for a
four side supported panel (see Fig.2.3).
Central bending stress o f a panel s upported on all
the four sides (of a rectangular shape, every support
is simple)
crc::: Bwall t2
where,
w is the wind pressure;
a is the length of the short side o f the rectangle;
t is the glass thickness; and
~ is a parameter determined based on thc ratio of
longer side to the shorter side (b/l, where b is the
longer side) as shown below .
bfa 1.0 1.2 1.5 ?O 3.0 4.0 5.0
B 0.270 0.360 0.474 0.60-:> 0.711 0.740 0.748
a 0.047 0.065 0.089 0.1l6 0.140 0.147 0. 149
Linear buerpolarion call be adopred to determine fh e
a and Pshould the bla value be other than listed.
You sho uld pay allention to the units while
calculating. If kPa is the unit for thc pressure, the
unitS for a and I are the same (both are mm say). Ihe
stress obtained is also of the un it kPa.
10
I
WIL.SON Cullain Wai l Con$ultanl (HK) LId.
Yqu may want [0 convert if !O MPa wilh the
fo llowing formula: ,
IMPa : : o lOOOkPa = I,OOO,OOOPa (N/m\
therefore, IMPa = IN/mm1.
When the bending stress is thus obtained, it
should he compared with th:: <lllov,'able stress (or
glass cente r (will be discussed la ter).
You may also find the max imum deflection of the
glass panel
Deflection of the glass:
[) =a. w a~ I E 13
where a is again [he shoner side of the rectangle, t is
the thickness, w is the wind pressure in kPa or MPa,
E is the e lastic modulus of the glass (72000 N/mm2)
and 0. is a parameter \0 be determined using the
table above.
[Note: The E·value for glass varies from 70000 to
74000 MPa (or glass of different thickness and from
dift'erenl glass manufac ture rs based o n the tests
conducted by the aUlhorJ.
Maximum dcflo.:clion
Maximum bending stress
T•
•
-L
1-- b --t
a "" shoner edge
Fig. 2.3 Maximum bending stress and maximum
deflection exist at Ihe center of a ret:langular thin plale
Ihal is supported around all the four sides.
When calculaled using the for mulas above, the glass
panel ha", bC\;1l <lss umcd simply supported on all the
edge-".
{Exercise: Having known Ihe design wind
pressure on a [ou r side s upported recta ngular glass
panel is 3.0kPa, Ihe short and long span of the
rectangular panel is a=1200mm, b=1 400mm. Find
the maximum bending stress in Ihis glass panel
assuming its thickness is IOmm. What glass
(anneakd, tempered or hea t strengthened) would you
suggest to use?]
 Cours e Noles on Curtain ~a~ Design WILSON Curtain Wall Consultam (HI<) ltd.

b. Calculation when the glass panel is Three-Side
Supported
The highest stress exists at the mid-span of th e
unsupported glass edge (refer to Fig.2.4).
Maximum bending stress o f a rectangular thin
plate supported on three sides is
=
a e B w a2 112
where w is the wind pressure, a is the unsupported
side of the rectangle, t is the thickness aod B is a
parameter de termined based on the ralio of supported
side to the unsupported side (b/a, where b is the
supported s ide-sec Fig. 2.4). See the ta ble below:
c. Calculation when the Glass is Two-Side
Supported
This calculation is simple . I believe mosl of you
know how to do it. You may use Tirnoshcnko
formul a if you want, but I suggest you use the
formu la fo r simply suppo rted beams. See Fig.2.5 .
When the wind pressure is w (unit is kPa), the
wind load over a 1m wide glass panel is q= w x 1 m
( in the ull il of kN/ m o r IN/rnm).

Glass Fins

[Note] As the maximum bending stress exist at the ~ A typical segment

free edge, you should compare the stress from
calculat ion with the allowable stress for glass edge, of the facial glass
noticing that the allowable bending stress for glass
17 / ­
edge is lower than th aI fo r glass center.
Again, deflecti on of a glass panel supported on
three sides:
f--< _~
:- ~ 1
4 J
[) =(lW a / E t
Glass panel
where a is the unsupported side of Ille rectangle, I is
the Ihickness. w is the wind pressure in kPa or MPa
and E is the elastic modulus of the glass (72000
/
2
N/mm ).

rTn1
Max im um deflection
Maximum bending stress
j-
1: L:
"+ F ig. 2.5 Formulas for simply supported beam ean be
-1- .~.- '
adopted to calculate a two-side supported glass panel.

+- b----1
Bending moment at mid span of the glass panel :
M= q a2 /S
a = free edge
If use mm for the span a, and N/mm for q, the uni t
for the moment is Nmm,
-,
Fig. 2.4 Maxi mum bend ing stress and max imum Section modulus of the glass of a thickness t
( lOOOmm w ide):
defleclion exist at the mid span of the unsupported edge
of a rectangular thin plale that is supported aro und three WX = l OOOmm x \2/6

,
sides.
Bending s tress in center and on edge:

11
)
COIJrse Notes on Cunaifi WaR Design W ILSON CW1aill Wall consultant CHK\ Ud.

oe =M/W
Maximllm deflectio n of lhe circular plate hilppens at
It is nOied that {he bending stress thus o btained the center which is
sbould be compared with the allowable be nding be = 0.764 w a4 / El'
stress on edge (section f. below).
where a is the r adius of the circu l ~r plale.
You may also get the deflection of the glass:
b = SqL' /384EI Mllxilllum d.::Ocction
Maxim um bendil\g str~s
where I = lOOOmm x t 3/ 12 is the moment ofinenia of
the glass paneL

d. Calculation when the Glass is Point-supported

--r .
~ (
/

at Four Corners
When the glass panel is a square, the maximum
-l-
stress happens al mid span of an edge of the square
whose four corners are supported wi th point supports Fig. 2.7 A circular thin plate under II uniform load is

(see Fig.2.6). The maximum bending s tress o n an simply supported along its circular edge. Maxi mum

edge is strcss and dcJll!..:tion exist allhe center.

oe = 0.916 w a2 1t!
f. Allowable Bending Stress When under Short­

Maximum deflection happens at the center which is Term Load (say Wind Load)

bc=O.294wa~ / Ee T he following allowable bending s tresses arc from a

glass supplier of a Japanese company. The exact

where a is Ihe distance between 2 neighbori ng values are to be con fir med by checking the leSI data

supporting points. on the glass from the manufacturer.

Tables for calculating four po int supported glass

panels of rectangular shapes are available in some Stress in middle zone

books of structural analysis. 20MI'a for annealed glass;

40MPa for Heat Strengthened .glass;

Maximum bending. suess 75MPa for tempered glass

;? Stress on the edge

qr--"'- - ~

1 •,= o~
Maximum derlection l SMPa for annealed glass;
27MPa for H eat Strengthened gl ass;

~
I
0. __ ._-4 SOMPa for tempered glass

g. Allowable Bending S tress When under Long­

t- '--j" Term Load (say Dead Load)

Stress in middle area

Fig. 2.6 A square thin plate under a uniform load. The 12M P" for float glass;

maximum bending stress exists at the mid span on 24MPa for Heat StrengtheQed glass;

every edge and the maximum deflectio n ex iSIs at the 5UMPa for te mpe red glass

center.
Stress on the edge

e. Calculation When the Glass is Supported o n 9MPa fo r float glass;

the Edge and the Panel is a Circle 16MPa for Heat Strengthened glass;

When a glass panel is a circ ul ar plate and Ihe c irc ular 35MPa for tempered glass

plale is simply support around Ihe edge (Fig.2.7), the

maximum he nding stress and deflections h3ppens al Such allowable S{rcsscS should be determined more

the glass center. The bending stress al the Ctntt:T is accurately from lests on the glass manu factured by

l 2 different ma nufacturers . A safety fac tor of 2.5, i.e. a

OC = 1.208w a / t

12

 Course NOles on Curtain Wall Design
8/1000 rale of breakage is usually used for the
determination of the a llowable stress.
When you arc designing, please get the allowable
stresses from your g lass supplier. Yo u may ask them
for the test reports for bend ing stresses.
~
h. A1lowable deflection of glass
There arc differen t S13.ndards defi ning different
allowable deflection s.
Allowable deflection for glass, defined by ASD
Hong Kong ASD (Architectural Services Department
- refer to ASD (1993) req uires the glass to be
deflected less than 25 mm when it is under 50%
d~i gn wind pressure , The design wind pressure on a
curtain wall is the li mit of the w ind pTessure the
cUrt.'1in wall may experience during a 50-year return
under a wind gust of 3-sccond duration . 50% design
wind pressure is the pressure the syste m may
experience more ofte n say during each No.8 typhoon.
AHowable deCl ection for glass, defi ned In' BS 6262
BS 6262 (clau se 5.11.1 ) want s the glass supported
along four sides to be denected along any glass edge
less than 1/125 of Ihe span of each edge for single
glazing, and t/175 of the span of each edge for
double glazing. This is a req uireme nt fo r basically
the frame fixin g the glass rather than the glass itself.
Allowable denection for glass, defined bv AUSlTalia
Code
AS 1288 specifies that the denection"1)f the glass
panel which is two-side supponed should not exceed
1/60 of the span. Therr~ is no req uirement for 3, or 4·
s ide supponcd glass in this code.
2,7 Ca lculation USing the Diagrams ofB S6262
Vou may also usc BS 6262 to select the righl glass
thickness and glass ty pe (tempered, HS or annealed)
for your projects . You should pay attention to the
support for the glass when check Ihe diagrams from
BS 6262. To usc Ihe d iagrams Figs . 7 10 13 (refer 10
BS 6262). the glass panel is assumed supported on
all the four sides.
[Example: A tempoered glass panel o f 1.2m by
l .4m fixed on four sides is under a wind pressure of
3.0kPa. Find the glass thickness to be used b y using
BS 6262.
( Area of the panel =- 1.2m x 104m =- 1.68m", From
the d iagram Fig. 12 of BS 6262, we can know thai the
W ILSON Curtaio Walt eoosultaol (HK) Ltd.
minimum tlJickness o f the toughened (tempered)
glass can be Smm .
It should be nOled that since BS6262 diagrams
have adopted a higher allowable bending stress, the
minimum glass thickness obtained fro m BS6262 will
usually be less than thaI obtaineo from a structural
calculation using Timoshenko formulas and the
allowable bendin g stress accepted by BD.
2.8 CalculatioD of Deflections and Bending
Stresses for Laminated Glass and Double Glazing
Glass Panels
When a wind load is applied on a laminated glass
panel or a do uble g lazing g lass panel, or just simpl}'
two glass panels layered o ne over anolher, the
performance of each layer oi the laminated (or
dou b!.! glazing or layered) glass panel behaves like a
single layer under a shared load as fo llowing:
PI = {t t3/(lt l + t/)} P (2.1)
3
P 2 = { t 2 J(t/ + Il )} p (2.2)
Where P1 and P2 are the pressures shared by the glass
layers of the thickness t1 and thickness 12 respectively,
and P is the lolal pressure on the laminated or double
glazed glass panel (Fig.2.8).
This formula is derived from the fact Ihat all the
glass layers are deflected together (i.e. the
dellect"ions of all the glass layers are the same) and
the deflection of a glass plate is reversely
proportional 10 the cube of the thickness and is
proportional to Ihe pressure,
When t1=-1~, Ihen Pt=P2= V>.P.
A proof for equations (2,1) and (2.2) is provided
below:
[Note: There is (1/1 argument saying that {j laminated
glass shollid be considered as a monolithic gll/sS
pallel of the nominal thickness of the two glass layers
when the laminated glass is IInder a short term
loading. (sec Hooper (1973), Minor and Rezilik
(1990 ), Belir, A'finor and Norville (1993), Jacob
(1997) (lnd Norl'iIle (1999)). This is based 0 11 a facl
that lite PVB imerfayer does not have the time to
deform wilen it is IInder a short term loading. It is
lhis .mlllor's opinion char the above formulas should
apply to laminated glass, layered glass and double
glazin g glass units (if dimen sion/thickness ratio is
big) wilen IInder both long term loading and shorl
terlllloading for conservative design.
13
 Course NOles 0" Curtal " Wall De si gn WILSON Cunain Wall Co"suttam (HKI Uti.
-

1 ,
; . I
I--- ,
, rntI
,
:0

0
7
I---
•

,
I
, .
,
.I, I, . ..
•
1--
• ,
,
,, ,
,
, ,
.,
,
N,-
1 11 ,
15 =

, mm
6
, I I "
'" 5
I I ., .
~ ·, . . 10 mm
4
•v, ·
~
, ,
, ,,
o l , , "
, ,
, ,
'. "
, "
,
,
. Minimum g.h ss thic kness

1 .
I I
1I.r1
~ \

1.68 m ! I -1 6 mm
I I I IT I I!
I

I,
I I I I I II I
1 . r.
, ,. ,
I, I I 1.. . .. . I
,I ,
.
~ mm

" ·,,, ,
, ,
, ,. ,
,' ., , " .. '~
,
, " , ", ,, ,
,
,0 ,
,
,, , ,,, ,,
, I I I

,7
,
, ,
, , , ," 4 om
,6 ., •
I I I I i I I
,
,5
"
, I
.. . .,
. . , ,
,4
600 ..
"
000 1000 ~ A AA

2000 -.. .. , ~~~

"' 00
Wind press u~ ( Pal
3.0 kPa

Figure 12 CXlractcd from BS 6262. For I~ m ~red glass

under 3 seco nd mean wind pressure.

{PrO\t: the formulas (2.1) & (2.2): 01= a P, a ~ I(E 113)

Consider Ihat a laminated glass of two layers (of
thic kness 11 and t2 respectively) which is supp0l'l cd and
along all the four sides is under a w ind pressure P,
0 2= a P2 a~ /(E I !3 )
we need to find Ihe pressures sha red by each layer of
the laminaled (or layered or double glazed) glass.
where ol and 0 2 are the deflections of Ihe I,-Iayer
Ass wne the pressure shared by I,-Iayer is PI and that and 12-layer of Ihe laminated glass under a uniform
by 12-layer is P2. Using Timoshenko formula , we can pressure P, and P2 respec tively.
have:

\ 14

I
Course Notes on Curtain Wall Design WILSON Curtain Wall Consultan, (H K) Ud.

Since 0 1 equals 02 (two layers move together), and deflections of hOlh glass layers are the sa me (see
=
PI + P2 P, we can have the following equations: Fig.2.9). This is because thai any change 10 Ihe
a P I a4 ICE tl"1 = a P1 a4 /(E tll (2.3) volume of tne air between Ihe glass panels due 10 Ihe
deflection of panel 1 will lead to a Change of the air
or simplified as pressure in the. air space between the panels. Only a
PI /113 =P 2 f tl (2.3') slight change in the air volume (wnich implies a very
small difference in the defleclions between the glass
We also have panels) will generate a big pressure difference across
PI + P2= P (2.4)
foul · hiT - Pm
P~'
Solve equalions \2.3') and (2.4) we can obtain
PII"dl~
PI = P Ill f (I, + Ib ~ --;z.. \

fanel2~ !I
Pin
We can similarly obtain

P2", P( 2)/(t 1) +ll) '2-'-­

Formulas (2. 1) and (2.2) are proved. I'OUI POUI < Pair <: Pin

p '~ PI, ~
c=\~ Fig. 2.9 Deflections of glass panels of a double glazing
unil 3re ve ry similar to each other.

Monolllhlc the glass panel 2 that will defl ect Ihis pa nel.
P Therefore, the deflections of both panels are almost
P'i the same. As such the above proof for lam inated

~Pr!.~--
PVB Interlayer
glass applies also to double glazing unit. So m~
engineers or consultants in Hong Kong suggest that
wind pressures o n a double·glazi ng unit will be
resisted by onl y one of the twO glass layers. This is
Lamln81ea incorrect (The _fact Ihat the de fl ect ions o f t h ~ !\':~

f::'i -ji-­
Layered
Fig. 2.8 Denections of glass layers are Ihe same.
It should be noted that when a double glazi ng unit
is under a wind pressure (a pressure difference across
the unit), one of the two layers of the glass will be
defl ecled to increase (or decrease if wind pressure in
the OIher direction) the volume of the air between the
glass panels. Air pressure will then be Irans rerred
through 'the expansion (or compression) of the air
within the space to the other glass panel (Fig.2.9).
When glass dimension is much larger than the
thickness, it is accu rate enough 10 assume the
glass layersot a dou.hle glazing unit are al~osl th~e
:lame can prove thaI the tOlal pressure on the unit will
oe sha~ed by bOlh glass panels to the ratio gTvei1ii1
the Equations (2.1) and (2.2). ,)
- -When one glass panellsa 101 thicker than the
Olher, the thicker glass panel will take almost all the
loading. This is true for laminated, layered or double
glazing unit of two glass layers. [Proof: If we
assume tl » 12, fr6m Ihe equations (2. 1) and (2.2),
the pressure s hared by'panel 1 is PI::: {t 1J /(1 1'\ + tl)} p
={1/(1· + t//t,3)} P. Not icing 11 » 12, therefore. Itle
cube of the ratio IVt l is very close 10 zero. We can
get PI approximately equals P. #Provedl
The formu las (2.1) and (2.2) are applicable to
also laminated (or layered or multi-glazing unit) of
mUltiple glass layers. T he pressures shared by each
layer of the laminated glass of four layers are
P, = {t//(1,3 + t23 + 133 + t/)}P (2.5)
P2 = {tl/(Ill + tl + tl + t/)}P (2.6)
3
P 3 ", {1/I(tI + 121 + tl + t 41}P
(2.7)
3 3 3
P 4 :. {1 4 /(lt + t1 + 1/ + I.l )}p (2.8)

15
Course Not es on Curtatn W all Design WILSON Curtain Wall ConsutWlt (HI<) U d.

2.9 When Should We Use Tempered Glass'.'
Tempered glass may need to be used fo r the
follow ing purposes:
a. T empe red glass (also called toughened glass in
UK) as a safet y glass
Safety glass should be used for bal uslrades, glass
walls o n ground and shop fronts etc. A safety glass
a~ .i1~fined in BS.6262 should satigt~~impacCtest
requirement stated in BS 6206. An impaci test and
also a punch leSt to check broken pieces s hould be
of the glass at 285°C for several "hOurS::-­
- The sudden frac ture of tempered glass is brought
about by an expansion of NiS slones as a result of
slow crysta lline Iransforma lion from a -NiS (hi ~h
temperature) to Il-NiS (low temperature). During the
tempering process the NiS transforms 10 the high
temperature a state, however when the rapid cooling
takes place the re-transformation La. the t) slate cannot
take place. Instead, th is reversal process occurs laler
over periods of time that can Tange from a few
minutes 10 10 yeurs.
(

cond ucted to BS 6206. a) Distribution of compressive siress

For the glass used for the above systems to which
across a tempered glass
people might impact on , tempered glass or other

safety glass should be used for human safety (must

pass BS 6206 to usuaHy cl ass A).

b. T empered glass as a material r esis tin g higher

r~(')

wind loads (higher a llowable stress)

When you want a glass of given thickness to resist ;l
higher load. use tempered glass is probably the best
or even the only choice.
As was discussed, the ultimate compressive stress
of a glass is very high (more than SOOMPa) while its
Compressive layer
ultimate tensile stress is 50MPa only for annea led
glass. When annealed glass is tempered, there will be Edge of the tempered glass
a high compressive stress on glass surfaces wh ich
w ill resist tensile stresses (Fig.2.lOa). A s a glass
panel under bending is undergoing a bending tcnsik
stress distribu ted as shown in Fig.2.10b, Ihis lensile
stress (which reaches the maximum near a surface)
should fi rst overcome the compressive stress (In the
surfaces of the tempered glass before it can bred Ih!.:
glass. Therefore, a tempered glass can resist a hight:[
b) Distribution ofbending stress
bending tensi le Slress.
across a tempered glass
c. Tempered glass as a materi al resistin g high
te m peratu re
Tempered glass is also used as the top of dining
tables etc where high te mperature staff could be put .
on.
Tempered glass can resiSI a sudden tempcr:uure
change of 250-320G C, while noat glass can only
resisl that of 70 _ lODGe.

d. Do we need t o do a beat soa k test for temper ed

"--:::::::'::/~:i/~::::::I'~kn'" (<)

gl ass
Heat Soak Testing (HST) is a destruclive test for Fi g. 2.1 0 Compressive stress layers in a tempered glass
detecting the presence of Nickel Sulphide (NiS) panel.
incl usions in tempered glass. NISis anribUled as the
cause to Ihe spontaneous frac ture of tempered glass. The HST involves the glass being kept at an elevated
The process of HST involves holding the temperature

16

Course Notes on Curtain Wall Design WI LSON Curtain Wall Consu ltant (HK) Ud.

temperature of 285°C for several ho urs so Ihal the a glass breaks. Th is accounts for the glass breakage
to p traosfonnatio n can be sped up. mainly happens during the s hipmen! of the glass
The panels of glass that have destructive NiS from the factory 10 the si te. (When several glass
inclusio ns and have been s ubjected to HST should panels nre piled together, the weight of al! the gla~
break d uring the process: However it is nOl a firm panels will be s upported by the boilom panel.
guarantee that fai lures will not occur in the installed Support belween Ihe glass panels should be so
condition . The key aim of the HST process is to aligned that the dead load of the upper glass panels is
enable manufacrure rs to express a confide nce over transferred 10 the bollom s upport .)
(he performance of their product.
A fact needs \0 be noted is that the tempered glass,
once heat soaked. will have a less ultimate bending
strength, and when bro ke n, will break to larger
pieces whic h will eventually fail the punch test of BS
6206rTh ~ is because Ihal, Ihe hea~ soak test will ~rst
heal tne glass to an elevaled temperature usuall y of
280 10 300"C an~ then cool down the glass at a
relatively slow speed. Thus the process will .reduce
the compressive stress on the surface of the tempered
glass (Fig.2. 10) and therefore, reduce the ullimate
(and of course allowable) bend ing stress of the
tempered glass.
An alternatjve to usc heal soak tested tempered
glass is 10 use thic ker heal-strengthened glass or even
float glass when spontaneous breakage is worried .

2.10 Ca uses to Glass Brea kage

Glass breakage can also be caused by facl ors o ther

than nickel sulfide inclusions. Following are the
factors that could cause glass brea kage:

a. Nickel sulfide inclusion
Nickel Sulfide inclus ion is one of the ma in reasons
for the spontaneous breakage of tempered glass .
The foll owing mUliers can also cause glass
breakage to tempered or float (annealed) or heat
stre ngl hened glass.
Photo 2.1 A glass pane l installed inclined by 45u was
found touching a screw near a lower corner (see
Fig.2.ll). Dead load plus the thermal expansion of the
glass had induced a very high local stress al the screw
location causing this glass breakage.
GIMI (IQmm'IO", .. Il m.mod 111<\031«1)

b. Sup ported a t il wrong place c....

Glass is usually weaker at its edges. T herefore, ,~

supporting the glass at its edges at a wrong location

andlor with a hard and sharp material may cause ...........
Ond IvAd of IM.lAsl lt.os
.,.
glass breakage. Photo 2.1 shows the glass breakage
caused by a screw contacting a glass edge as shown
'in Fig.2. 11.
N _ lop<

c. Improper s torage
When the glass js resting on a hard stuff with sharp
edges, there is a stress concentration at the location Fig. 2.11 Dead load of an inclined glass louched a
whe re the glass contacts the hard body . When this screw. Slrcss concentration had been caused by the
sharp su rfae~ of the screw in the glass on its edge.
stress exceeds th~ ultimate Stress of the glass, the

17
Course NOles on ClJrtain Wall DeSign
d. Thermal stress
When the glass is under direci su nshine with one part
exposed to the sunshine and the rest in a shadow, the
temperature difference between the ho t and cold
parts will induce a Ihennal stress. When this stress,
usually together with olher stresses exceeds th.:.
ultimate stress of the glass, the glass will break.
e. Vibration during transportation
W hen Ihe glass is transported fro m o ne plac.: 10
another, it will undergo a conStant vibration due to
the up and down movement of the vehicle. This will
increase the local concentrated stress stated in c
above.
f. Glass with defects (chipped edge etc)
When a glass edge is chipped or when the glass has
olher ddccts, a slress concentration will exist at the
de fected area when such a glass panel is under a
wind pressure (or other loads). When the ultimate
SlTess al this defected location is exceeded, the glass
will break.
g. Calculation mistake
When w ind load, dead load or Olher imposed loads
on a glass panel induce a stress in the glass that is
mo re tllan the ultimate stress anywhere o f Ihe glass,
Ihis glass panel will break. Such breakage is due to
calculation mistakes Ihal have underestimated the
bending slress in the glass.
2.11 Un d er What Conditions the Tempered
Glass Should Not Be Used
Tempered glass should not be used for the followiJ,l .~
cases:
a. Architects want a flat surface (d istortion free
surface)
Roller-transported tempered glass will have a wavy
surface because of the roller effect du ring the
tempering. This is because that when Ihe annealed
glass i1> to;: mpered , it WIll be fi rst heated 10 a high
lemperature close to its softening point (usually
650°C. the softening poinl is 720°C) at which the
glass is "soft". When the heated glass is Irans ported
from a hOI stove to open air with a roller system,
roller waves are caused on the glass surface.
The allowable roller waves for tempered glass
can be fo und in say, ASTM C 1048.
Heal strengthe ned glass or nOat annealed glass
does nol have such roUer waves.
18
WILSON Curtain W all ~nsullaol (H K) Ltd.
b. Glas.s higb abm'c g round
When glass installed high above g round is broken,
the .broken pieces may drop and injure pedestrians.
To avoid Ihe glass from dropping, laminated
tempered glass can b ~ used for such purposes . One
may also use a nnealed glass or heat s trengthened
glass at such locations if human impact is nOI a
worry. Reference for this should b_c made to SO
PNAP 239. [Note: silicone sC<llant is no t compatible
with Ihe PYB interlaycr of the laminated glass . It is
advised lhal Ihe inlcrlayer is separated fTo m the
silicone sealant with a tape o r gasket compatible with
Ihe PVB.)
Other chQices include:
T ape the glass with 3M film s. The 3M film should
be buried into the sealanl joint. When such glass is
broken, the 3M m m will keep it in place. Only very
small pieces ~ ill drop.
3M fi lm was used in a project in Kowloon, Hong
Kong. However, the COniT3cIOr had o nly fi lmed the
glass ove r the vision area. When Ihal glass was
broken due to nickel sulfide inclus ions, the glass
edge was kept in frame by the sealant. The vision
part of the glass panel was however lorn off the
bui lding from the frarnt! together with Ihe 3M film .
Tho ugh the tempered glass was nroken to less
hazardous small piec~, the 3M fi lm kepI the pieces
together into a large piece which is more dangerous
10 pedestrians. Fortunately, no peoplc were injured as
Ihat piece was blow n LO the lOp of a lower
neighboring b uilding. A dctailed disc,;ussion is given
in section 2.14.
Float annealed g lass: When annea led glass breaks,
it hreaks into large pieces wilh sharp edges. If the
breakage was not caused by sudden impact of huge
load, usually o nly cracks wi ll be caused and
therefore the glass will be mostly kept in the frame.
HS (heat strengthened) glass could also be used
instead simil ar 10 using annealed glass. See BD
PN AP 239.
Wired glass WiT<!d annealed glass is ana l her safety
glass. W hen wired glass is broken, ils hig pieces will
be kept in place by the w ires. Small p ieces may drop,
but that is nOI seriously dangerous to human sa(ety.
A problem with the wired glass is that the wires can
be rus ted. A1lowablc stresses for wired glass should
be a little lower than thaI for annealed glass as wires
inside a glass panel behaves like a ddcct within the
glass where stress concentration w ill occur.

Course Noles on Cunai~ Wall Design WILSON Cunaln Wall Consultant (HK) Ud.

Fortunately, the wires exist at the midd le of the glass applied is not very stable. Therefore, glass coated
thickness where the be nding stress is close to zero Ihis way should be well protectcd to avoid the
(Fig.2.1O), the effect of wires in reducing the coating being losl during usage or during
allowable bending stress is therefore, minor. transportation or storage.

Example: To protect the refl ective coal ing, one s hould do the
Spontaneous breakage of glass to a commercial fo llowing:
development in New Territories, Hong Kong a. Install the glass wi th its reflective coa ting on the
Tempered glass of 8mm thic k was installed in (rant interior face.
of lamps to give a vcry decorative glass curtain in b. Provide protection during installation.
front of the lamps for this project in New Territories c. Avoid using the delergent of high concentration
(see Photo 2.2). These glass panels were installed at Of thal which is hatred to the reflective coating.
about 8 meters above grou nd inside a shopping mall. d. ~Jevent water leakage through the system as the
Glass panels were fix ed on all the {our corners with water from outside is dirry and polluted and is
bollS onto stainless steel bars behind the glass panel. therefore hatred 10 the reflective coating.
Glass breakage happened several times.
Photo 2.3 shows reflective coating da maged by
Fortunately no one was injured.
the diny water from a water leakage.
After several sile vis its, we foun d thai the

following reasons account fo r the brea kage:

i . Spontaneous breakage due to njckeJ sulfide

inclusion.
ii. High thermal stress due to thermal expa nsion at
bolt locations when the bolt is over tightened and Ihe
glass is healed by the lamps beh ind.
We proposed ·and the client carried out the
following remedial works to solve this problem:
i. Apply 3M film on the glass to protect it from
fa lling off aIter breakage;
ii. Loosen the nut of the bolt a little to allow for any
thermal moveme nt and 10 reJease the high s uess at
the bolt locations due to the thermal expansion.
No complai nts were received aft er both measures
were lake n.

2.12 Ren ective Glass

Reflect ive glass is the Ira nsparent (d ear) glass coated
with reflective coating applied either on·line or off­
line. The reflective coating may also be applied on a
tinted glass. Tra nsmission of solar radiation is
reduced by the reflective coating. The glass has a
metallic appearance of different colors.
Coatings may be sorted based on the method they
are coated namely "on-line coalin!?:' and "off-line
coating" . On-line cooting is applied "on-line". 11 is
applied during the cooling down process of the
annealed glass on the float glass line (see sCClion 2.2).
Coating ' hus applied wi ll become II part of the glass
and is therefore very stablc. Glass coated this way
can be heat-treated. Si milarly, off-line coating is
applied "off-line". It is applied w ith in a vac uum
chamber and is usually spray coated. A coating thus
Photo 2.2 A glass panel covers lamps behi nd. Heat
from the lamps would expand the glass panel. The bolts
at four comers would restrict the expansion. Therefore.
high thermal stress was induced in the glass.
2.1:.' LAminnted Glass
Monolithic glass when broken will be broken into
pieces. The glass fragme nts will fall from a high
position of the building and may hurt pedestrians on
Ihe ground. Laminated glass however w ill keep the
broken pieces together and remain in the window
frame for 'Luite a w hii~uring which replacement
work can be carried out. As a safety glass to human
impacts or to the glass breakage caused by other

19

Course Notes on Curtain Wall Design
reasons, the laminated glass should also be
considered for balustrades, big panels for shop frontS
and for skylights etc.
Laminated glass is also of a certain level of bullet
resislant. It can also be used as an ami-bandit glass
(BS5544). Although the burglar may shatter the glass,
the laminated glass needs repeated and anentio n­
getting blows to break through the PVB inlerlayer.
Even the quiet glass cUlling tools are nOt effective in
cutting the PV B. Therefore, the laminated glass
should be considered for display windows for
jewelry, elec tro nics, and other expensive stafr. Bullet
resistant gia<;s (laminated) should also be used for
banks ctc.
2.14 Correct Use of Safety Films for Glass
a. Why safety films?
Terrorism has become a world wide "terror". Bomb
explosion is probably the most popular way of
terrorism attacks. This calls for glass used in
constructions to be sare 10 human beings should such
explosio n happen.
Tempered glass was considered as a safety glas.i
under human impacts as such glass can resist a
higher impact load than annealed glass. And also
when such glass breaks it will break into smaiL less
hazardous pieces. However, when a tempered glass
is broken by a bomb explosion, the small pieces are
still qu ite dangerous to humans beings. Small glass
pieces during a n explosion could become lethal
dagger-like weapons flying in the air. Therefore,
tempered glass cannot solve this problem. The PVB
interlayer in a lami nated glass will keep the glass
pi eces together during an explosion. So a lami nated
glass is a safety glass for this purpose.
The glass breakage happened during a typhoon in
1999 10 Revenue Tower in Wan Chai was moslly
caused by the flying glass pieces from the first
several broken panels hitt ing o n the other glass
panels.
Afler the terrorism attack on tbe World Trade
Center in New York on September 11, 2001, glass
safety becomes a concern by many building owners.
The safety of glass under excessive loads (explosion
or high wind load or the loads from a ro bbery aUack)
needs Ihe glass panels to be laminated. What can we
do to the existing monolithic tempered or fl oat glass?
Safet y film was used after the explosion to the
Oklahoma Government Building in USA. Such Wms
were applied to many government buildings to
reduce the possible injuries to human beings should
20
-,--­
WILSON CUrtain Wall COnsultant (HK) U(I.
the re be a terrorism attack. SafelY fi lms, based on thc
suppliers (3M or Mastcrkotc). can keep the broken
glass pieces in place although glass itse lf wil! break
duri ng an explosion.
Photo 2.3 An off-l ine retlective coating on the back of
a glass vision panel has been damaged by dirt)' water
permeated from outside.
b. Other perrormances of safety films
The safety film s uppl iers have also made thei r films
of good thermal performance. Therefore, s uch fi lms
can usuHlly give a high shade coefticient (although
visible light can still pass through easily), and low
solar heat gain . If your original design used clear
glass, and yotl find energy loss is high during
summer. you may apply such 3M film to give a
shade to reduce the solar heat gain Ihro ugh your
glass. The result is similar 10 using a rctleclive glass
in the first place.
c. Correct use of safety films
Several tempered glass panels for canopies at a bus
stop in Hong Kong were reponed broken. To avoid
the broken pieces hUrl people, 3M films were applied
at the ballom face of the tempered glass.
Silicone sealant around the glas~ pan~b was CUI.
The glass panels were takell down and were washed.
Sealant arou nd the edges of the glass panel was
cleaned off. Fi lms were anached to the whole glass
panel o n its bOllom face. The filmed g lass panels
were.: reinstalled. Sealant was reapplied to fix the
glass edge together with the film iillo the canopy
frame.
This is actually the correct procedure for safety
film application. The key he re is to inse.: rI the.: edges
of the fil m into sealant joints.
Course Notes on Cu rtain W;il l De si\11 WILSON Curtain Wall Consu ltant (HK) Ud.

W hile the film suppliers will tell you the long wave) inside the building to stay within the
procedure to ensure no air bubbles to ap~ar within building, and al the same time can allow the solar
the film, they do not always tell you the need to heat pass through to get a good thermal performance
insert the film edges into sealant joints . o Cthe glass un it in su mmer or in winter.
A test on the filmed glass fo und the filmed g lass Low E coat ing o n the gJass could be applied
is able to resist a load o f O.6kPa (600Pa) over an area either on-line or off-line.
of I .Sm x 3.0m when the glass panel is supported
along Iwo sides on ly.
The film applied to the glass panels at a building
.. "'11m "II'-" "!I······"I '
:: : :J :::::: ::::::. .::::::j :::
in Hong Kong was found applied on the back of the
i .1.
,
II ,"
glass panels (see Fig.2.12). Tbe edge of the fil m was " 'iii

nOt inserted into sealant joints.

As the film was not auached to the glass edge
which is buried inside the gasket and weather sealant, ..........
",. ~.""""""

.......... .
"
:,} ..................

the glass once broken will be easily blown off the

aluminum frame by even a light wind (noticing thai ,
,.
.......
.......
... ...
te mpered glass once bro ken will be broken iOlo s mall
pieces). Instead of small pieces of glass falling fro m
7[11' 1 , '17\
", ,
\ I
.
\

a high place, a tOtal glass panel composed of small

pieces bonded together by the 3M film will fall down
which is more dangerous to pedeslTians.
lrl Atuminum frame

Stick the film around its edges onlo the aluminum

frame aro und the· glass panel will provide "
supporting force from the bondi ng o f the mm to the
/
lMlilm
Cob..
:I
\1

aluminum around edges. However, the bonding

strength of a safety film (3M or Masterkole) is

"' fiI ~ .~~==

usually only 115'· of tha t of silicone sealant, the luad
such film (whe n auached onto aluminum fra me) can
resist is only about 120Pa fo r the above case tested.
T hi s pressure is equivalent to a d ynamic pressure
under a wind speed of 13.9m/s which is a wind
/;~

pressure the glass may experience during a w ong
seasonal wind .
Another problem noticed is that the glue used to
stick the fil m onto t be glass could permeate thro ugh
tbe film to its back and the sticky glue would aUrac!
d irt on the back of thc film . Therefore, regular
cleaning is needed for the filmed glass panels.
2.15 Low E Glass
Low E Glass or caJ led low emissivity glass is a glass
coaled with a material that has an emissivity of less
than 0.2 (20%) within the long wave length radiation
(infrared e nerg.y). T his is compared wilh the usual
g lass without such· coating whose e missivity w ill be
around 0.9 (90%). The purpose of low E glass is 10
reduce tHe radiation-induced heat transfer across the
glass panel to achieve an improved thermal
performance.
When a low E glass is a pari of a do uble-glazing
unit, the low E coating can keep the internal heat (of
Glw
Fig. 2.12 A 3M film was simply attached to the back of
the vision area of a glass panel. Edges o f the film are
not inserted in rebates.
rt. On ·lin e conling
When the low E coating is applied on-l ine, it is
applied du ring the cooling-down process of the
annealed glass on the noat glass line (sec section 2.2).
Coating thus applied will become a part o f the glass
and is therefore very stable. Glass coated Ihis way
ca n be heat-treated.
Shortcoming of the on-line coating is that the
the rmal performance is not so good as the low E
coating applied o ff- line. The latter could be applied
Ihicker.
b. Off-line coating
When the low E coating is applied off- line, it is
applied w ithin a vacuum chamber and is us ually
spray coated. Coati ng such applied is not very stable.
T herefore, g lass coated Ihis way s ho uld be well

21
CoyrSI! Notes on Cyrtain Wall Design W ILSON Curtain Wall COIlsyh anl {HK} lid.

protected 10 avoid the coating lost during usage or 2.17 Codes to Be Followed for Glass Oesign
during transponation or storage.
a. BS 6262, BS 952. BS 6206, BS 5544, a nd BS
c. How does a low E glass work? 505 1.
A basic understanding of how low E glass works b. ASTM C I048, ASTM C1036, A STM C l1 72,
involves a closer look at the sun's energy ,\Od the ANSI Z97.1.
solar spectrum. c. AS 1288.
The solar energy can be divided ipto different d. DIN 52294,
components such as: i) ultraviolet; ii) visible and iii)
infra red. High levels of ultraviolet lignt can he
harm ful 10 humans. and can damage and fade
furnishings. T his light should be blocked from
passing through our glass. Visible light is I ~e
desirable ligh"t giving us natural day lighl which is the
cheapest source of Iighling. Infrared ligljl ma y be
both desirable a nd undesi(able. It is desirable when
we seck sunshine and warmth to use its nmur<ll
heal ing. It is undesirable when ' it becomes
discormfort in summer when air condit ioner will be
turned on to cool the inside·.
The infr ared e nergy from the suns hine is
composed of ,'arying wavelengths . The infrared
energy. of relat ively shori wavelengths is absorbed
inside a building by carpets. curlains, Ooors, walls
etc, and is c hanged into long wave infrared e nergy.
Such change h<lppens also outside the bu ilding where
the heat from the infra red energy of the sunshine is
converted 10 long wave energy. The low E coating on
glass will refleci the long wave heat back La the
interior during winte r (when the interior temperature
is higher than the exterior temperature and the long
wave radialion is higher inside than oUlSide). During
summer. Ihe low E coating will re llectthe long wave
heat from outside back to the outside so that Ihe
interior came be kept cool compa red with outside
high temperature. While reflecting the long wave
heat, the low E coating will still allow lhe visible .

light to pass. If the glass is also tinted which will

deflect the ultraviolet li ght to pass through Ihe glass,
low E glass can provide an ideal protection against
sunshine while the good part of it is still kept.

2. 16 Quality Requirements for G lass

For dimensional tolerance of glass, please refer to BS

952. For the allowable sizes for differe nt defects of a
floal annealed glass, please refer 10 ASTM Ci036
and ASTM Cl04S.

22
Course NOles on Curtl'lln Wall DeSign WILSON Curtaln Wall COrlsullam (HK) l Id.
3 DESIGN USING ALUMINUM ­
STRUCTURAL CALCULATIONS
FOR MULLIONS AND TRANSOMS
3.1 Codes for Aluminum Design
Aluminum alloys to be used for curtain wall
extrusions shou ld be of T5 or T6 tempering level.
Material (chemical) compositions of the alloys
should follow thOse' defi ned in BS 1470, 1471 , 1472,
1473, 1474 and OS 8118. AII<lched Table 3. 1 is "the
Table 2" extracted from as
1474 showing the
che mica l composit io ns of various aluminum alloys.
Coatings thickness o n the alum in um extrusio ns
should be minimum 25 J.lm, either anodized or
n uorocarbon coali ng, to BS 3987.
The aluminum alloy adequate for anodizing is
6063 as recommended in 8S8118 page 15 altho ugh
mher aluminum alloys could be harder or stronger.
Therefore, aluminum alloy of 6063 has been widely
used in curtain wa lls and aluminum windows.
For the prOiection of anodized surface, please sec
. BS 3987 and PD 6484.
For structural calculation for aluminum design.
please see BS CP I1 8 (or BS81 18).
3.2 Physical Properties of Aluminum
(Refer to as 8 118, page 22):
obending = 69N/nlln"2;
The physical properties of the aluminum alloys
ashear= 37N/ mnt"2;
although may be slightl y di fferent from each other,
obearing = 117N/mru "2
may be ta ken as following:
Specific weight" of aluminum alloys (similar 10
stone and glass, and notice that specific weight of
steel is 78kNlm3):
Ws = 2710kglm l = 26.6kN/m'
Thermal expansion coeffic ient of aluminum alloys:
, Cth = 23x lO.f> m/moC
(noticing, that this coefri cicnI for glass is 8.5xl O.f>
m/moC and for concrele and stccl is around 10xl0-6
mlmoq
Modulus of elasticitv fo r the aluminum alloys to
BS 8118: .'
Ea = 70000 Nl mml
(Sometimes Ea = 65500 N/ mml is used for
aluminum alloys as defined in CP11 8. Elastic
modulus fo r g lass is Eg = 70,000 to 74000Nlmm~
a nd steel to be Es = 210000N/ mm2. Ratio of e lastic
modulus m=Es/Ea=3)
Melting I)oint
Aluminu m alloys will usually melt at
Tu = 550 to 660 °C
3.3 Permissible Stresses for Alumin um Alloy
6063 Extrusions
If the tempering is T6 (i.e.H9-TF in CP l 18, for
others see BS CPl 18-table 4):
caxial =87N/mm"2;
o bending = 96N/mm"2;
oshear= 52N/mm"2;
abearing = 139N/mm "2
If the tempering is TS (=H9-TE in CP 118):
aaxia! =62N/mm"2;
Allowable Deflection for a Mullion or a Transom is
ballow = UISO span or 20mm (whichever is less)
Note:
The prefix H for H9-TE and H9-TF indicates that
this a luminum alloy is heat treatable. TE and TF
represent di(ferent heat treatments. Prefix N for Other
a lum inum a lloys (or pure aluminum) indicates that
the alloy is no n-heat-treatable. The heat-uealed
alloys are called tempered. T5 (TE) level indicates
the alloy has been heated 10 a tempera ture in a range
(rom 100 to 200°C for a suitable period according \0
23
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,
COlJrse Not es on Cunain Wall Design
different aBoy compositions. T6 (TF) level means the
alloy has been fully tempered.
The tempering of the alloys does not change their
elastic modulus, melting point and density elC.
However the tensile strength , ductility and durability
vary with different level o f te mpering.
3.4 Finishes for Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum is a metal which will form a canlinuQus
and strong oxide film thai prevents further corrosion.
It is a good corrosion resisting metal under a
reaso nable enviro nment. However, when it is used in
cUrlain walls, finishes are usually necessary. The
most often used fini sh is anodiz ing.
Anodizing
Anodizing is a treatment for aluminum or aluminum
alloys . Although aluminum forms an oxide film
when it is exposed in the air, the anodizing will
increase the thickness of this fi lm artificially.
Aluminum extrusion bars will become anodes in
an electrolytic pool, and the applied voltage causes
aluminum ions to migrate outwards to the face of
the extrusion. Once they reach the surface, they
react with the oxygen from the dissociation of water
to produce more aluminum oxide on the surface.
This thicker oxidized coating layer on the surface of
the aluminum extrusion will prolect the aluminum
mOTe than the naturally generatcd oxidized film
against corrosion. This layer can atso"""be dyed to
give various colors prior to sea ling. The anodizing
with no color added is called natural anodizing.
Otherwise it is called colored anodizing. The dyed
(colored) anodizing gives the same protection to the
aluminum a::; the natural anodizing. Reference can
be made to BS 1615 ' Method for specifying anodic
oxidation coatings on aluminum and its alloys' and
BS 3987 'Specification for anodic oxide coatings on
wrought aluminum for external architectural
applications' .
Otber protections
If the protection other than the anodizing is to be
applied to the aluminum alloy, the protection
procedure should fo llow that specified in BS 8118
part 2.
Welding
Most aluminum alloys can be wdded. For the
aluminum alloys that have been tempered , the
welding may reduce the strength of such alloys as
WILSON Curtain Wall Consultant (HI<) Ud.
the tempering will be losl during the heating process
of the welding.
3.5 Structural Calculation
St ructural calCulation for a cunain wall involves
calculations for glass (which has been covered in
Chapter 2), calculat ions for aluminum members
(mullions and transoms as discussed in Ihis section)
and fi xings (includes screws, bolts, brackets, embeds
or anchor bolts etc. which will be discussed in the
next several chapters)
3.5.1 Calculation for a Mullion
Fig. 3.1 shows an elevation of a curtain wall. The
mullion fo r this c urtain wall is an aluminum box
section. The length of every mullion segment equals
the height of one floor . The segments arc con nected
with each other by an aluminum sleeve as shown in
Figs. 3.6 and 3.7 .
a. Loading on a mullion
Ple ase refer 10 Fig. 3.2 for the loading distribution
among vertical me mbers and horizontal members of
a frame around a glass panel.
Wind load on a glass panel (or other panels) is
supported by both mullions (vertical framing
member) and transoms (horizontal framing member).
The load is shared by the framing members as shown
in Fig. 3.2. The load shared by the transom will be
transferre d to the mulHon as a concentrated load as
shown in Fig. 3.3. Therefore. the loads exerted on a
mullion are wind loads transferred from the glass (as
a distributed load) and from the transoms (as
concenltntl!d loads a~ shown in Fig.3.3). The
co mbination of the loads can be assumed as a
uniform load on the mullion (as shown in Fig.3.4)
wi th a difrerence in the results to be less than 4%
which is acceptable for engineering purposes.
You may also ca lculate the bending Moments
(Ml and M2) and Deflections (01 and 02) based on
the separated loads (dislTibuted load and
concentra ted load) and sum the results to get the
resultant Moment (MI+M2) and Deflec tion (01+02)
in the way as shown in Fig.3.3.
b. Calculate a mullion as B simply supported
bea'm
The mullion for a window or window wall can be
assumed simply supported beam under uniformly
distributed load, and can be calculated in Ihe way
25
Course Noles on Curtai n Wall Design WILSON Cunain W all Consu llant (H K) Ltd.

discussed here. T his assumptio n appli es also to the
glass fins suppon ing a glass wall . (I f this assu mption
is appl ied to a mullion ror a curtain wall system, the
bend ing stress in the mull ion and the deflection will
be over-estimated.). Photo 1.4 shows a glass fi n
supponing a glass wall which is a typical simply
supported system.
.. , t:~/
ii. Maximum bending stress and the maximum
defl ection (\vhen under uniform load and of simply
supported) exist a1 tne mid·span. So, we need only to
fi nd the mid-span bending moment rather Inan a
distribution of the mome nt along the beam.
(
.. ,

q,

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'/

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Load o n transom
I
"~,7~-
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Load on mull io n
t:J ' / ,y-',
.~ ,-7
~h ~7
" /; ­

BraCket
1 1

" Embed (H\lli~11 Ch:IIl/l<!1)

1
2~'
~'" '['In

, COllcretC floor 1 " q

~ slab

3'
- d'
1 _
V ("-0).

~llllln~Irrrit>
f~ ....:;.Mull;on {le ngth D tloor hei);,bl } '
UiilLIIttf z3:.s...: ~- Two-llOur fi re insula1ion

Fig.3.2 Wind load on a g lass panel is supported by the

surrounding stfuctural members at equal angles.

Glass Formulas fo r the bend ing momcnt, b end ing stress

and d efl ection :
Fig.3.l An elevation of a curtain wall and fix ing de1ails Maximum bend ing momenl in ~ simply supported
at a floor slab. beam
M = qL2 /8 (3.1)
Following ar e the p rinciples for si mp ly s upported
bcams: Be nd ing stress
i. The deflection and the bend ing mo ment obtained abc = MlVl x (3.2)
(or a mullion are always the most when the support
for a mullion is assumed si mply supported on bOl h Deflect ion
ends. Therefore, the mullion will probably he over­ o=: 5qL 4
/ 384EI (3.3)
designed should simply s upports on bOlh ends are
ass umed. In the above three form ulas:

26

 Course NOles on CunBin Wall Design WILSON Curtain Wall Consultant (HK) lid.

1
~, t
-
1.000fOml~~
lo3d from ,l:w pantl!

1<~1
1-/ '~
-LJ

L~
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...
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Iv'" , / ......
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j Resuhanl mon>(nI
totlCtnulILed loads diSlribu~ed lo;ul5 \M-M,.,.M!1
a" I,1 eM:)
Rcsuhlnl <kllttlion
Oe!ltction Ullt!O Den«~ion lIl1( 10
{D-O, • nil
conccnmlled lo~ds distribllit'd IQads
rO,1 rOll

Fig.33 Wind load on a mullion is composed o r the load

from Iranso ms (concentraled loads) and the load fr om Stack-joint
glass panels (distributed loads). A Slack-joint is a horizontal joint between IWO uni ts
of a unitized curlain wall system where the upper
L is the span between the supports;
unit meets the lower unit. Fig.3.5 shows a typical
q is the Uniformly Di!'ilributed Load (UDL) on the
stack-joint for a unitized curtain wall. Another such
beam (mullion);
stack joint is shown in Fig.l.3.
E is Ela~tic M od u l u~;
A usual stack joint of a unitized curlaln wall
I is Moment of Inertia of the section ; Rnd
system shall bc considered as a joint of free rotat ion
Wx is Sect ion MoQulus.
(a pin-joint) since the c urlain waU units meet al the
stack joint are allowed to slip against each other. The
c. Calculate a mullion as a continuous beam gasket in between the aluminum at the joint can
When considered as continuous beam, and when the allew for a quile big rotational movement. An
spans between supports are the same, the maximum exceptio n is a stack joint using very s mall gaskets
deflection a nd the bending moment over any span of where the joint is very rigid, and rotation al the joint
the beam can be determined by using the tables is nOI very frce. (See next chapter)
attached (see Table 3.2).
You can also use software 10 calcu late the Expansion joint at a sleeve
bending moment, shear forccs and the deflection of An expansion joint is a joint between mullions at
the bealll. diffe re nt noors for a stick curtain waU system. II is
designed to allow the relative movement between
d. Assumptions Jor a stac k joint (of a unitized floors to be absorbed with in the curtain wall system.
system) and an expansion joint (oCa stick system) The extremely high compressive o r tensile stress
caused by such movement if no joint were provided

27
COurse Notl:lS on Cunain Wall Design WILSON Curtain Walt Conwllant (HK) WI.

Oirre~l1ce In 1\l~~jm"l11
1\'1 und 0 is le$$ 1h:<I'I .1·...
r b r q - wi>
contil.lUoUS beam with no free rOlalion joint (not a
pin-joint). ,
[Note: Mosl structu ral CAlculations I have

I ~o~ ' ~1 --:J ---'I seen assu me Ihis joi nt as free fO lal ion joinL This
will overlook the weakness of the mullion al this
I~:::-r:-; ~
/ I =:\ joint - i.e. the s leeve-induced local high bending

J ,L '~ -~
Slress within Ihe aluminum mullion section]
A mock-Up test I conducied fou nd a mullion
/I' ~ \~
k, , ..:>
I, e."?O/,
I ~~I-':"I/
' /0' "­
- j
~o
-

--,
" permanently deformed by about IOmm after a
structural safety test (under 1.5 time... the design
load). The calculation by the contractOr however
'r~I _1--1 1__ 0 --, found the bending stress in the mullion is less
Ihan the ultimate strength under such pressure.

~I~"I"
1,­
~ " ~7" (,
I '( " _ , -
- ..
.-­
'I
~ Of cou rse, the calculation has Assumed the
expansion joint to bo.! free of rotation with zero

-
~
/ ''- ,
\ _ \'
/
, ,'~~ ,,
\:- 1
' / 7.i --'I
bo.!nding moment allhis joinL

" '~,",~-:~/ 1 ,; -01

-­ 'I,
Suggestions for the ca1culalioll s for a mullion
, "}, - ---.. I \,, :I"' with a s~ev e type expaD sion joint

i~·~~~,1
1 /
I. For the calculation of the bending moment,
I ---,SI =1 two calculations should he conducted. Both the
free rotation joint and continuous joint should be
Resultanl fllOnt l!11l considered. Check the bending st ress with the
IM- M,-M 1) more critical moment value . Che<:k the
expansion joint and the sleeve (or the local
Re~uhan ! delleCli'ln
to-O, - D,I
bending (see below).
2. For the calculation of the deflections, the joint
Fig.3 .4 loads on a mullion can be simplified a~ '\
can he assumed of free {Olation as this caSe should
uniformly distributed load.
give a higher deflection than the fixed continuous
joint wi ll give. When the de fl ection thus ohtained is
would be released by this expansion JOint. Fig.3.6
too much and also when the sleeve joint has been
shows a Iypical sleeve type expansion join! lOT a
checked okay for its local bending, a deflection can
mullion.
be calculated assumi ng the mullion a conti nuous
As there is no gasket between the mullion box beam (if you have proved thai the tolerance within
and the sleeve, {he tolerance between them is very the sleeve joint will not allow much rotation).
small to avoid sleeve "tapping" on the mullion.
T herefore, an expansion join! of a stick system is not How to check the local bend ing at the sleeve?

so free of rotation. AClUally when under a low wind One needs to find the local bending s tress in the

pressure (say 10 10 20% design wind pressure) Ihe alumi num section at the expans ion joint as following:

rotation of the mullion is usua lly low. Due 10 the
tolerance of the sleeve, a lillie rotation at the joint
can be absorbed within the space between the slecve
and the mullion box. Therefore, the rotation is free
wilen the system is unde r a low loading. However,
when the design wind pressure (or even the safety
wind pressure) is applied, the joint will tend to roulle
so much that the sleeve will touch the wa lls of the
mullion box and cause a bending moment at the joint.
Photo 3. 1 shows a typical expansion joint for a stick
curtain wall system .
The moment al the expansion joint ca n be
obtained by a calculaLion assuming the mu llion a
I. Find the bcndi ng moment (M) al the expansion
joint using continuous beam assumption.
2. Find the force couple (Fa=Fa' or Fb=Fb') using
this moment - refer to Fig.3. 7.
3. Check the local bending of the mullion box al this
joint undcr the forces Fa or Fb (Fig.3.7).
The fai lure pattern of a mullion box section under
such a bending is as shown in the figu re (Fig.3.7).
T he cn lculatiOn to fin d thc moment and the
deflection can be conducted either with softwarc or
with a hand calculation by us ing the tables allached.
The tables show the maximu m moment and the
moment at critical locations of a continuous beam

26
1
Course Notes on Cunai rl W all Des.l~n WILS ON Curtain Wall Consu llanl (HK) Ltd.

Table 3.2 : Ma~imum bending mome nt, shear force a nd deflection of a continuous bea m

supported at equ al spans

Method 10 use rhe tables:

Span -= L; E= clastic modulus: I "" mo ment o f inertia

1. When unde r dist r ibuted load (ma ximum distributed 10fld is q)

Moment (M) '" aM xq X L'

Shear force (0 ) =a <) x q .'I L

Defl ection (f) "'a t x q x V 1( 100 x E oX l)

2. When under concentra ted load (P)

Momem (M ) - a'l x P x L

Shear force (Q) = a I) oX P

,
Denec1 ion (t) - a ,A P X LJ I ( 100 x E x I)

Assumptio n:

It has been assumed that the expansion j oint of a mullion is rigid (i.e. M = 0),

29
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Course Notes OIl Curtain WaiLDeSign W LLSON OJrtrun Wid ConStAI~m (HI<) l td .

A bea m of 3 equal spa ns

. Ma.~i1num Momen t at
~urport~
Sh~ar fon:c Ddlenions al mid-sp3n~
mmncm
Load iol pmlcro
IOCM, <flo< , ItXMB <fM' IIYQ , '" l~ ri~
01", Q,
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31
COlIfse NOles on Curtain Wall Design W ILSON Curtalfl Wall Consultant (HK) LId.

A bea m of 3 equa l s palls (Coot'd)

Mm.:imum Mumem :u
IlUlIn ':lli ~uppnr1s Shear I(\r"" lkllt:Cl in!\~ al mid-span$
Loudln~ pMlenl
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• 0
" " ~

I I P? ? I
00

2
0
~
_
·
~
N
­
0
~
•
•• •••
0

o I

I I
." ­"
0 0
~

? I
? o o o
~ •• ~
o

I
"
?

o
o
"N
 A bcltlll or 4 equal spans (Conl ' d)

~ M'lm~rll at ~lIflflnrl~ SIH':lJr [i,rcc 1).;lk clious al mid-s!lall~ ~

Lnadi ll g pancrn I,- , Off. !07f. Ig

(2S IPZS I'2S I'z:;. 0_ 169 O. 116 O. l1(i O. 169 - 0. 16 11 ­ 0.1 01 )-0. 1611 0.339 1-0. 6611 -0. 4461 ­ 0.5541 _ 0.339
0.55 ~ 0.4 46 0.66 1
1.019 O. ~Og I O. ~ 09 I 1. 079
i

~
6
- 0.5801 0.027 -0. 527
- 0. 831l 1.246 1- 0.502
I'
~

0.080 1.581
LSZiZS2S"'""'Z!.
II' 0.2 10 O. 183 - 0.0801 -0.0541-0.080 1 0.420
0.021 O. H 3 0.080

- 0.68\1-0.3461-0.060 1.539
c>
j1' I"
ZS; Zi
II'
zs: z:::.
O. 159 O. );1 6 0.2061 ­ 0. \81 1- 0.0271-0.08710.31 9 0.654 0.060 0.5871- 0.4131 -0.953 1 0.1861-0.111

I"z:::. II'6 0.14 2 I O.IH - 0.054 1-0.1611-0.0541 ­ 0. 054/ -0 .05~ 1 -0. 1i01' - O.J9J I 0.05~ 1 -0. 335 1 0.1H I O.H 4 I-O.31~
L'S. - l:\, c::. O. 393 O. 607 O. 054.

--~~-+-4I --+--~-+--r-~-T~~1--41--1--~--
I'
LSlSZS ZS C::. 0. 200 -0.10010.0271 - 0.001) 0.400 I- 0.600 10.127 1- 0. 0331 0.001
.~~ "Oll 0:007
I 1 .~~6 I -0. 460 I 0.126 I- 0.0 42

,""T" ,
ft

~+--+--+---l-----L
I"
c::;-z:;.- zs- .6. -e:. O. 113 , O.O H I - 0.080[ 0.020 1- 0.0741 -0.OHI ­ 0. 50 1 0. 100 1- 0.020 1- O.~60 I 1.121
O. ~93
7
0. 100 - 0.020
I -0.37710. 126

p p p p
0.7 14 1~.1~!:61~~~:~51~\~:51-0.71 4 1 1.164 0.513 0.513 1. 16-1

LS:
111111
zs: zs: I! :c. 2S
0.238 O. II I 0. 111 0.238 [ - 0.2861 " 0.191 1-0.028

,
P p - 1.14 310.0481 - 1.048 1 -0. 892
- 0. 14 3 1-0.0951-0. I dl 0.851 2.657 1- 1.48812.061
II II
C>.ZS2S2S:c.
0. l86 O. 222 0.0 4t 0. 952 0. 14 3 0. 143
~
P P P
- 0 .3?11 -0.0 ~81 - 0.ml 0.6 791 - 1 \.3211 -0.1261 - 0.1011 1 ~
I! II II 0.226 O. 194 0.2112 0
.274 -
55 - 0.8 45 1.541) 1.2431 ­ 1.26512. 582
.107 1.1
LX 2S 2S £SO C.
P
II 2S IIZS
P ~+-~~--4I---~+-~~-~~~--r-+--I--T-~-
·-0. 095 - 1. 190
~~~:~Ol 0.095 1- 0. 595 \. 16S 1. 168 1-0. 595
f
~.z::.-- - 6 O. 175 O. 175 - 0.0951 - 0.2861 - 0. 095 \ -0.095 1
o. 81 0 I. 190 ~
I'
c:.. II LS

I'
II zs
LS ­ .c;,--~
0.27 4 - 0. 11810.048 1- 0.01 2 1 0. 822
- 1. 178! 0.226 -0.060,
0.2 261 -0.0601 0.0 12

-0.1 31 - \ .0)2
O. 0 12 l.Ul 1-0.8\91 0.223 I - O.07~

~~.1~:61-0.0361 -0.8 11l1 1.838 1- 0. 6701 0.223

I
]
c;: ZSO 6. c:. -0.131!-0. u3 1 0. 036 1- 0. \ 31
O. 198 0. 988 O. )18 \i
Course Notes on Curtain W all Design WI LSON Cunaln Wall COI'Isultaot (HK) Uc:I.

A bea m of infinite length of infinile eqlla l spans

~ "'"' ' ' ''';;-IIi"

.,
''''''''·gn,,,,,,,

Mu m':lIt at sUP P<) r\S

111111 ii'l iii q
1-.,­- , I

-{I . 08 3q{!
1; : t!
-1-­

- O. IZ5Pt
!
'_
t jl rt !
_ _ / --------1

- O. ZZ 2P1
~,{
.---/----1

- O. 052q1!
-=;;=;;=="",=o=.=M a:-. imum moment o.o.r.2q{! O.lZ5PI o. 11 1Pt O.031qF
j K t .vi' N \ Shc~r forc.' 1 O. Sql O. SP 1. OF O. 25q!
I I I I Rcm:liorllhrce:.t suppons I.OqI I.OP 2P O.5q/
L I ,
1\'101l1~1H at.<upport., \ -0. O~ 2'1!l -0.063Pl -0. Ill F! -0.026'1/!
-''T'r,.Cli'''''"r Ma:.:imum mj)m~n\ 0.083qF O. ISS PI 0.222 Pl 0. 05iql!
jkK! imMR~, I M. - M", !
React ion (ore.: ,II supp<Jrt~ O. :'q! O. SP 1.0P O.25qJ!

mOIll~ m
, al ~ UPP lirt L - O. 114 q{1 - O. 1il ?l - O. 304Pl - O. 071qf'
_
"} k*K ' 'j- m,.\,''X,
_
I
Moment;l\ support s
M "=M,,, I -0.022'1/! -0.034PI - O. 060PI -0.01 4qt­

\ R~action limculsupporl L j.1S3qP 1.274 P 20 48 BP 0.614q!

Moment UI su pports O.053qf2 0.Oi9 Pl O.141 Pt - O.03 3qI'

I M,-M, I
-~. k K! tm ;1 ,, ~, ~1~~lmum m(lm~nt 0.012q1' O.l1I PI 0.}9 2Pl 0.050qfl
i\·lmnenl ~t supports 0. 014'1ll 0.021 P I O.03S?1 0 . OO9'll!
I M,- M M I­

_===-_LomJin~ within tho;: "pan \ ~)

No 1I'3ding within the span (5)

35
 Course Notes on Curtain Wall Design WILSON Cunajn Wall Consultant (HK) Ud.

under various loading distributions. Thc maximum

~ .~l"lhon
deflections are also listed (Table 3.2).

~
r
For the fi xing and loading diagram for a mullion I SIe-< , .
-~
considered as continuous beam with no pin joints , ' /
(using no free rotation assumption at expansion joiOl). ...:-.4 f.~I"'" ..onJO,n'

I:-:-:'
~:1 .i
please refe r to Fig.3.8. . _,,·"'1 ~ (2 0,,,,,, " ,J~

For the fi xing and loading diagram for a mullion

cons idered as continuous beam wi th pin joints for the
expansion joints, please refer to Fig.3 .9.
I,-:..----~:
~
_-1 ~
iv '" f; lkd " ,Ih IIhC<ll".<: <eaj,.."
10 ,,,,,,;>ell
a'-o,.:I WlIlt r

,"'Om",," ,,,'"

!w
" Hil 5udc p.., ,-.,. .. ,,,,,I",,,,~ ...ill . B:r.>cko' (CI>lS.:an21<'J)
(lion....... jo."- ......, 1
Thr<>ui:.h bO lt.!.

OnP9'''' Ii",
(__ """eI_~~I Il.1S

~loor sbb

"

Embed
" --~.
~,~~"._ B_ ,G"S~.u)
""in ~
, . __-. _ .:r
!>«....., ,..o ""&hI>o",,, -or"'" I _ 1 .J -:--- - Tht""ehb.:>1
IS
P=-<oqu>l-­ _..

•
r
Fig. 3,5 A stack joint between an upper unit and <l
lower unit of a unitized curtain wall system. The system
is slightly inclined .
. ,

3.5.2 How to Calculate a Split Mullion ror a
Unitized System
As discussed earlier, a unit ized curtain wall system
uses split mullion with each split hal f of the mull ion
attached on the two neighboring units respectivel y.
T herefore, the differences between the calculation
for the mullions for a un itized system and that fo r a
standard system are .
a. We should "split" the load on eilher part of the
split mul lion.
b. The stack joint between curtain wall un its is
usually very free to move. Therefore, this joint is a
pin-joint with a close to zero bending moment unless
small gaskets are used as discussed in Chapter 4. One
needs to check the stack joint design to confi rm tili:;.
Should a rigid stack joint be designed, the bendi ng
moment at this stack joi nt cannot be omitted .
Fig. 3.6 An e.xpansion joint between mu llion segments.
A sleeve is installed to restrict la tcral mnvcmcnt of the
lower end of the mullion segment above this noor slab
while the vertical movcml! nt of the segment is still
allowed within the box seclion of Ine mull ion. Crack ing
noise could sometimes happen at th is joint due to the
metal to metal direct contaCI and also due to Ihe
movement at 1his joint usually caused by thermal
expansion.
a. F ind the bendin g moment and the bend ing
stress in a split mullion for a unitized system
The key for a calculat ion to determine tne bending
s tress in a spl it mullion is to find the bending
moment shared by each split part .of the mull ion .
After the shared moments by the split parts have
been delermi ned, the bending stress can be easil y

36

;.

 Course Notes on Curtain Wall Design W ILSON Cunaln Wall COns ukanl (H K) LJ6.
l

4. Fi nd the section mod ulus o f th is pari of the

mullion (W I);
,... 5. Find the bending SlTess (in the part 1 o f the
mullion) as 01 = M l fWl
.' i

~\~~
~
. ,
w
."
fl.·

", ~
---------J l'
Sp'" between suppons
~ II oW
Mullion -

S!~.n
If- IliE
II
F~
." f1' rt= 1
,-
E.>:1"I>00rI join~
~
I, ,J i"
". M
>'" So
,... ==:~=t
II "- M "
~/
Ellpansionjoilll
Ql
11\ Bending moment at the joint i! not zero

1,- - - -Jlj.~>---- '" (M-O)

\1 Fig.3.8 A mullion for a stick curtain wall system can be

considered as a continuous beam with no joint of free
rOlalion. The load diagram can be as shown here.

Where It is the mo me nt of inenia of the male section

Fig. 3.7 Local bending to lh~ wall of a mullion seclion
may be caused by the non-zero bend ing moment at an
e:<pansion joint.
fo und through Ihe way same as that for lh e single
part mulli ons.
Following sleps should be followed for lhe
calculalion:
L Find the moment in lhe whole mullion (M);
2. Find the ratio of the effcclivc momen! of inertia
o f a split part o f lhe Illullio n (pan-l , male section)
against the whole effective moment of inertia IT
Eh/(EI1+Eh)1 where I. (k=l or 2) is lhe mornen! o f
inerti, for each part o f lile split mullion, E is the
elastic modulus of the aluminum alloy;
3. Define the moment shared by this pan of the
, mullion as lhe ratio limes the total moment (M\ ::: M
x El d( EI 1+EI 2 »;
'""l
of the mullio n (i.e. s plit part- I), 12 is !he momeD! oC
inertia of the fema le section of the mullion (i.e. split
pan-2); E is the elastic modul us o f the aluminum.
When the materials ust:o fo r bot h mu llion sections
are the same, this E can be deleted from the fo rmula
above.
T his distribu!ion of the mo ment over the two
parts of the mullion is based o n a [act thaI the
deflections o f both parts are the same. The proo f [Of
this formu la in ite m 3 is the same as that fo r
laminated/double g lazing glass panels derived in
Chapter 2 o f this notes
= [ Provl!:
Dej1ection of the male section (part·I )
0, = 5q1L~ 1384£11 (3.4)
(/nd the deflection of the female sectioll
8, : 5q,L' 1384£[, (3.5)

37
Cou rse Notes on Cunain Wall Design WILSON Cunain Wall Consultam (HK) Ltd,

and the deflection of the whole mullion section and the transom, very oflen this load on transom is of
0= 5qL' / 384£1 (3. 6) a triangular distribUlion (Fig.3. lOa). The formulas for
Ihe bendi ng moment and deOeelions are as fo llowing:
where q=qr"'qb El = Ell + £11

Noticing that 0 = o} (both mullion sectiolls III{)I·C

logether,

so, q ) = q Ell 1 (EI /+ E1.) 0.7)

Moment is proportional to Ihe IIlIiform load on lite

mullioll, we call "ave

M I = MElli (EI I+EIlJ (3.8)

# proved! ...

~ .,.
1

k1 w& rL~r
Photo 3.1 An expansion joint in a mullion.

Spall belween suppo:\s

n, Triangul ar distributi on
, When load distribution on a bi;!am is of triangular
<..mot L~l ~
shape. the follow ing formulas can be adopted to
obta in the mllximum bending moment and deflection:
Maximum Bending Momen t in the tra nsom

• ~ ;'PP"o
;' .
(happen at the mid span) is:
M = qL 2 / 12 (3.9)

E,p·
3nSIon joint ~7~ Defl ection of the transom:
4
b :: qL /1 20EI (3. 10)
Bending moment 3\ Ihe joinl is zero
where q is the maximum distributed load over a
(M " O) triangular distribution. L is the span between
o Arc lh~ pin·Jnints (M · 0) supports for the transom, E is the elastic modulus of
alumi num and I is the moment of inertia of the
Fig.3.9 A mullion for a stick curtain wall system can be transom seclion.
considered as members connected together with pin­
joints. Such pin-joints are correspondent \0 the b. T rau sum u nder uniform load
expansion joints of the mullion. The load diagram for The form ulas for the calculations for the transom
the mullion can be as shown here. under a uniform loading (q) are the same as s hown
above in section 3.4. 1, i.e.
3.5.3 Calculation for a T raDsom M = qL'/8
b = 5qL" f 384EI
The distribution of the load on a transom is usu<llly
triangular shape or trapezoid shape (see Fig.3.10a c. Tra pezoid load distributions
and Fig.3.10b for the load distribution on a transom). Please refer to Table 3.3.
When a wind load (or dead load, when glas5 is
installed horizonlalIy) is shared by both the mullion Maximum bending moment:

38

-
Course Noles 0fI Cl.m aio Wall Design
M '" q1l (3 _ 4 3
2
! e)/24
where a is as s nown in Fig.3 .10a.
Max imum de OeClioll o f the simply supported
beam under a trapezoid load distri bution:
4
b '" (qL4 /240EI)(25!8 _ 5 alII} + 2 a4/L )
L 1200mmJ
~
+ 1
-'"
IE ] ,. -,
I
I 'lfr
-/
f'
11)/"\ II t t
~ a
it L q
Fig. 3.10a Wind loa.d on a glass panel will be resisted
by both the tra nsom and the mullion . The load on the
glass panel is shared by the vertica l mullion and the
horizontal transom at equal angles (45"). Please refer \0
Fig.3.2.
d. Fonnulas for the calculation under all the
above load distributions
As the mo ment , the deflection and the bending stress
are linearly proportional \0 the load on the transom
(beam), the resultant moment and deflection etc can
be obtained by summing up the individuals. {i.c. if
M\ is the moment caused by a load distribut ion q1:
an'd M2 caused by a' ioad distribUlion Q2, the moment
due to q = q l+q1 is M = MJ + M 2. Same principle
applies a ~o to the defl ection} .
[Exercise-refer to Fig.3.lObJ
Assume a transom is under a uniform load (or more
accurately a trapezoid load) from a glass panel
WILSON Conal" Wall Consultant (HI<) Ud.
below it, alld two Iriangular loads from G/lother two
glass panels above the transom (see Fig.3.10b) and a
concentrated load from a short mullion. Find lite
deflection and bending stress of this transom when
wind pressure w = 3.0 kPa, length of the transom L
= 1000mm, height of the lowe/" fixed wjrniow is 2b =
5OOmm, alfd height of the upper operable willdows is
/
/
""
"
/
1:
Co nc ~ntnued luad
~ +
/
from Ihe sila r( mulli ull
L '""
Fig. 3.10b Wind load on a transom . The load contains
also a concentrated load from a shon mu llion above the
transom.
3.5.4 Limitation to a Calculation Using a
Software
Vcry ofte n people will use software to calculate the
mo ment and deflection of a beam or even a more
complicated truss system. T he problem wit h such
calculations is that the result is ind irect. The software
is like a black-box to which you feed the entry dala
(initial conditions and boundary conditions) and from
which you gel Ihe res ults. Therefore it is very hard 10
check the results (ro m a software. BD allows o nly
the results from a softw are {hat is approved by BO.
Results from a software depends o n not only Ihe
software itself, but also the perso n who uses the
soft ware.
39
 CaufS. Notes on Curtain Wall Design WIlSON Curtain WaIL CQIlsultant (H K)lld.

Ta ble 3.3: Shear fo rce, bendin g momcnt and deflecti on of a sim ply supp0rl cd

b ea m under va rious loading patt erns

loadin g panern Reaclion from \ReaCl iOll from Maximu m Maximum deflection
Inc left suppon the right bending moment
'sllppon

P/2 Pf2 P L 14 PI} I (48EI)

.5
I' 4
t l/~ V 1 1

P P aP Pa l! (3.4 a2/L!) I (24 EI)

~
'
o I , ~

'---< '
," PbI l Pa ll Pa bl l P b 1(9 Ell) .r aa~ + ab)l 13}

!P I'" ! P/L (2 c + b) I P/L (2a + b) Pa I L(2c + b) I Pal(6EIL)

T-t7 T c (a>c)
\(1a+c}l ! - 4a~ L + 2a' - a! c - e}

;dll1 1l1Iliy, qLl 2 'IV I B 5qL! I (3!!4E I)

,--'--1 qL I 2

qLl4 qLl 4 ql. ~ / 11 qL ~( 120E l )

~
i!. 0.
f--<---i
qL12 (I - aiL) I qU:l (I - aiL) I qL'124 qL~ I (240EI)
l\41IPI!!I!1h... p -4 (a!/Ll)} {2S18 - 5 (a 2 / Ll) + 2 ( a~ I L~) }

t:L~
, ,
4fl'b.-....rtJh;Iq qLl4 qLl 4 q L'1 16

te". "
I ...---i

.
II

7qL' / (1024EI)

40

\ )
Course Noles on Curtain Wall Design
T he way to avoid mistakes in using software is first
to use a si mplified model to estimate the results by
hand calculation , and then use the software to get
more complex results. Compare these two sets of the
resuhs. lf the difference is minor, the results from the
softw are can be used. If the difference is significant ,
you should check your calculation procedure w ith
the software: your models, your assumptions, your
entering of the data (initial condi tions and bounda ry
conditions) etc, and calculate it again, until the
results from the software are generally in agreement
with the hand-calculated results.
3.5.5 Cbeck BuclUing
Local and lateral buckling should be checked for
aluminum extrusions under compression or bending.
Following principles should be noticed when you
check buckling:
Rules :
• Buckling happens at the part o f the extrus ion
under compression only.
• Lateral buckling is the budding (side-way
deformation or rotation about the minor axis) of the
whole section when' tIle section or pan of the section
is under compression.
• When a section is an open section (a C- or I·
channel etc.) with the moment of inertia about the
minor axis (Iy) « the moment of inertia about the
major axis (Ix), and the sect ion is under bend ing
about the major axis x, the lateral buckling should be
checked.
• When a section has thin walls, local buckling
should be checked.
• Restrained seclions (sectio ns fixed at certain
spans) or sections Qf box .c;ect i on~ are not critical for
lateral buckling.
Local buckling/Lateral buckling can be checked
(0 BS CPl18 or 10 BS 8118 .
Lateral buckling:
Lateral budding is the failure of a beam when under
a bending about the major axis or under pure
compression. The fai lure mode of lateral buckling is
twisting combined with s ide way displacement about
the minor axis.
To check laleral buckling, one needs to use the
formulas 'On page 4.8 of CP llS for different sections
to find 4., and use the d iagrams on page 49, 50 and
51 of CPll8 to determi ne the parameters in the
formulas. The AI., thus obtained should be used to
WILSON Curtain Wall Consullanl (HK) U(l.
find the permissible bending (compressive) stress for
the aluminum section by using the diagram on page
29 oflhe CP 1l S.
Local buc klin g:
Local buckling is th e failure of one or more
compcnems of a beam section when under a bendi ng
induced compression or direct compression. The
failure mode of local buckling is the deformation o f
the local e lements (walls) of a section into a seri es of
waves .
To c heck the permissible stress under local
buckling, the formula A. = mb/t s ho uld be used to
determine the ~ The m, b and t for different
aluminum sections are to be determi ned using the
diagrams on page 65 of CP11 8. This J. once
determi ned should be used to check against the
diagram on page 29 of CPl18 to determine the
permissible bend ing compressive stress due to local
buckling.
For an aluminum section, the maximum bending
compressive stress in it should not exceed the lesser
of the IWO permissible stresses determined above
under lateral buckling and local buckling.
Exercise 1,
I) Find the allowable compressive bending stress for
the lower transom section at a stack-joint shown in
Fig.3.5 with BS CPl 18; (Hint: Check both the local
buckling ilnd lateral bUCkling. Aluminum is ass um ~d
as 6063-T5. Use clause 4.5.1 of CP118 for local
buckling, and clause 4.4.4 fOT lateral buckling. Wall
thickness of this section is assumed 3mm everywhere.
The box is 60mm x 160mm. The p ro truded lips are
SOmm high.).
2) Find the allowable bending tensile stress for :t
section sho\vn in Fig.3.5 with BS CP118; (Hint: No
buckling wi ll happen to a section in tension).
3.5.6 Check Torsion on an O pen Section
When a section (say a transom) is under an eccentric
load, a torque will be e xerted on this section. The
torsional stress of a section is determined by a
torsional modulus (G) and a moment o f inertia (J) of
the section against the torsion. For more details,
pJease read BS CP I18, Appendix F and G and Bleich
(1952).
41
Course NOles on Cunain Wall De$lgn WILSON Curtain Wall Consultarll (HK) Ud. 1
I

4 DESIGN OF A CURTAIN WALL

Many curlain wall contraCtors in Hong Kong, when
When an architect decides the appearance of <I they present thei r designs for Curtain walls, do not
curtain wall, it is always the cOnlraclOr' s (or the even bother to draw the connections bel ween
designer hired by the contractor) res ponsibil ity 10 transoms and mu llions o n their design drawings.
achieve it on a curtain wall. In Ihis chapler. we will They have simply assumed thai the alu minum angles
discuss about the engineering details related to the will be used as the connectors bet\veen the mullions
design of a curtain waIl rather than the architectural and the transoms.
aspects.
For Ihe general installation details for a curtain
wall syStem , please refer to chapI.e r l.
Photo 4.1 shows a unitized curtain w3ll system
which is under instaJlalion. Photo 4.2 shows a similar A
unitized system whose installation has been
completed.

4.1 Design of the Connections between a

Mullion and a Transom.

a. Aluminum Angle Connection

The connections between mull ions and transoms arc
very ofte n aluminum angles fi xed with stainless Sleel
screws (or aluminum screws) ontO both the ml!Hi\ln~
and transoms . Fi g.4.1 shows a typical con nect ion
with aluminum angles. Photo 4.1 A unitized curtain wall is being inslalled.
The installation s!<lrted from bOliom up and from \eft to
right.

s·""", -.I.poor ." Inslallation fini shed

A
-$­ -{> -$­

is loued In I,,,,,<om
Ih ed on!" mllll",n
"" (It . .",,,,,;

DW;ng P.l~cl!O co'·.,

lhe bonom orll>: !nnWIt".

Photo 4.2 A unitized curtain wall systcm thai have

Fig. 4.1 An aluminum angle is inserted in II slot in the been installed . Each unit covers aile floor height and
transom extrusion and screwed 10 the mullion. one bay width .

42

eoulSe NOles on Cunain Wall Design
h. Tenon connection
Tenon connections (sec Fig.4.2) are usuall y only
used for small windows. For such a connection, the
Iransom of bo): sec tion will be cut into two protruded
lips (Fig.4.2) which will be slo tted into the slots in
the side sub-frames. T he protruded lips will then be
hammered flat to provide the fixing of the lenon ends
to the side sub-fram es . The s ide sub-fra mes will then
be fixed onlO the main frame with screws or clips or
both .
Scre\\fS are o fte n found missing Crom the side
sub-frame for a window. Quality control on site
should cover Ihe check on such screws as they are
structural. M issing such screws will cause the joint
between Ihe sub-fram e and the main frame (the
mullion) open up and lead to water leakage.
-. -­
"....
Slol i ~!he ,id.< fn.m<
!'r",r'\IIkd lip>
T~ .nd
(,,,be h:ammcl not)
,,
-~
,
/0
Fig. 4.2 A tenon joint that fixes a transom to a sub­
frame. The sub-fra me will be clipped 10 a mullion and
locked in place with screws.
c. Other connectors
ConnectioD 1 (refer to Fig.4.3) :
Fig.4.3 shows a transom being directly fixed onto the
mullion with screws. As tIle screws are applied fro m
the muUion side, such screw application can only be
achieved to unitized curtain wall systems whose
mullions are composed of split pieces (i.e. spli t
mullions).
Connection 2 (refer to Fig.4.4):
To allo\v such d irect screw application as above
possible for standard stick systems, a "slot-in"
section is extruded and is cut to aro und 50 to lOOmm
long segments based on a calculation to fix the
transom to a mullion wi th screws. The additional
WILSON Curlaln Wall Consultant (HK) Ud.
momenl on a connector of aluminum angle does nOI
happe n 10 this connector due to Ihe b ig momeO! of
inerti a of Ihe connector segment against Ihe bending.
For typical designs for such connectors, please refer
to Fi g.4.4.
S<,~.. "I'pli<il from
""~" 'I :\
~:, f ~! \ I ~\ .'_
~r== - ~-
~!"~\L!J1 ~L: ~(~--rtIP'rIL
,.... .c<.
;,,,,,",, Ill-. ,- ,
T=....,m ! , 1 .
Spin mullion
li~ t (r>rn<
Fig. 4.3 The tran som is fixed to the mullion b)'
applying screws fro m mullion side into Ihe pre­
extruded screw holes in the transom seclion.
Connection 3 (Fig.4.5):
FigA.5 shows a connection design which uses no
connector between the Iransom and the mullion.
What the contractor did was notching off the e nd of
the transom hy about 15 rnm leaving o nly a plale of
3mm thick (Fig.4.5) to be screwed omo the mullion.
In worrying Ihllt 2 screws al each end may not be
stro ng enough to support the dead load and the wind
load, II stainless steel rod was sloned into the mullion
and the transom as partially a connector. The rod was
kept in the transom before the transom is installed.
Aft er the transom is inslalled (screwed ontO the
mullion), this rod was hammered into the mullion
through a hole predrilled on the mullion.
Connection 4 (FigA.6):
Fig.4.6 shows a typical connector connecting the
horizontal and the vertical aluminum sections into a
door(rame (or window frame). It is fric tio n type and
fixes Ihe horizontal and vertical sectio ns togel her
through the friction between the bollS a nd aluminum
extrusions. ACtually, when the boh is applied the
al uminum sectio n is pressed concaved by the bolt by
about O.5mm depth. Therefore, this is stU! basically a
mechanical fixing.
43
Course NOles on CUl1llln Wall Dl!$ign W ILSON Cun,ajn w all Consultam (HK) Ltd.

Sc!nn!l. blo.:k
of the dead load on the angie and the dead load itself.
i.e. (Fig.4.7a):
F,-Fd =Fb
F~ x a = Fd x b

T his torsion together wit h the wind-load-i nduced

lorsion will induce an extra shear fo rce on the screws

1-~",~1l\
,
··~S""" on the side of thc angle. T hus, Ihe shear stress of the
screws can be more accurately estimated.
(Note that a u~uaJ calculation will calculate the
shear stress in the screws using d irectly the wind
load and dead load o nly. Actually, the shear stress
Double !l.luing unit 5Qmm long ,e gment of aluminium S<:G:,lNl induced by the torsion is more critical than the direct
(\0 be so:~wHl onto mu llionl shear)

I[ \
Sell,ng blo.:~ Torsion from wind load is (Fig. 4.7h)

F... x a2

Trani"''''

, . Si milarly, the-ex tra tensile fo rcc on the screws o n the

s ide of the angle ca n be estimaled by assuming the
dcad load (Fd = F.- F~) exerted aI a l away from the
bottom (side) of the angle as shown on Fig. 4.7b.

Screws
4.2 Design of Adaptors and Beads (Clipped io
Double gluong un,t or Screwed/Clamped on to the Main Frame)

a. Glass beads

Fig. 4.4 A segment of an alum inum eXlTusion is first For easy htstallalioll and replacement of glass panels.

inserted into or screw fixed to the transon!. S~r('ws arc gluzing beads (usually of aluminum) are often used.

Ihen applied from tra nsom side to fix thc tranSQrn 10 thc Typical beads for gl ass installalion include the

mullion. fullowi ng:

• Triangle bead;

d . Calculation for an aluminum angle connection. • Square bead;

The fu nction of the connection between a transom

and a mullion is to trans fer the load on the transom to
the more rigid and stronger mullion. A Struc\Ural
calculation is necessary to ensure thai such load
transfe r can be achieved safely.
Loads on a Transom include:
• Dead load from the glass panel anJ the s c l f~
weight of the transom;
• Wmd load fro m the glass panel
[Calculation sample:
cost effective to extrude aJuminum frames and beads .
The dead load on a transom is transfcrred to the
A design shown in Fig. 4.1l could be: an alternalive
aluminum angle through a way shown in the diagram
in which a square alu minum extrusion which can be
FigA.7.
purchased from the m<-trkct has been used as a bead.
In particular, the dead load is divided illlo two ro rc c~
namely Fb ' and F~' which should support Ihe lorsion
Triangle beads HS shown in F igA.8 arc widely used
for the glazing of glass pa nel ~ for windows. To keep
a consistent look of the window frame s with the box
sectio ns of its surround ing mullions and transoms,
squa re beads as s hown in Figs. 4.9 and 4.10 are
gelling more popularly used nowadays. T he functio n
ot' <-tluminuln beads is [or casy insta llation of glass
panels and i" (0 keo.:p Ihe glass panels In place after
the installation. Fo r a sma!! project for which only
several windows are to be installed, it may not be
Small square box sections arc screwed o nto a bigger
box section to hold the glas~ in place.
Though a detailed structural calcu lation may not
he necessary 10 check the beads, a bri ~ f calculation to

44
 Course Notes on Curtain wan Design WILSON CurtalnWaii Consu ltant (HK) Ltd.

This c:appinl pro~~

• haizonIaI m«".aniaol fi1Ol'li

10 tho: &IU$ panel

mUllion
Tran"'m section i. cllilwre lu",ina,
• ISrnn: long by 3mm thiek
", Stainless j.\ul ::.".......... jj

GmC\ 10 lock Mlillion here '1lIOlcb.d 10 al low

the cappln& in JI'.~~ ~ for Ihe 15mm long plale
aidle!fansom 10 be tUN

A mew 10

" ,, '
>-"'
CI.mping bar

ScrlWS 10 fix u _ onlO \he

mullion on ib front .....

~G
. " ,j lrame

$rq;s~
. . 1:)­
Fig. 4.5 The transom is notched OIl its ends and fixed 10
the mullion with screws. •

check whethe r Ihe bead will "open-up" under a

design wind pressure (positive or negative) is

essential.

T he aluminu m beads for the fixing of large glass

panels have been often observed open-Up during

mock-up tests fo r w indows. This "operr-up" e rred is

also one of the reasons for water leakage through Ihe

beads du ring a storm and/or a typhoon.

b. Adap tors
To ensure Ihc qUlllity of sealant applicalion, glass
panels are glazed onto the ada ptors in factories. After
the sealant is cured, the glass panel together with the
adaptors is shipped to the site and installed 00(0 the
curtain wall frame (Mullion and Transom) with
screws in a way shown in Fig. 4.12.
Adaplors fur such purposes are usually of U·
shape (Fig. 4.12) and are fixed to mullion and
lransom wilh clamping bars.
As sealant will creep under a long Icrm load such
as dead load, a dead load support is necessary to
release this long term loading on the sealant. Notice
that the' allowllble tensile and bonding strength of a
structural sealant is \ 38kPa when under a snorllerm
load but only 6.9 kPa w hen under a long term load.
Care s ho uld be taken to dead load supports. The
) dead load sUpJXlrt as shown in Fig. 4.12 supports the
C<>rlM<:1O< \0 CQf\I>«'I
",,10... _ """""'1"
frunV\, ~mbo" 11>1I.Ih.r
Fig. 4.6 A connector thai connects aluminum sections
logelhcr by tighlening bolts onlO aluminum seclions.
glass at its bottom near an edge where sheari ng area
is s malL A calculation is necessary to check the
adequacy of this support. Extending the al uminum
adaptor 10 provide a deeper suppan is imJXlssible as
that extended to ngue of Ihe adaptor will penelrllte the
wc,lther $cllJanl which may lead 10 WilIer lea kage
(Fig. 4.12).
For a typical such fixing for a Slick curtain wall
syslem wi th mullion " invisible" from outs ide. please
refer \0 Photo l.1.

45
 Cou rse Notes 00 Cu rtain wan Design WtLSON Cunam Wall COnsullatll !HK) Ud,

D<>dl"";F, t
.. "" .;
3 - AS , T,.;""",I.~
t Senini blO(~ '- r:ri t~ I.-oid Sl.... \oo<tUn& ~ ;llurnil1~111 btrej

F. ! i
Wi!l<l to.;j f .
'A """" T~

).i, ­ F• • AD (
- F. .....s
~~'M;~
slone.! in IQ/Uoon
"'fe;o."od I., 'n ullL""
hll,eI<
C'PP'''~ (o,·.nIlS ,I>< ,,,,,,,,,,,,,

~-td~L!J1

Fig. 4.7a Loadi ng on a connector of aluminum <Ingle.

,
F. Mullian
0+<"
, i 'Io-!-:::---
>----;"¥ o....ido

/
Fig. 4.8 Triangle beads aTC used to fixed glass panels.

F. h. Cap ping Carry in g Loads

~ )..
"

- -' - r:
Fig. 4.7b Forces on an aluminum angle
4.3 DesigD of Cappings
a. Capping carrying no loads
These are the cappings that are used (0 covcr the ugly
inside of the curtain wall or window system a nd/or 10
provide weather proofing. Such cappings docs not
take loads except its own weight and the wind load
on itself (see e.g. Fig. 4.13a). As the load on the
capping is very low (its own weight and the wind
load on ils surface) such capping is us ually s imply
clipped onlO the frame behind.
T here are also capp ings screwed to or hooked to the
main frame to keep glass in plat:e which shall take
the wind load from the glass ancVor dead load of the
g lass panel (see e.g. Fig. 4.13b).
Fig. 4.13 shows the eappings t:arrying loads or
carr ying no loads. The capping carryi ng no loads is
also shown in a design presented in Fig. 4.4, and that
carrying loads (;Quid be secn in Fig. 4.5.
Structural calculation is necessary for the
co nn ~ctor. eappings {hal t:arry loads . The bending stress at the
bOllo m of the capping pane l is usua lly the most
critical part of the capping and sho uld be checked.
Screws that are applied to fix the capping need also
to be checked.
Example 1:
Fig. 4. 14 shows the eappings used to fix a canopy
which is sloped by 35".
When the 35" indincd glass is fixed onto a sleel
fra me with cappings only, no dead load support was
provided in this design. Glass is only fixed in
position by the frict ion between the gasket and the
glass. T he compression force compre.<;sing the gasket

46

Course Notes on Cunain Wall Design Wt LSON Curtain Walt Consultant (HK) l lo.

against the glass is provided by the capping \vhich is mainl y happened at screw locations where glass edge
fixed onto a steel box beneath the glass panel with was found touching the screws (Photos 4.3, 4.4 and
screws. This design causes a danger Ihal the glass 4.5).
ma y slip down 10 the halla m 10 touch on the steel or
aluminum there (FigA .14). Once the glass touches
the screw, a stress concentration will happen a1 Ihe
touching poin!. This high suess may be increased to lthis bead ~ould be notched
to all",... ~ins blocks
a higher value due 10 the rmal expansion of the glass
to sit on the transom sectionl
under the sunshine leading to possible glass breakage. "

Square bead

s,"'o. block- F ~

S~",b=i

_ rC~:;:::j
o

G ive clearance to avoid the g.\asi$

touching tho: aluminum

Mel~l 1"g, piMed OIItocOllCfeu:

Fig. 4.10 Square beads are used to fix glass panels.

"" ~~~"" 01~ AlUilllllum square box sections all beads

Fig. 4.9 A big glass panel for a window is fixed to

rebates with square alumin um beads.

This design was commented by the author and was Gasht or backi ng rod
modified before fina lized. Two setting blocks have Aluminum frollle
been provided under the glass to avoid the glass edge
touching the aluminum or steel.

-Example 2:
Photos 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5 show cappings used to fix a SereII'
skylight (this case will be discussed in detail later).
A 45° inclined glass panel for a skylight was
found fixed onto a steel frame underneath with Sealant
eappings o nly. No dead load support was used. Glass
breakage was reported 10 approximately 30% glass Fig. 4.11 An aluminum (or stainless stee l) box section
panels installed \vithin a one-year period. Breakage is used 10 fix glass panels IOgether with screws.

47
 Course Notes on Cunaln Wall Design WILSON Curtain Wall Consultanl (HI<) lid.

S,eel mullion dadded ,",'i1l, . lI.mio"," joint b~tween the weather sealant and the concrete at
lhe window head (Fig. 3.5) causing the ceiling alt he
window head on the interior side wet.
p".- .. ~ ~

ID'(
\lu!l IOO",,:uthctdgo '/W
of ~cun>.!n w"l1 .)",.tn . ' " ,Io<\;.~...",n
\\ ul"·"",
~.
ACUptaf1
• liJOSS .. \tI be ! louJ

"" "'" _p<;o<

1ft faaones 11"- C~m~ <' '"'"'"0. no I""'"
i
\ \ --:=

Cl'mP'''! to;" \0 fl. ,l...od uM ,

S ell '~
bk>ck '0 <he t,~"".o \\ o>r>;'"l hol< ,n ) n,~lb""
Ded [Old" only 10' tt... ~pplic"l'or. ,,( the .,"ow
~uppon.d 0\ $I'" .~ ..e
calcullll<ln Me.:le<! 10

Alunllnum " .._ ....

<h.<;k th< 111'1\ ,d;e
F ig. 4.13a Capping pand thai does not take the loads
but the dead load and wind load on itself.
., *' "*,
$ ~

.'Iurn;""", ...~al~ ~",,"""C1'"

J.l<"l1t~
~fO",-.j
in I(:IIlSllnl4,:.:i
l'llm Ih, muliioo -~-
'1"
Fig. 4.12 Glass is glazed onlo the V-shape adoptor in
factory and is fixed to mullions or transoms with
damping bars and screws on site.
AJ.p!'"
c. Dripping lines

Rain Water on the aluminum sections of a curtain

wall will travel mainly vertically downward. The
water can also travel horizomally due to its surface Fig. 4.13b A cappi ng panel thaI fixes a glass panel 10
tension. To avoid rain waler penetrate 10 interior aluminum framing members.
through weep holes or other unselded joints or
openings, dripping lines should be provided in front
of such joints or openings. A dripping line is the 4.4 Minim um Edge Cover for Glazing
protruded line in a seclion behind which waler
cannot travel horizontally or vertically downward The width of a glass panel around its edges buried in
toward inside. Such a line in fro m of a transom a re bate is called edge cover. W hen a glass panel is
section is usually provided by the capping. Fig. 3.5 fixed to aluminum frames with beads or with capping
and Fig. 4.21 show dripping lines provided in front panels, the edge cover fo r the glass should be nOl less
of stack joinls. Fig. 4.15 shows a dripping line Ihan those given in Table 14 of BS6262 which has
provided al the head of a window. Water permealio n been reprinted below. The actual edgt: cover should
through the lOp of windows for a residential be checked by a brief structural calculation to
development in Hong Ko ng was observed to many <lscenain that the deflection of the glass will not lead
windows due to the lack of such drip ping lines. R:-in 10 the glass to slip off the frame or induce a very high
water has traveled horizontally to interior through the local stress ncar the edges.

48
/ Cour5~ Notes--on ,Curtaln/W
/~ 9t:slgry "> W!LSON C urtain Wall Consultsnl (HK) U d.
... ' - /

Table 14 of BS 6262 r~printed) . .

Glass thickness
Edge cover I
I (mm) I (m~)
10 .. 8

12
9

15
10

19
12
25 15
.. mini mum edge cover for any si ngJe gl ass should
be 6nun.

It should be noted th ai the edge cover depends

greatly o n the size of the glass panel as well as the
thickness. Wind pressure the edges are resisting
should also be taken into consideration . Structu ral
calculation checkillg the edge cover should ensure
that thc glass edges will not disengage fro m the
rebates. A ratio nal ca lculat ion should cover the
deOectiOll of the glass panel, the compression of the
gasket, the angle of rotation o f the glass around
edges and the rotalion of the capping if there were Photo 4.3 A crack is observed in the glass panel near a
screw.
any.

Structural capping screwed

onto a frame underneath
~

Crack slans from

Slrucn,fal CIPp inll

~
=_d 10 fr.une

~ HardgW.~

IfJ
A force compon~m

Ihw mil)! eau!.e

Photo 4.4 The crack in Photo 4.3 was caused by a

stress concentration due to the direct contact of the
glass with the screw that fixes the capping. Thermal
expansion of the glass had increased this concentrated
No dead load suppal'l
slippin~ of lM ~Iass
~Ia~ rnly \ou~h aluminum stress.
Fig. 4.14 e appings 10 fix a sloped glass panel. Dead
A test conducted by the autllOr (ound a big glass
load shou ld no\ be supported by the friction between
panel (2.0m x 2.0m x lOmm thick tempered) under a
the capping and the .glass.
pressure of 4.9kPa had opened up the a luminum

49
COUf5e Noles 0f1 Curtain Wall Design
beads (which were clipped to a window fra me). The
edge cover for that glass panel was 8mm only. The
window contractor replaced the glass witb a 12mm
thick glass panel, the test was repeated. The. OPen-up
of the beads was apparently reduced. T he reduction
in the open-up effect is due to the reduced de flec tion
of the glass panel although a thicker glass might
imply a larger edge cover based on BS6262 (see the
table above).
where screw touches the glass
and stress is mainly caused
P,e""lIft .qu,I'ud s~
Photo 4.5 High stress induced by the direct contact of a
heavy laminated glass (lOmm + lOrnm annealed) with a
stainless steel screw had caused the crack to the g lass.
Large glass panels are widely used in today's
residential buildings (PhOto 7. 1). While the rebates
for windows are shallow and edge covers of the glass
aTe limited, the glass thickness has increased along
with the increase of the glass panel size. It is some
times impossible to follow the edge cover
requirement given in the above table (Table 14 of BS
6262). Thercfure, a structural calculatio n or a
perfo rmance test would be the best method to
evaluate .he edge cover for [he design using
aluminum sections of limited edge covers.
4.5 Correct Use of Weep Holes
Weep holes should be provided to a space (8
chamber) in a c urtain wall system if water co uld get
50
Cour se Notes Oo'l Curtain Wa ll Oesign
3. it is safer \0 equal the pressure so that the
pressure difference across a part of the c urta in wall
system is close to zew.
During mock-up tests the author has seen many
so called pressure-equalized system leaks water. T he
contractor who originally designed their system \0 be
pressure equalized found finally thai they had to
close up all the openi ngs \0 seal their pressure
equalized space.
Analyzing the above three concepts, we can fin d
the no.3 co ncept has omi tted one force which may
drive the water to interior. Thai is the gravity of
water. Actually, a pressure-equalized sys tem should
take the advantage of the gravity of waler to prevent
the water from gelling into the space in which Ihe
pressure is a lmo~i1 equal \0 the exterior pressure. To
ach ieve this, a weep hole or any opening facing the
front of the curtai n wall should face downward so
that water cannot get into the space behind this weep
hole or opening if gravity of water is " heavier" than
(he pressure difference between the outside and the
pressure-equalized space.
Figs. 4.1 5 and 4.16 show a window design by a
contractor in which weep holes on the front of the
aluminum sections have been adopted. Is this a
correct design of pressure eq ualized system?
WCMh(r ",.11111
A weep hoi. flci"3 iraQ'
-
~
Wind di=tion ~ d id not work effectively during a mock-up test
<
Ii' , <
.:l
Fig. 4.16 Weep holes are provided in the fro nl wall of a
window section.
Rules for a n effective pressure equa lization
system:
i. The pressure-equalized space (equa l to the
exterior pressure) sh9 uld be dry (the openi ng faci ng
outside should be protected against the ra in by us ing
of the gravity o f the water).
l
l ~
WI LSON Curtain Wall C onsu ~ant {HI{} Ud.
into Ihis. space and could not gct out through the
existing system without the holes (or the ex isting
system does not drain waler away effi cie ntl y enough).
T he hole allowing the water to weep away is na m ~d
a weep hole.
Such a space with openings (weep holes) to
outside will be considered as a pressure equalized
space.
:L
, , "
1.:_ _ _ ____ ,
"\
/~
Dnl'lll!li line
(W1'" ",nnot 1111,'<1 ul""S";)
\
, /
S"h '" olO$ed pos'toM
\ \
,
\
\
I"
I"
\
A W "P~~~
I r,~ina [,001_____
"''indow!ifI
,
~ _______ j;(1 • <
Fig. 4.15 A vertical section of a window.
Pressure equaHz.ation:
It is believed that the following three facton; pUi
together will cau~1; wattr k akagc:
j . water;
Ii. leaking cracks o r openings tha t wo uld leak air;
iii. positive pressure di ffere nce across the system.
A pressure eq ualization concept \vas proposed based
o n the following:
l. it is hard !O keep a system airlight forever,
because sealant ages and workmanship is not perfee!;
2. there will be wale r o n the c urtain wall surface
d uri ng a rain which is unavoidabl e;
W ILSO N Curtai n Wall Consultant IHK) lid.
ii. The pressure-equalized space to interior sho uld
either be dry (with opening fac ing inlerior) or the
water is coming from a position dozens of
milJimelers lower than the interior barrier so that the
gravity of water will resist the wind pressure.
iii. A space open to both inside and outside is not
suggested (this w ill lead to too much air leakage).
Example:
"'later leakage to a unitized elJrtain wa ll system
and the r emedial methods to solve the problem.
The problem :
Figs . 4. 17 & 4.1 8, show a design fo r a unitized
c urtain wall system. The c hamber in the stack joint is
a pressure-equalized space as there are openi ngs
(weep ho les) facing the fro nt of this space. However,
tl1is space is not dryas water can get into the space
between the male and female mullions (see Figs.
4.17 and 4.18). Water in the space can get to behind
the firs t gasket betwee n the transoms at the stack
joint illlo lhe stac k joinl chamber. T his water
between the split mullions comes fro m a location
above the stack joint (Figs.4. 17 and 4.18). T herefore,
there is a drivi ng force fro m the gravity o r water
which drives the water downward to the stack joint
and fu nher to Ihe interior if the in ner barrier 10 water
Prc..ure tqualiud ~ leakage is not perfect.
For water flow path for the system, please see
Walorpllb
Fig A.17. A sponge bloc k was put at the botto m of
the ;;pace between the split mullions which wi ll help
to reduce the waler fl ooding into the Slack joint, but
(Figs.4. 17 &. 4.18) as waler could still permeate
through the sponge.
WaieTcan also ge t in fro m a front horizo ntal joint
<
between the upper and the lower units (Fig.4.1 7).
" 4
Due 10 the wrong d irection the upper capping
eXlrusion was bent, a 101 of water could get into the
space in front of the stack joint. Water got into the
space in front of the stack joint chamber was so
d
much that water accumulated in this channel space
(see Fig.4.17) and was blown into (he Slack joint
through the weep holes. Due \0 the pressure
equalization, the pressure inside Ihis stack joint
c hamber is almost as high as Ihal on the fro nl of tht:
c urtain walL T herefore, o nly the interior barrier
(second barrier of gaSket) of Ihe stack joinl is
resisting Ihe win d pressure which is pushing the
water in the chamber 10 interior. The sysle m leaked
water 81 a pressure of 150 Pa.
51
 COurse NOIe$ on Curtain Wall Design WILSON Curtain Wall Cons ulta"'l (HI<) Ud .

the lower curtain waH units were changed to the

Add,u Ortol ~.k eu (F i, .• .19) (;uk.. (Ii", ..~ bo",er)
directions as shown in Fig.3.5 so that ' the space
5.poor.c block

~JI ,I G. .... (s«<mrl ",",.r ~" I behind the from cappings is dr y a nd ~o is the
{wi!! only a1»orb ""'or
C chamber of th e Sl ack joint. The system was fi nally
if J IinJe w~.r eou!Pi!«'
very watertight. For details, please refer to the Fig.
I\Ot effect" ." for thil ~~ ..

4.19 and Fig. 3.5 .

W:u~f!loodS
II
uno .I\la snaa
-.ib"£j
~""""-

W. \.. droj>l~",,~ <d", 150ra ij ..__..... ... ... ....• 1.:-=-.. .:. 1 .~ I_•....__.....____... ~

l~LiF
~.J?l::-, ~ "","iW6~
\
, -"I ~""'''''''''''''''''., . .. ...1-" " =''';'''':''''''
; ,z
.. m . . . m ___ _~--=-:..:..

' ' ::'=:''~=

,~m ... m _. mil

Sponil" brock Th., ha. be~ =. ~ dry IpaCc

'11 «1'
... ""if of pAcu. o.1dtd I.c,,~

Fig. 4.17 A stack joint between the units of a Fig. 4.19 An additional barrier of gasket was lidded
unitized curtain wall system. between the split mullions.

Other examples
Sponge block
Olher water barriers for di fferent unitized systems
can be fo und in Figs. 4.20 & 4.21. Fig.4.20 shows a
wc\:p hole drilled on the HanSOUl in from of a stack
Go", joint. To reduce the water entering the c hannel space
(Fig. 4.20). a gasket should be addcd to the joint
between the upper and lower transom at the stack
joim (Fig. 4.20). This gasket carl also avoid the
cracking no ise due \0 metal contacts. It is noted that
the mullions (male or female) are of box sections so
Ihatthe moments of inertia o f the sections of the split
mull ion arc increased and SO are the allowable
be nding stresses of the mullions sin£e the local and
lalcral buckling is reduced fo r this box section
=,~ compared with C-shaped sectio ns.
A canopy-likc proltClillg i.:over l wh ich is actually
an architectural feature) 10 the stack joint shown in
Fig. 4.18 A split mullion for a unitized cunain wall Fig. 4.2 1 was fo und to be very e ffect ive in resisting
system. water pe netration through this stack joint (Fig.4 .21).
Thlt space between the upper nnd lower units
Remedial works: becomes, because o f this architectural feature , dry
A pair of gaskets was added a1 the mullion joint 10 and pressure equal ized.
provide an additional barrier \0 water leakage in from
of the male and female mullions (Fig. 4.19). The
space behind these gaskets is now dry. The capping 4.6 Fixing ofa Cu rtain Wall to a Building

panels in from of the space between the upper and Structure

52

 Course Noles on Curtain Wall Design WILSON Cur1a1n Wall CoosultsOI (HK) Wei .

Wortina; ....1e roo tc:r~ "I'J'Ilc.uon

= -j . ~ ~ 1...._1....
­

J..J..J..j'
..J..J~~'
. [:leA
'aoolI. .,.ion10 i.....,....
1lw~ ..rtho ....lJiono

F
.J 1..J jP'" · c

~·1 ['II
nw, an;hi~ur:lt fum~

.~
1r===~ ,r - "<>I",""",,,,,,,kr
1 ~1Jll:=i
Ll f ~r~ B..kln,n><!IOI~d
I
,""",~,,.[::;~'V8
. I . - i· .

'''''''''"' .....
n<ood5. 'I"'<iol l "'"

Wft\lIIOt.>
...... in thiJ <!wu>.1
for t,~ ..,ala,u "!>plication i. drlin04 (ro,
o o
o

(.....ater C3MQI ulI,d up...."J..d)

Fig. 4.21 A slock joint which is protected by a canopy­

like architectural feature .

Fig. 4.22 shows a bracket-embed system thing a

)0.11111"", IIop hert
Fig. 4.20 Section details for a un itized cunain wall
system. Upper: split mullion; Lower: a slack join!.
Non-load beari ng curtain wa lls are fix ed on load
bearing building structures with usually brackets and
embeds (or very rarely anchor bolts). Typical fix ings
and their calculations are presented in the following
paragraphs.
a. Structural fixings (Figs. 4.22 to 4.24):
The fixi ng system (bracket and embed) that fixes a
cunain wall onto a building structure should have the
following capabili ties:
i. Resist the design loads (wind load, dead load
and sometimes earth quake load) on the curtain walls
or windows.
ii. The fixing shou ld allow the installation
to)erance (usually +f-25mm).
Such fixir,Jg wi ll usually include a bracket on either
s ide of the mullion fi xed with a through boll (or
bolts); and an embed or onchor bolt to fix the
bracket onto concrete structure. Figs. 4.22 10 4.24
show several such fixing systems.
sl ick curtain wall system. A pair of s teel angles is
\velded to an embed first. Then the box section
mullion is boiled to the angle brackets. Adjustment
of the installation is achieved al the weld which
should give the up/down and left/right tolerances.
The back/forth tolerance is achieved by providing
slot holes in the angle bracket (Fig.4. 22). The
mullion after being put in posit io n is finall y locked in
place by the welding between the washer and the
bracket.
FigA.23 shows a fixing system {or a unitized
curtain wall system. The split mullions are first fix ed
\0 a Tshape bral.:kcl with bolts. The T-brackct is
resting on a square steel plate. The square plale is
lirs\ fixed temporarily to an L-shape steel plate
which is welded to the embed. Once the sq uare plate
is in the right position for the mullion, it will be fixed
permanently with welding (Fig.4.23) 10 the L-plale.
A U-shape cut is provided in rhe square plate 10
aUow the T-bracketlO rest on the plate.
FigA.24 shows a fi xing system similar to 1hat in
Fig.4.23. Aluminum brackets have been used to
avoid bimetallic electrolytic effect between
dissimilar metals. Surfaces of the brackets have been
serrated to allow the U-shape bracket locked in place
by simply bolting it to Ihe L-shape bracket. Halfen
Channels are used as the embed. Instal lation
lolerance has been allowed within the Halfen channel
(leftJright). by moving the serrated washer (up/down)

53
Course Notes Orl Cunain Wa~ Design WILSON Curtain Wall COrlsullam (HK) Ltd.

and by moving the V-shape bracket (back/fo ri h) sitt:. pull-oul teSIS arc needed b~ the Buildings
within long s lot holes. For details, please refer to the Department (0 min imum 1% of the embeds, installed
Figs.4.24 and 4.25. Fig.4.25 s hows an isometric view 0 11 site. •
of the fi xing system in Fig.4.24.

II ". ..
I iI~cl r\'\~
.
Plan " 'OW ~f a brooke,..,mbed ' y'tem

~ :c:r. ~
~.

~ :"I.::T :
~
q : n-~
""Y\'
1' ~~'ft boh.d \ ~ a,u,ho~,
~ll" /~I'.
I $.q""~
". ~L

\ .J ~ l b
<, Ji.L __

, < t
4:
• L
4
l!l i . HI,
trU,
" .8
1I1 I ;_~.
,'I,.i' ''l'd.I'''';c.,~o:
~""-
~ ~, ~~.I '~

' ,\,

:jil l >~
L.,nap" ~cd pl>«
~ . . br..:"'"
__. . . .

,.!"

Bo ~
""\

10 \~ <IIp():vi ty fix
'h~ <QU2fC pb\e
Th=,"

....., Hol< III brrlel 10 allo""

fOf ins\JUation 1G~cmc •
<
, •
L

tlok '" bt3<1<rt 10 ..l1ow "

M ulli"" ((>1 """"\I",u,,
I;n>b<:d

Fig. 4.22 A pair of Sleel angles is used as brackets to fix

a mullion of a box section to Ihe concrete structure.

Other structural fi xings are usually similar to the

above three typical ones with different combinatio ns
of the e mbeds a nd brackets.
One thing to be noted is the bimet allic electrolytic
effect between dissimilar metals. Although the
galvanized steel and the aluminum when in contact
w ith each other do not cause serious corrosion
",U]];04"I$
problem, neoprene sheet put between them can
reduce bimetallic effect \0 even lower. Di rect contact
of aluminum with mild steel without zinc coating (or Fig. 4.23 A bracket·embed system to fix a unitized
an organic coating) should be avoided. curtain wall system.

b. Types of embeds:
Type 2: HaUen Channels
There are mainly two types of embeds.
Halfen Channel (or other similar mass produced
Type l: Steel plates welded with anchors.
Such embed systems are usually fabricated in factory
and cast in concrete on site. Installation tolerance by
such cmbed system is usually very big. The
allowable pull o ut load on such embed could
basically be of any value. The problem with such
system is that every time such embeds are cast on
embeds) as a cast-in is also used very often. The
advantage for using Halfen Channels is that no pull­
out lest is needed for BD submission and approval.
The problem witll usi ng Halfen GhanneLs is that
when the tolerance is ou\side +J-25 mm, the
adjustment wit hin Ihe Hal fcn Channel is very
difficult. Therefore. the contractor should ensure the
casting of the HalfclI Channels is within the tolerance.

54

)
 Course NOles on Cona;n Wall Design WILSON Cu nsln Wan Consultant (HK) lIO'.

:sm""d surf.....
10 rtpia<.. weld;' - c. Anchor bolts (expan sion bolts) :
When embeds were nOI cast in al the early
stage of concre te pouring (or when the cast-ins
aTe out of the tolerance), anchor bolts may be
used. Pull-ou l tests are defi nitely required fo r
anchor bolts.
When applying anchor bolts, the allowable
pull-oUl load on the bolt depends very much on
the distance between the bolts and also the edge
distance from the boll to concrele edge.
(Catalogs fo r the Halren Channels and Hiili
anchor boils can be obtained from the
!
suppliers.)

d . Calculation for an embed · a n exercise:

I
(Note: For calculation fo r Halfen Channels, we
I can use Halren Channels catalog to find the

I
allowable loads. We can simply co mpare OUT
calculated loads o n Ihe Halfen system with Ihe
Halren Channel recommended data. The
calculatio n below is Ihal fo r Ihe embed o f a
'-''''' .... sleel plate welded wi th steel bar anchors I

In formatio n:
Elastic modulus of steel : 2.1xlOs N'm m~
ElaSlic Modulus of concrele: 2.55xl 04 N/mm!
Fig. 4.24 A fix ing system using aluminum brackets and
Halfen Channels.

I, I Halren Channel

y1
T -bracket

-~
/"
/
Harren bolt

.~

SelT'8te<l surface

~~
,
@ ~
Fig. 4.25 An isomen ic vie\v of the bracket-embed
system in Fig.4.24.

55

I
COlK'$e Note s on Curtain Wo1l1 Design WILSON Cunain Wall COflsultant (HI<) ltd.

Allowable stresses of concrete (assuming grade 3 0~ Assume the reac tion from the concrete is of a
refer to The Structural Use of Concrete 1987~Hong triangular distribution whose resultant is Rc from the
Kong): concrete o n the embed steel plate (heighl b= 160mm,
3 . Compressive due to dire<:t compression: = =
say, and a b/ 2 SOmm)
7.5 Nfmm1 Rc = M / (2/3 a) - SeC Fig.4.26

b. Compressi ve due to bending: lON/mm

l
1
= 340kNmm I (53.3 mm) 6.4kN
=
c. Shear of fleXllra}:O.87N/mm
d. Shear of torsion : O.1 8N/mm 2 [t is noted that the triangular disuibution of
e. Bonding (tensile) : 1.0N/mm! compressive stress on the concre!c is based on the
fo llowing facts and/or assumptions:
A ealcuia/ioll fo r the embed shown ilt Fig.4.26. 1. The E+valuc (elastic modulus) of concrete « E­

va lue of steel;

Method 1 2. The concrete is compressed linearly so that the

Assume we have an embed as shown in Fig.4 .26 load on tile concrete from the steel plate is linearl y

which is under a horizontal wind load Fh and a dist ributed.

vertical dead load F\!. From our previous caJcuiat iull (Note : As the tcnsile force from Fh will usually

for mullions as discussed in Chapter 3, we have reduce Ihe compressive stress on tlt e concre te (Fig.

known the forces At and Fv from the mullion 4.26), the reaction fo rce fro m the concrete ( Rc)

through the bracket to the embed (say Fh = lOkN and obtained from .!.he above assumption will usually

Fv = 4kN). We also know the distance from the over estimate this reaction force as well as the tensile

suppon ing point of the mullion to thc concrett: force on tlte steel ancltms.}

surface is say d~mm. We can design the embed T ensile load on one of Ihe two s t~el anchorage

based on the above information assuming the bars can be obtained by seu ing thc moment about D

concrete is grade 30 and the steel is of grade 250 to zero (balance equation: IMd=O - see Fig.4.26):

(whose 0.2% yi eld stress is 250MPa) or grade 43 as 2xTli x ds-Rc x cs-M- Fh x ds/2 = 0
defined in BS436O.
T herefore,

T il =(Rcx cs + M + Fh x ds!2) / (2 x ds)

d ·'· lSmnI
¥----c
o
v
pO 0 \:>
lei us give values for al l the unknowns:

Cs = ds{2-2aJ3 = IOmm is Ihe distance between

the T t> and Rc, and ds =126mrn

c·:
r" . 1.1 S T~

~ ~(<1' C>~]!
Then the tensil e force: in eaclt bar

I" I
T o = (6.4kN x lOmm + 340kNm m + lOleN x

,
t> P ;­ 126mmJ2)1(2x 126mm)

'ii
• cit.:.; =
4.1kN

, " I" L -+-o , _

1~u F

t .D ,
. [>. The tensile stress in the steel bar
diameter)
( as~um ing 12mm
17.6.
f:::, • . '
aL =To/AS

=: 4103N i (3.14x12"2/4 mm"2)

=: 36.3 N/mm"2 < 150xl.25 N/mm"2

Fig. 4.26 An embed is under a horizontal wind load and The diameter of the steel bar used for the embed is

a venical dead load from a curtain wall mullion. 12mtn. The minimum length of the bcll.{ e nd bar is

(refer to "The Structural Use of Concrete-Ho ng

Maximum Moment about thc embed is Kong (1987)", page 13)

M = Fv x (d+25) = 4.0kN x 85mm = 340kNmm L = 12 x (36.3MPIl)J(4 x 1.0M Pa)

= 109mm

where 25mm is added to the distance d to allow for

!he installation tolerAnce. A U shape e nd is equivalent to 16x12= 192mm. Fi1
Therefore, we t an use say l OOmm lo ng legs safely. do

;6

 Course Note, on Cunaln Willi Design WILSON Curtain Wall ConsubaClI {HI<) L.ld.

Others to be checked: 1) compressive stress in the Height of the compression area

concrete; 2) shear stress in the concrete; 3) the dn :: m Pcc/(mPcc +Pst) x d
welding between the steel bar and the steel plale etc. '" 15 x 7.5Mpa 1(15x7.5MPa + 150MPa) x
143mm
Metbod 2 '" 61 .3mm
This calculation is conducted based on the
assumption Ihal the elastic modulus ratio of steel to Resultant force on the concrete (l:Mb '" 0 momeOi
concrete is finite which is 15. The diagram to be ahoutpoint B)
referred to is Fig.4.27. Rc :: M /(d-dn!3)
'" 340 kNmm 1( 143-61.3/3 mm)::: 2.77 kN
Ratio of the elastic modulus of Sleel to Concrete
used for calculations Tensile force in each steel bar
rn= Es/Ec = 15 T a :: Rc/2 + Fh/4 = 2.77/2 + 10 kN/4
= 3.885 kN
Maximum moment about the embed is again

M "'- 340kNmm
The tensile Stress in the steel bar (assuming 12mm
diameter)
Lever length resisting the moment is (refer 10 Fig. ot =- Tu/As

4.27) = 3885N / (3.14xI2"2/4 mm"2)

d = 143mm ;:: 34.4N/mm A 2 < 150x1.2S N/mm"2

Permissible compressive stress of concrete

The diameter of the steel bar used for making the
=
Pcc 7.5 MPa
embed is 12mm. The minimum length of the bent
end bar is (refe r \0 the "Structural Use of Concrete")
Permissible compressive stress of steel
L = 12 x (34.4MP')/(4 x l.OMP.)

PSI:: 150MPa
= 103.imm

Maximum compressive stress on concrete

fcc = Rc x 2 /(dn x W)

where W is the width of the steel plate for the embed

wh ich is 160mm, dn:: 6 1.3mm is the loading height

and Re = 2770N is the resultant load on the concrete.

B ' TB
Therefore, fcc = 0.565. MPa < 7 .2MPa o.k.

[For the allowable compressive stress of concrete,

please refer to " The St ructural Use of Concrete,

,I E Hong Kong ·1987", page 11}

Fh ..

M
"
-c
.E
co
[DiSCUSSion: Bot h the above two methods arc
accepted by BD and RSE's. But sometimes, some
Rc "
~ BD officers or RSE's will accept only one of (he (wo.
Fv

D
':.
h So, choose the right calculation when you are
calculating for embeds.]

e, Types of brac kets:

Brackets are usually made of GMS or Stainless Steel
or sometimes aluminum. FolJowing figures show (he
typical brackets and embeds to fix different curtain
wall systems:
FigA.22 shows a typical bracket of steel angles (a
Fig. 4.27 An embed which is under a wind load and a
dead load. The dead load will induce a moment. . ­
pair) fixim.~. the mullion box section with a (hrough

I :
57

l
Coorse Notes on Curtai n Wa~ De"ign WI LSON Curtain Wall Consul tant (H K) Ltd.

boll. A horizontal slot (perpendicular to the concrete
wall) is provided on the steel anglc bracket to allow
for the tolerance of concrete (+/- 25mm). T he lateral
and up/down tolerance of the embed is provided by
the welding of (he bracket onto the embed.
FigA23 shows a typical bracket-embed system
fo r a unitized curtain wall system. Two bollS are used
to temporarily fix: a square steel plate onto an L­
shape plate. The latter is to be welded onto the
embed at the right position. The lateral and up/down
tolerance for the installation is provided by the
welding on site of the plates. The forwardlbackward
tolerance is provided by the w'cid between the square
plates and the L-shape plales. The 120mm high T­
shape bracket, together with the mullion , is to be
resting on the square-plale at its U-shape CUI .
Figs A.24 & 4.25 show a similar bracket-embed
system for another unitized curtain \v311 system. The
installation uses HaIren Channels which allow the
lateral tol erances . T he serrated surfa ce of an L-shape
bracket gives the tolerance of up/down, and a
serrated U-channel washer on the bOllom of the L­
bracket to allow for the horizontal back/forth
tolerances.
width of 20 to 30mm. An aluminum sleeve is
inserted inside the mullion box 10 co nnect thc two
mu\lion segments together. Due 1O~lhe nex:ibility of
silicone sealant, the vertical relative movement
between two mullion segments is allowed at the joint
while thc movements along the othcr two directions
are restricted. T he sleeve is locked to the lower
mu llion by the through bolts al the bracket location.
The upper mullion is allowed to slip vertical1y
aga inst the sleeve.
Onc problem with such expansion joint is the
noise due to the scratching of the upper mullion
against the sleeve which is caused by the movement
between mullions. The noise sounds louder when it
is very qui et during a night or w'hen the mullion
locates at a meeting room where silence is required
and back ground noise is low. To solve such noise
problem, one may need to put rubber like material in
between the_sleeve and the mullion box section so
that metal to metal contact is avoided.

4.7 Expansionjoiut5

Since the thermal expansion coefficie nts of

aluminum and concrete are different and also since
the concrete (building s.tructure) will creep (and/or
the floor slab will deform) and building will move
between noar slahs due to ot her reasons (Stich as
wind load and/or earthquake load), expansion joinl"
are needed for a cunain wall system. S\ec\'C
There are generally the following several types of
expansion joints:

a. Expansion joint in a mullion with a sleeve for a

stick curtain waU system;
The mullion of a Slick curtain wall system is allowed W••lher s., lonl --t~
to slip at the sLeeve to absorb the vertical relative
Cone,,,,. slab
movements between the mullion segments. The
mullion is allowed 10 rotatt: very lillie at the sleeve.
As the aluminum is elastic and sealant or gasket , ,
jOints are flex ible, a curtain wall system allows also
flooHo-floor relative lateral movements. hp",..ionjc>im
Fig.4.28 shows the vertical section for a Iypical
• <
expansion joint for a stick curtain wall system. The
plan view of the joint can be seen in FigA.22. As can
be seen from the figures, the al uminum mulJion
segment is of a length equal to the height of a floor. Fig. 4.28 A sleeve-type expansiqn joint in a mullion for
The joint between IWO mullion segments is of a a stick curtain wall system.

58
Course NQ\~ on Curtain Wall Design WI LSON Cunain Wall Consu ltant (HK) Lid.

b. Stackjoint for a unitized curtain wall system. 001 very tighl, and the rOlalion of the units is very
The curtain wall units of a unitized system are free at this joint. Calculation for the deflection
allowed (0 s lip against each other at the stack joint should consider Ihis joint as free rotation joint
(the horizontal joint between an upper unit and a (moment equals zero). The deflection al Ihis point of
lower unit). Thus the relative movement belween the the mullion could be larger than that at the mid span
curtain waH and the building struclUre, whether from of the muIHon. The allowable deflection of this
thermal expansion or from building movements, is muUion at Ihis sUlck joi nt about the bracket should be
absorbed within the curtain wall system. Due to this 1/90 of Ihe distance from the joint to the bracket (as a
{unction of the slack joint, the joint is also considered cantilever).
as an expansionjoinl for a unitized system.
When designing a unitized curtain wall. we
should make sure' the metal to metal contact is
avoided 10 prevent the scratching noise due to
thermal expansion or other movements between the
units (see discussion above COT stick curtain wall
systems).
Figs.4.29 & 4.30 show design details of the stack
joints fOTtwo different unitized curtain wa l! systems.
The stack joint in FigA.29 uses smalJ gas ket
which al lows lillie rotational movement between two
units. The small gasket may also allow the direct A mdr.,IOinl

contact of alumi num to aluminum. Melal noise may

be expected when the system is under a good
sunshine when Ihe thermal expansion would be
import3m or when in the nighl when Ihe heated
aluminum is cooled down. Noticing again the Neoprene nashing

thermal expansion coefficient o{ aluminum is 2.3

-­
times as high as Ihal for concrete or sleel.

Fig. 4.30 A Slack joint that uses larger gaskets 10 avoid

metal-to-metal contacts.

c. Problems with expansion joiDts

FigA.3! shows an exp<'lfision joint for a mullion for a
Slick curta in witll system tor a project in Hong Kong.
H is noted Ihal the expansion joint was bridged wi th
v-= P1kJI an aluminum panel. When there is a relative
~~ f AI...l<join!
movemenl between the concrete and Ihe cUl tain wall,
Ihe expansion joint will be forced to open or to close
C'"dusing noises from the bending o r the bridging
panel. Noise was also generated between the
aluminum sleeve and the box seclion of Ihe mullion.
Such noise was heard when the curtain wall is
~tl.
!~
experiencing!\ thermAl expansion under s unshine and
contraction during night time .
Photos 4.6 & 4.7 present a sky light whose
Fig. 4.29 A Slack joint in a unitized curtain wall system expansion joint was bridged by an aluminum capping
is also an expansion joint. pan el. As the glass movement at Ihe expansion joint
is significant, the capping panel which was fixed
The stack joint in FigA.30 uses larger gaskets. The onl0 the bottom steel fra me was bent by Ihe
melal-to-metal touching is avoided. But the joint is

59
 CouBe Noles on Curtain Wall DMign WtLSON Curtain Wall ConsuTiant (HK) Ltd.

movement inducing a high stress at Ihe glass coma to give an integral appe~ra ncc of the c urta in w all
causing the breakage of this glass panel.

­1
system.

I Sle<-<~

i- u...,m."",.

I !
I I
~ ?7 - P\i1
r......,." rotlpP"fmWlion \
b.pansion;aim
{20mrn w;de. moVemenl hcr~ CO<I ld ""
IlO 3mrn ~ 10 thttnul
upolUiontcootr",,,on\

Co",-me.lob

,
'J
.., ~ . D

LJ~~~~jlll!Lj
ll 11 .
r,,::::::::: Aluminum capping pushed up
Tran""" to )"....n ""'Ilion after screws are removed
I ~ Lo"~r mullion
C-shape f••,,,,,, . \
Photo ".6 A joint between glass panels is bridged by an
aluminum capping panel.

i''''i~'~~1

Isometric ~;.w

4' ~

Fig. 4.31 An expansion joint is bridged by an aluminum

panel.

4.8 Thermal Insulation

Although temperature difference between inside and

outside is not very much in Hong Kong. thermal
insulalion i;, still apphed at spandrel areas of a
curtain wall o r some times, behind stone (or metal) The crack SlaMS from
c1addings of a c urtai n wall system. This will grea tly a comer of the glass panel
improve the thermal performance of the building
enclosure and reduce the Overall Therma l Transfer
Value (OTTV) of the building, and therefore, reduce Movemelll joilll between glass panels
the cost for air-conditioning. Fig.4.28 shows a typical
design fo r a spandrel area. The frantal glass is Photo 4.7 A crack starting fr om a cOrner of the glass
refle ctive with a low transmittance ta avoid the panel is caused by a push-down force from the bend ing
thermal insulation behind it visible fTOm outside, <lad of Ihe capping paneL

60

1
CoUfse Notes on Curtain Wall Oesign Wl l.sON C\J~ln WaH Consultant (HK) Ud.

much lower withi n the insulation so that no

Thermal eODdu eta nee
Thermal conductance is Ihe capability of a material
with a given thickness to allow the transfer of heat
fro m o ne [ace 10 the other face of the material layer.
lis unil is the rate of heat (W~ cond ucted thro ugh a
material over a unit area (m) when under a unit
temperature di[ference (1 0 K). A thermal insulation
used for a curtain wall is usually a layer of 50mm
thick minera l or s imilar materials that have a
conductivity of 0.05 WJ(m Ok) or a conductance (u­
value) of 1.0 W/(m2 Ok). Increasing the thickness of
the insulation ca.n reduce the thermal conductance
condensat ion would happen within Ihe syslem. For a
cold area (such as Canada or northe rn part of China),
the barrier should be applied on the interior s ide
because the hot humid aiT exisls at the interior while
the o utside is cold and relatively d ry. An aluminum
foil would be good enough as a vapor barrier in
Hong Kong where temperature difference between
inside and outside is not significant even during
summer.

and therefore reduce the OITV. For more details,

please refer to BD (1995) "Code of Practice fo r

Overall T hermal Transfer Value in Building",

Hutcheon & Handegord (1983) and Burberry (1999).

A thermal insu lation is usually covered with

aluminum foi ls 10 func tion as a vapor barrier which
will also red uce the thermal co nductance by
generating a good air spacc within the porous
thermal insulatio n. A dark fo il is preferred to reduce
the reflection of the thermal insulation which might
be visible from outside.
Another thing 10 worry is condensation within
thermal insulation where Ihe humid vapor is not
ventilated and eva.porated immediately. Vapor barrier
on the humid side (which is outside the bu ilding in
Hong Kong's summer or inside the building in a cold
place, say in Canada) can be the aluminum foil on
the thermal insulat ion.

Co ndensation
Condensation is the fo rmation of water droplets on
cold surfaces. The temperature al which a
co ndensation starts to hnppcn is called a dew poi nt
whose value is dependent on the relative humidity of
the air and the air te mperature. The relative humidi ty
(presented in percentages) will increase whell the air
temperature de<.:rease while the water content in the
air is kept unchanged . When the relative humidity
reaches 100%, the air is called saturated and
condensation happens. For more information about
the condensation and relative humidity, please refer
to Hutcheon & Handegord (1983) and Burberry
(1999).
To reduce mould growth within a curtain wall
system at spandrel area, a vapor barrier (usually a
thin plastic film) could be applied o n the exterior
face of the Ihermal insulat ion. Vapor barrier will
greally reduce the relative humidity within the
thermal insulation by reducing the moisture
permeation from outside. The dew point will be

61

Course Notes on Curtain WaP Design
S. DESIGN USING SEALANT
Sealan! is one of the basic materia ls used fo r curtain
wall installation. Silicone sealant as the mOSi
popularly used sea lanl can resist Ihe auack from
uhraviole! lights. Such sealant has a high s!ahili ty of
its bonding with base materia ls.
5.1 Sea lant Types Based Oil Uses
3. Weather sealaDt
gl3SS is appa rently l¢ss than thaI of DC 995 wilh
Weather sealan! which is usually of low elastic
glass. A more conservative sealan t bile should be
rnodulus. low hardness. and most of ti me of lcs...
provided should DC795 be applied at glass bull
strength is often used to seal joints w here water or air
joints.
tightness is expected. Weather sealant allo\<ls morc
For information fo r o lher sealants, please refer to
movement than s!ructural sealant usually.
Dow Corning catalOgs (telephone and- fax numbers
b. Struclura! sealaDl
Structural sealant is usually of higher clastic modulus,
higher hardness. higher bondi ng stre ngth , higher
strength in resisting tensile and compressive and
s hear stresses.
Two·part structural sealant is usually used in
faclories. One pan sealant can be used both in
factori es and on site .
c. Sealants available on the market
DC 795: This is a weather sealant basically as ils
adhesive and cohesive suength is lower than other
structural sealants. Tho ugh Ihis sealant W:JS
suggested to he a structural sealant. test fou nd Ihe
bonding strenglh of such sealant to glass is nOi ideal.
This sealant is a good weather sealant.
DC 79J ·N: T his is a weal her sealant marketed hy
Dow Coming to replace the old weather sealanl
DC793. The bonding of this seala nt is found to be
good wilh most construction materials even concrete.
However, the bonding of this c.ealant with glass wa.l>
found to be not so ideal. Glass surface needs 10 be
cleaned very carefully 10 achieve an acceplable
bonding.
DC 995: Th is is a one-part strucl ura l sealant wilh
satisfactory adhesive and cohesive stre ngth with
most base materials. Adhesion lest and compatibility
lest should be carried out before using i! on site.
DC 983: Thi s is a two-part struc tural sealant thai
cures faster than other structural sealant. It can only
12
WILSON Curtein Wall ConSIJltanl (HK) lid.
be used in factory due to the nted to mix the two
paris of the sealant before use. On site use is not
recommended as iI is d ifficult 10 mix Ihe twO pans on
site without contaminating it.
DC Sf/78I.- This is a structural sealant good for
glass bUll joints. As this is nOI generally a silicone
sealant, it was abandoned by Dow Corning. The one
to replace it is DC 995. Dow Corning may also
suggest you to use DC 795 for bull joint bonding. As
stated above, the bonding ~twcen th is serllanl with
for Dow Corning Hong Kong arc Tel: 2&35 0350 J
Fax: 2836 6650).
d. Sealants by o lher SUllp li ers
GE, Wacker, Tremco.
There are several sealanl suppliers in China now
who can supply d iffe rent types or sealant for curtain
wall use. The products are: Guang 2 ho u White
Cloud SS series; Zhe Jiang 2hi Jiang is series a nd
Zhcn Zhou Central L'Ind MF series ctc.
e. Guaran tees by sealant su ppliers .
Usually 10 years guarantee is provided by sealant
suppliers. This may c hange from different suppliers.
Find the guaraOlee items and condilions from Ihe
s~3 lant suppliers before you purchase from Ihem.
5.2 Sealant Application
There is no value t('l evaluate !l silicone .l>eal<lnt and
thcn nO! 10 have an application procedure program
for the correct application of ihe sealant. Correct
applicat ion is fundamcOial for the ultimate
perfo rmance of the s ilicone sealant.
a. J oin t preparation
Correcl or pro per cleaning of the joint !o be sealed
with sealant is the initial step to good application.
T he arells to be staled should be clean. dry and free
of oil and grease. !( the joints are of m'lsonry. they

Course Notes on Curtain WaH Design
should be prepared by wire brushing to remove any
loose particles o f concrete, andfor brick. Non-poro us
surfaces, such as glass and aluminum will require a
solvent wipe to remove any contaminants. This
solvent can be M.E.K. or acetone. When cleaning
surfaces with a solvent , one sho uld wipe using only
clean clo th. Apply solvent with one c10lh and wipe
clean with another.
If primers are to be used ensure Ihe surfaces to be
primed are clean. Apply Ihe primer with a clean
brush. Do not apply primer from a can that has been
_allowed to remain open to mo isture and air as this
will shorten Ihe life of the primer and the reaction is
that gelling may occur making applicatio n o( an even
primer coal difficult. Apply primer to the surface 10
be treated only . Always ensure thaI Ihe primer can is
sea led afte r eac h usc.
b. Backing materials - closed cell polyethylene
rod (backing rod )
Backing rods i.c., closed cell polyeth ylene fo ams are
always placed into joints in a compressed state. The
dimensions of lhe foam backing rod should be
greater than joint width by 25%. When placing a
foam rod into a jo int, care should be taken not to
pierce the skin of the rod . So, do not place foam rod
into a joint wito knife or Olher s harp objects.
c. Sealant application
W hen placing sealant into a joi nt, ensure that good
COntacl is made between substrate and the sealant.
If join! djmeo<; joDis so big that il caAnol be GUcd
up in o nc application, apply sealant 10 the joint edges
lust, then filt the body of the joint.
.. When sealant has been applied always push o r
tool the sealant inlo the joint to ensure wetting of the
sealanllO the edge surface<; of the joint .
When applying silicone sealant as an e ;..: ternal cap
bead, ensure the profile slopes away from the glass.
Do not undercut the sealant toward the glass. This
will allow water to fall away from the junction of
glass. ~ 5.4
Always avoid glazing in ex tremely hot or cold
weather. 11cver above 35°C or be low -l crC.
If in doubt fo r example, adhesion of sealant to a
particular substrate, always test fo r adhesion prior to
application. Always use fresh sil icone sealant where
possible. (Adhesio n test is o ne of the two basic
sealant tests the Hong Ko ng Buildings Department
requires before a consent is given.)
d. Setting blocks
WI LSON Curtain wan Consuttan~ (HK) LId.
If selling blocks are used in conjunctio n with silicone
sealanls ensure that these blocks are of a materia l
that is compatible with the silicone sealant and with a
hardness to be Shore A 70-80. Do not use the
material that is Ilo t compatible with silicone sealant
When using continuous tape (Norton tape) to
space glass fro m frame member in ribbon glazing
technique usc only the tape compat ible with the
sealanl.
e. Conclusion
The design of Ihe joint and the components to be
sealed are of extreme importance to the overall
performance of a building fa~ de. The selection of
sealant must o nly be delermined after careful and
thorough consideration to all aspects of the
e nvironment in which il will be required to function.
The mechanical properties of the sealant should also
be checked and the sealant sho uld be ensured 10 give
enou gh strength to resist the load on it and enough
fle xibility to aBow for the move ment at the joint the
sealant is expected to e xperience.
5.3 Sealant T ests
Following tests ate required fo r the building fa~ade
co nstruction using seala nt :
Bonding (adhesion) test and compatibility test.
DO acceptS the ICst reports by the sealant suppliers .
AJways plan your sealant test in advance as such
tests usually take o ne month before you can get the
reports.
Bonding lest wi.1l show the sealanl having a good
adhesion to the base material. Co mpatibility test wil!
provc that the senlam does not cha nge lhe color. or
cha nge the adhesion or other ph ys ical properties or
other chemical properties of the base mate rial.
Allowable Stresses
As sealant is a re latively soft material which will
creep under a lo ng term consiste nt load, its allowable
strengths under short term load (wind load) and long
term load (dead load) are totally d ifferent.
Allowable adhesio n and cohesion st rength of a
struct ural sealant under wind load (short-term load)
to usual curtain wall base materials (say glass or
alu minum) is os=20psi (or O. 138MPa).
63
COll'se NoI~ 01\ Curtain Wah Desigtl WILSON ClInaln Wall Cons'Jltartl (HK) Ltd.

p _ -
Allowable adhesion and cohesion suc nglh of the
sealanl under dead load which is a long-term load is
0$=1.0 psi (i.e. 0.OO69MPa). ~ "
...
" .
/ /.
'/ '- 1
,
7

I / >- . .-:. , J

E
• ~l ." ~
5.5 C alculation for Sealant Bite (Fig. 5.1) "
~ / . I~ .....
/ hI >1
Sealant bite is the width of a structural sealant .. I~
bonding a glass panel or other panels to fTaming -+­ ....

members. A typical sealant bite in a cunain wall Imin

system is shown in Fig.5.1. The minimum sealant
bite to be used depends on the allowaole bo nd ing
strength of the sealant, the loading width on the bite Fig, 5.2 Wind load on a lmm wide sealant strip from
and the wi nd load or dead load o n Ihe strip of the the gla5s.
s ealant. The calculation for th e minimum sealant bite
is shown below: Fw==pxU2x lmm J!
, "
Where p is the wind pressure, L is Ihe Icngt h of the
glass pancl.and lmm is Ihe width of Ihe glass panel
under the load considered.

t.
,
,
!
,
Asea of lhe sealant under Ihe loading
As == bx lmm

Where b is the w idth of the sealant taking the wind

1\ ' load from Ihe glass panel:

Typie>J o.l>il for on

, The maximum load Ihis strip of sealant can resist

~.= ~~bxlmm CD
~in,; sibl ~' mul1m ,

=
Set Fm Fw, one can get

b = P x U2 x lmm I a s x lm m

''''''"''' or ,

b = px U2/a~.

Ciampini
~ where b is the sealant bite, p is the design wind
pressu re, L is the short span, and as is Ihe design
b i. oulon' btl.

\"i d,h of".• ,truO' ~,,1 $<!>Ion,)

strength of the sealant.

The design bonding SLrenglh of a structural sealant

Fig. 5,} A struclurally glazed glass panel in a curl<lin when under short term loading is
wall with the aluminum frame hidden behind the glass. a s ",20 psi = 0.138MPI1 = 13~kPa.

a, Rectangular glass panel (or panels of other The design bonding strcngth of a structural sealant
materials - Fig. 5,2) when under long term load ing is
The seala nt bite should be
as ",1 ps i = O.0069MPa = 6.9k.Pa.
=
Bite (b) 0.5 x wind pressure(p) x short span(L) I
sealant design strength(as) Due to creeping, Ihe allowable stress of a sealant is
much lower under long-term loading such as dead
This fo rmula can be deduced as following:
load than it is when under purely a short-term
Wind load on a stri p of sealant of a unit lengt h
loading.
(lmro-see Fig.5.2):

64

-.~. - -­
Course Notes on Curtain Wall De sigr"\ WILSON Cunaln Wall Consultant (HI<) Ltd.

(Exercise IJ or ga lvanized steel). T he tube is fill ed with a

Wind pressure o n a rectangular glass panel of 1.2m
wide by l.8m high is 4 .9 kPa. Find the minimum
sealant bite required to resist the wind load if the
glass panel is struc turally glazed to an aluminum
frame alo ng all the fo ur sides o f the panel.
[Exercise 21
If again, wind pressure o n a glass panel o f 1.2m wide
by l.8m high is 4.9 kPa and the dead load is
supported by struct ural sealant only. The glass
thickness is lOrnrn. Find the minimum sealant bite
required to resist the wind load and the dead load.
b. Calculation of the sealant bite for a panel of
a oy shape and glazed with seala nt on all the edges
Find the longest loading length (say a, see Fig.S.3)
on the sealant, therefore, the bite can be calculated as
follow ing
b =p a / os
desiccant to keep the air in the cavit y between Ihe
glass pa nes dr y. T he glass edges and the tube arc
sealed with hot melt butyl sealant (or epoxy
polysulfide). A successful seal should kee p the cavity
dry and at Ihe same time resist the wind load that
may be applied on the frontal panel of the do uble
glazing unit.
Main benefits such double glazing unit can
provide arc improved thermal and acoustic
performance.
W ind load on a double glaz.ing unit o f a
d imension much larger than its thic kness will be
shared by both panes as di scussed in Chapter 2 of
this boo k.
Equal angles

{Practice: Find the minimum sealan t bite for a panel

of triangular shape of 1500mm by 1200mm by
900mm-Fig.S.4. Ao;su me the negative wind pressure
on the glass panel is 4.9kPa].
\

\
'3:
~ !I I \

-ll. 1:~ "" ~\1 .

/
">--I~ I-Z
/' 11
kl
"-
"-
,
~
/ /~; '-
v E
AI'

Equal angles I mm

"
Fig. 5.3 \Vind load on a strip of sealant that fixes a
r 900mm 1
~

glass panel of an irregular shape.

fjg. S.4 Wind load on a strip of sealant that fi xes a
glass panel of a triangular shape.
5.6 Sealant for Double Glazing Units

During the last 30 years, insulating glass
manufacturers have approached the challenge of
-producing a perfect seal between thc glass panels for
do uble glazing unilS. Among these Ihere have been
fusing glass 10 metal; wraps with mastic and morc
recently of using organil.: sealants.
Hot melt b utyl sealant is used for all ultra low
permeable edge. Fig.S.S shows a typical edge of a
double glazing unit. T he edge of a double glazing
unit is composed of a hollow spacer tube (alu minum
5.7 joint of W e ather Sealant
Weather sealant is applied al the jo ints where
weather seal is required or where the ugly insid e is to
be covered. Joint preparation and sealant ap plication
should follo w the procedures suggested by sealant
suppliers or the procedures stated in section 5 .2.
Pho to 5. 1 shows a crack in the weather sealant
over a joint between metal panels. Such sealant
fa ilu re is vcry commonly seen. Inspection of the joint

65
Course Noles on Cunair1 Wall Design
found tne detail of the joint is as s hown below in a
phow (P hoto 5. 1) . A round backing rod has been
used at the joint wh ich is 20mm wide and 25mm
deep. When the rod is pressed into the joint. iI is
compressed a lillIe. Sealant over the rod wil! be
pressed into the joint to wherever there is a space.
After thc sealant is looled. Ihe backing rod will
spri ng back leading to a very thin layer of the sealant
al the middle of the joint (see Photo 5.1). This sealant
layer is only aboul 2mm Ihick which could be eas ily
broken under an imposed force.
Cavity between glass panels
Buryl or epoxy polysulph ide
Alwnin um !u\:>c fiUed with desiccant
Fig. 5.S Detail of the edge of a double glazi ng unit.
To avoid such fa ilure one can use backing rods of
square or rectangular section which w ill ensur<; a
unifo rm sealant thickness.
Knife cut (SOmm l on~)
Backing rod
Sealant remaining
on the substrates
Fig. 5.6 A peeling test can be conducted on site to
check the bonding of Ihe sealant with base materials.
66
.\
W tlSON Curta in Wall Cons.ullaol (HK) ltd .
5.8 A Field Sealant Adhesion Test
As a [i nal check fo r fld hcsion of sealant, a hand pull
test may be conducu::d o n site afte r (he sealant has
been cured fo r more than 14 days. The procedu res
fur the h,lIld pull (cs( can be as fa llow ing:
a. Make a horizomal cut o n a vertical scalam jo im
(Fig.5.6) fro m o ne side of the seala nt joim 10 the
other side;
b. Make twO vertical c uts o f about SOmm long along
both sides of the sealant jo int;
c. grasp Ihe SOmm lo ng sealant piece firml y
belween fi ngers and pu ll dOwn at 90" or more
trying to pull thc uncut seala nt o ut of the sealant
joint.
d. The adhesion is co nsidered as acceptable il" the
sealant is to rn cohesively in itself 6do r~ releasi ng
from the substrale adhesively.
c. aft er tile adhesion ttS!, the cut seala nt could he
repaired by ap pl ying more sea!:Lnt to the area by
fOHowing the procedures staled earlie r for sealant
ap plication. Care s hould be taken 10 ensure that Ihe
new sealam is in full contact wi th the origi nal sealant
and the surfaces o f the original seulant are clean.
/! Snbnlal . joinl b<h'-«n
po""II" cnck«!
\
\
\
\
\
!)olli ! u!'U,. j<>inI
.\101&1 ~\ ..............
s..alaol i& \hill.\ c~n""
Round back ... , n>d
Photo.S.1 The crack in the weather sealant in a joint
bctween metal panels was due tll thin \ayer of tht:
sealant thal was caused by incorrect sealant application
procedure.

I"

Course Noles OIl (Amain Wall De Sign W ILSON CYrtain Wall Consultant (H K) Ud.

6. SCREWS, RIVETS AND METAL

LUGS
Screws are the basic connectio ns between the for 3045 15 (refer 10 BS 1449-pan 2) can be as shown
framing members of building facades. Rivets are below (without cons idering bucJding):
used more often al window sashes 10 fix hinges 10
window frames or sash frames. Metal lugs are used 0.2% yield stress
usually 10 fix windows to co ncrete structure of the 0(0.2%) '" 195 N/ mm1
building. Materials to make screws and rivets are
usually stainl ess steel, aluminum, aluminum alloy or Permissible stresses
galvanized steel. The materials for metal lugs arc o(tensi le) = 117 N/mm2
mostly galvanized sleel or some times stainless Sleeis o(shear) = (max) 87.75, ~m in) 72.15 N/mm2
or aluminu m alloys. a (bearing) '" 146.25 N/mm
o(bcnding) '" 117 N/mm2

6.1 Screws to Be Stainless Steel to Avoid

Rusting Stains

Stainless Sled screws are widely used in c unain wall,

window and other buildi ng cladding systems [or
fixing purposes. The bimela1iic rusl ing of stain less
steel screws with other metals (al uminum o r OMS) is
not worried when J)uch scrcws are not exposed to thc
pollution o utside.
When screw fixings are exposed to the weather
(say rain water), corrOsio n might happen usually to
the aluminum where it is not anodized sucnas screw
holes and is in contact w ith o ther metals. Photo 6. 1
shows corrosion to an aluminum window section at
screw holes which is in contact with a stai nless stee l
screw and is exposed to rain wnter and pollution. Salt
in rain water will acccierate the eler.;lrolYle cfkcl
between stainless s leel and the aluminum alloy.
Corrosion happens us ually near the edge of the screw
hole near the surface of the section. Further corrosion
of (he aluminum sect ion w ill lake a lot longer time 10
develop.

Stainless steel
A stainless steel contains chromium. Although a
relatively expensive metal, it is used increasingly in 0 \'

buildings for its special properties in resisting Whi te powder

corrosion. A stainless sleel develops an invisiblc
corrosion-resistant film whcn exposed to air and has (AI!O))
high resistance 10 organic and weak acid allacks.
Different grade of stainless sleel will have Photo 6.1 Corrosion 10 the aluminum thai is in Contaci
different level of strength. The permissible stresses with a stainless steel bolt.

67

COIJ(se NOleS on Curtain Wall Design
When stainless steel is used for outdoor install ation
where perfect shining (or clean metal) surface is
expected, the 316 alloys of the stainless sleel sho uld
be used . Only when the stainless steel is used in a
covered space or indoor then the 304 stainless stee l
could be used. Using 304 stain less steels ou tdoor in a
polluted place like Hong Kong will lead 10 ugly
rus ting stains appearing on the surfaces at" Ihis
stainless Ste el. The BS standard to follow for the use
of stainless steel is BS 1449 part 2.
Rusting stain
(
If
~)
Photo 6.2 T he head of an aluminum rivet on the top of
a sash is observed rusted.
Bimetallic elecuolyte effect between stainless steel
and olh er metals is us ually low unless under marine
condition . Corrosion can be caused between stail:le:-;s
Steel and other metals such as aluminum o r mild steel
when saited water wets the surfaces betwec.n Ihe IWo
different metals. Salted water of a high salt
concentration (0.2% say) will accelerale Ihe
68
-,
WILSON Curtain Wall tonsultam (HKllId.
electro!Yle effcc t causing corrosi ons . For details,
please refer 10 BS PD64 84.
6.2 Rivets
Section area of a rivet is small er than a screw of the
same diameter s ince the rivet section'is hol low .
Aluminum rivets can be easily rusted and is
siructurally weak in a polluted induslrial area. Rain
water thai contains pollulants on tht: top of Ihc sash
accelerates the electrolyte e (fect between the
stainless steel hinge and the aluminum rivet. Photo
6.2 shows the rusted aluminum rivets used 10 fi x an
aluminum window sash. The sas h is riveted onto a
fou r-bar stainless sleel hinge wi th rivets. Rusting can
be se~n dearly on the head of the aluminum rivet
( Photo 6.2) that were applied o n the lOp o f a sash. No
apparent rusting was observed to Ihe rivets at the
bOllom of Ihe sash .
Requirements for aluminum rivets and bolts etc.
are given in BS "1473.
6-3 Example: Sashes Detached from a
Residential Building
Several sashes for a residential dcvelopment in Hong
Kong were reported detached and fell off from Ihe
high-rise huildings. An invl.!stigalion the author
conduCted found the fallowing:
The sash was fixed first onto a pair o f four·bar
hinges with aluminum rivcts (or stainless steel rivels).
T he fo ur-bar hinges were then fi xed Onto the window
frame with stainless stee l screws. Sash fail ures were
caused by the following reasons:
3. Aluminum ri vets were rusted and failed .
As was discussed above, the seclion of a rivet IS
hollow. The wall thickness of the rivet section is only
about Imm. The rivet head (sec Photo 6.2) is also
aro und l mm thick only. When the rivet section and
the rivet hc(>;d arc rusted , their thickn \! s~ i" furthcr
reduced.
When a sash is in an open posilion to say about
30~ opening angle, and when such a sash is blown by
it strong wind (inducing say a pressure of 500 Pa or
more on Ihe sash), the wind pressure w ill push Ihe
sash to a fu ll y open position causing a s udden impaci
load on the sash which should have broken the rivets
(which was a lready wcakened by [he rusting) and
caused the detachment of Ihe sashes.
Course NOles on Curtain Wall Oeslgn
This is what happened 10 most of the fa iled sashes
for this project.
b. Aluminum rusted lit screw holes,
If aluminum section at screw ho les were rusted, Ihe
engagement of the stainless steel screws in the
aluminum window section would be reduced. T he
screw could be pulled out by the dead load of the
sash or the wind load on the sash.
The connection ~be l ween the fou r-bar hinges and
the window frame is weakened w~en the screw hole
is corroded and enlarged (see Fig.6. 1). Again, as
slated above, when the sash with weakened
connection is under a strong wind load, the impact on
the sash from the strong wind will give a push to the
sash which will pull the scrcw(s) out of the screw
holes thaL had been enlarged.
A calculation the author conducted for the above
cwo cases has found that the wind effect on the sash
was found 10 be critical. In particular, a No.lO
typhoon could break the aluminum rivets without
deterioration if the window were open. Also when
one or two screws 'are loosened, any typhoon could
detach the OIher screws when the sash is open.
w.........
Corrosion (If ""f~W ~
iti"5.
..
~
\
$10m &om !he ul'9ft , 1&0
cftlx window W;lien
~-<;"'-""=-~~
, fl"""""",,Kwot
Fig. 6.1 Corrosion to the aluminum at the edge of the
screw hole has feduced the screw engagement in the
SCfew hole.
6.4 H ow to Cakul ate a Sc rew?
To calcula te a screw, one needs to check:
a) Tensilt; stress in the screw and compare it with the
allowable tensile stress; b) s hear stress of the screw
and compare it with the allowable shear stress; and c)
the shear stress in the screw hole (in aluminum
section) and compare il with the allowable shear
WILSON Curtain Wan Consu~ant (HK) Ud.
\
stress for the aluminum. T he last ilem (item c) is
always overlooked by many structural calculations.
The check on the shear stress in the screw hole is
actually very easy. Assume the area of the aluminum
section of the screw hole under shear is A = 11:D1/2
(see Fi g.6.2) ,here 1t is 3.14, D is the diameter of the
screw hole, and t is the thickness of the waH of the
aluminum section. The shear force on the screw hole
is actually the tensile force on the screw itself (T).
Therefore the shear stress in the screw hole can be
=
obtained as '[ T /A.
td
T
$cll!"" Hingt
s &Aluminumxcti<X1
~
U :)',
'{ l
o
"t
SMJrin& un in the satW holt
Fig. 6.2 Shearing area of a screw hole thaI is under a
pullout force from the screw.
""&l&C tM1II dqM
BAsed on a calculation checking the shear slre)s ttt
the screw hole, the screw fixing at screw holes where
hinges are installed shou ld be reinforced for a usual
window ftame noticing that the wall thickness of the
frame is about 2mm only. Possible way to reinforce a
screw hole is i) to use locally thicker aluminum
section at screw locations (Fig.6.3); and/or ii) to
protect the screw hole from corrosion ir possible
noticing that the aluminum section is anodized but
the hole is nol. Hong Kong Housing Authority has a
new specification which adopts a local reinforcement
at screw fixings for windows. The same section
detail is also presented in Hong Kong Buildings
Department's standard PNAP 248. This method has
been proved very effective. No windows us ing such
reinforcement have ever been reported detached.
Care should be taken 10 the surfaces where tWO
69
CoorSQ NOles on Cur1ain Wan Design WILSON Curtain W all Consull ant (HI<) U d .

dissimilar metals meet with each other. Neoprene 6.5 .Exercises:

shects · may be put in between to avoid bimetallic
effecL
Fig.6.4 shows a detail to fix glass panels with
adaptors to an aluminum mullion by using screws.
The screws used are M5 stainless steel screws and
are applied to a slot that is approximately 4mrn wide.
The shearing area at the screw hole where the screw
is applied is very small as the engagement of the
screw in the slot is very Iimiled as can be seen in the
skelch in Fig.6.4. Although Ihc screws were applied
al 200mm ce nte rs , they were pulled out of the slOl
under a negative pressure of 4.5kPa (the design wind
pressure (or that job was 4.9kPa) during a
performance test. A calculation by Ihe au thor
checking the pull-out shear in the .screw hole (slot),
assuming o nly 10% effective area where the screw is
in contact with the aluminum, found that the sc rews
should have been applied at 90mm cemers .
The c urtain wall contractor fo r this proj ccl
decided \0 apply longer screws so th at it penetrates
the aluminum section. The shearing area of the
aluminum is more than doubled at the screw holcs.
T he syslem passed the structural test under pressures
up to 7.35 kPa during a retesl.
Screw holes that penetrates the aluminum sec tio n
should be sealed with silicone sealant to avo id waler
penetration to the inside space of Ihe aluminum
section.
You are advised 10 do the followi ng exercise to make
sure that yo u unders tand what have been staled in the
above sections .
[Exer cise I}
Chcck the load in a fo ur-har hi nge used for a s ide
hung sash of 750mm wide x 950mm high-see
3ltached Fig.6.5. Assume Ihe w ind load on Ihe sash is
l.OkPa and dead load is thc weight 0 the glass which
is 6mm Ihic k.
[Exer cise 2}
Check a n M 6 stainless slecJ scrcw fi x·cd OntO a 2mm
thick aluminum sectio n which is under a tens ile load
1.5 kN and a shear load of O.S IcN. Find the lensile
stress in thc screw, shear stress in the screw and the
shear stress in-lhe screw hole.
Note: The area of a luminum under the pull o ut
shear can be estimated as: A= J(Dt/2 w here n-=3.14,
o is the diametcr and I is the thic kness of the
aluminum on wh ich the screw is applied.!
A=of '"""~.
oi'the ~", ,, .
In the >luminum ~
I

I
Screw fixing the hinge

Sc,,,w i. in 3 , 101

21 _:t t>3 mm

Thicker wall to give

larger shearing area
A""-P1Dr
~~~
k~
_
""";0""",.,,
- s.:....'" pcn<I....1<. 1ht
~Iu,, \\num bo~ section

in ihe screw hole

Fig. 6.3 Locally thicker wall of the alu minum section

can be used as window frame the screws to be applied
with a deeper engagement. Fig. 6.4 Screws are applied to a continuous slot whose
contact area with the threads of the screw is vcry small.

70

 T,

Course Noles on CUftaifl Wall Design WILSO N C unain Wan Consultant (H K) Lid .

arranged staggered (Le. o ne on imerior and one on

~ ~
R.
~n&~ exterior) to provide a pull force from the lug on the
window frame whether it is under a posilive wind
pressure or under a negative pressure. Good
protection on the steel should be provided 10 the lug
to avoid corrosion to the lug when it is installed on
exterior face of the concrete wall. Galvanizatio n is
Soh
often the protection for such lugs.

L_Fd
" Iillifi
il!

~l l I
ili

• t

,.
.'
no ~!I ~
~
Wi:
'~~J:
<)

t Rc)'
RJ,..,,,, I
[J; 51MeLaI lug is mainly
C Rclt,
c;A; ...\;A;:z<;;:J
~"~----
Wind load Fw

\ ~~;'"
1\, I (
Drive pins
Grouting
, under shear force only

J \
" N

Sash fram(

..Q.- Rd;c. if1. no "

Ii
D O0
D tRdY

,
,f
COOC""
~
I

I. "'\ r-.
'
/j~VC:::
',. Jo
'" ?'
IL V
·r
Fig. 6.5 loads on a sash \vhich is in an open position.
Concrete edge distance 7J
10 bc >50mm

6.6 Metal Lugs Fig. 6.6 A melal lug that is fixed to a concrete wall with
a drive pin.
Metal lugs as fixings for windows to concrete
building structure are usually made of GMS
(galvanized mild steel) sheets CUI \0 strips. O ne e nd Mechanical/ physical properties of mild steel
of a lug is slOlled in an aluminum section of a The physical properties of mild steel, may be taken
window frame and-. the other end is fix ed onto as following:
concrete with drive pins (Fig .6.6). To avoid tensile
forces o n the drive pin and also to avoid a bending Specific weight o[ mild steel
3 3
on the lug which is thin and is weak in resis ting a Ws = 7800kglm = 78kN/m
bending, the lug s hould be fixed o nto the concrete at
sill, jamb and head of the window (Fig.6.6) so thai Thermal expansio n coefficient of mild steel
the lug is under a tensile or compressive load only Clh ::0 1 0x lO~ In/moC
with minimum bending. When unavoidable, [he lug
can also be fixed al inlenor with pins. Notici ng thaI (Noticing this coefficient for glass is 8.5xlO~ mJmoC.
the pin needs an edge distance that is usually not less for concrete is 10 xl0.... mlmoC and for aluminum is
Ihan 50mm, Ihe bending effect on the lug could be around 23xlO~ m/m°C)
) significant. Should Ihat happen, the lug should be

71

Course Notes on Curtain Wall De~n WILSON Curlain Wall COflSullanl (HKJ Ud.

Modulus of elasticity for steel is Damage to a galvanized surface can be repaired by

=
Es 210000 N/mm~ painting with zinc-rich paints.

(Noticing Ea = 70000 Nlrnml for aluminum alloys as

=
defined in BS811 8 o r Ea 65500 N/ mm2 as de fi ned
=
in CPl18, and Eg 70,000 \0 74000N/mm! for glass.
Ratio of elastic modulus of steel to aluminum
m=EsIEa=3)
Mild steel will expend tremendously and will lose

its strength apparently when the temperaturc reaches

say, 550°C.

Permissible stresses for grade 250 steel (Grade 43

to BS4360)

0.2% yield suess:

0(0.2%) = 250 N/mml

Permissible Tensile stress:

oaxial = 150N/mm1 ;

Permissible tensile bending stress:

obending =
lSON/mm 2 ;
I
Permissible sear srress:

oshear = (max) 112.5 (min) 92.5 N/mm !;

Permissible bearing strcss:

abeaTing = 187.5N/mm 1

Gahtanlzation
Galvanization is the process of dipping steel inlo
molten zinc. The steel is first clcaned and then
dipped in hydrochloric acid. The cleaned steel is Ihen
dipped into hot mohen zinc at about 450°C,
Galvan ization can provide protection to st\!cl
because zinc is anodic to steel. Zinc can resist
corrosion well when the steel is totally covered by
the z inc coating. However, when the coating is
scratched or when the steel sheet galvanized is cut to
lugs (whose edge of the steel is exposed), the zinc
will decay sacrificially to therefore give protection 10
the sleel.
Coating thickness of galvanizat ion t,r 50 10 100
microns (0.05mm to O.lmm) can give a protection
for 20 years in a common environment.
Problem w ith galvanization for melai lugs is that
the metal lug is usually very thin. HOi dip it in a
temperature of 450°C for a long lime (10 give thick
zinc coating) can cause distortion of the lug (or the
metal Sheet). Dip the steel lug in the hot z inc for a
short time period, however, the coating might he not
thick enough 10 resist corrosion .

72
 CoUise NIXes on Curtain Wall Design WI LSON Cunaln Wall Consultant (HK) ltd.

7. HOW TO DESIGN A WINDOW

SYSTEM

typical designs the author has seen and comment on

A window is an opening in an external wall closed thent.
with transparent o r translucent material (usuall y glass)
10 allow natural light 10 gel in. A window is usually • • 1>", ". f>'
composed of glass panels fixed with a window fram e. .',,--
L-­, ----,'-""
The operable pan of a window is called a sash or a l o;.con:
caseme nt. Fig.?l shows the names for every e lement nl<, "\'
of an aluminum window.
'I',
Drippi"l tine 0
H,~
Window !n\nI,

~ I~

""'\........'~)..u;" . t~
1/

1"-....
l>MJi""

'TDI'. son\ \\"!Of ~W"I!ion p1!11

J.mb/

filltd p2tl ~ ~Sill . Ita;n "'"31<1 ------------'0.

s...nf,ame ~
?
"

~ wccp hol< .Grouung

Fig. 7.1 Names for every part of a typical wmdow.

Ai, f1o ... ~
,..= M",lllug
Tilu·

There are many different materials, such as limbers,

steel, as well as aluminu m. 10 be used 10 make a
,
0 ______ _ ,;(:1 0<J
c' W LIldo",' fnm.

window frame and/or 1\ sash fra me. In this ch apter,

we will conccnlralc' 0n the window design usmg
aluminum ex trusions. As all windows arc similar to
each ot her in one way or another, there are not many
different alumin um sections that are used for window
design. II may wonll you as a window contraCLQr [0
check with aluminum ex trude rs fo r the sections you
want 10 design. You may very probably save [he
money for new dies for the extrusions if you design
your window to the maximum use of [he exist ing
dies.
7.1 Typical Window Sections
,
We have discussed the ucsign o f window sections in
chapter 4. We will discuss here only the several
~
Fig. 7.2 A vertical section of a window for a residential
de"elopment in Hong Kong. Rain water is forced \0
drop off the head of the window by the dripping line
there. The upper joint between the sash and the window
frame is prolected by a canopy-like cover. However,
weep holes provided on the front wall of the sill section
had failed this watertight system.
Fig.7.Z shows the top and bottom sections of a
ty pical window with typical gasket pocket, weep
holes anti sealant and gasket joints etc. Window
frames are fixed to concrete mechanically with metal
lugs . The gap betwee n the frame and the concrete is
sealed with ce ment grollting. A dripping line is
provided at the window head to avoid water

73

~
COtJI$& NOles Ofl ClJItam W all Oesigo WILSON Cuna;n Wall Consultant (HK) lid.

permeation thro ugh the top of the window (Fig.7.2).

Missing the dripping line at the window head is one
of the reasons for the waler permeation through Ihe
top of windows. Water stain will be usually seen al
interior al Ihe lOp of the window if tht: wawr
permeation happens .
A problem with Ihis design should be noted
which is that the weep holes for window sills
( Fig.7.2) are designed 10 face the front . As was
discussed earlier. the space in the window sill is
almost pressure equalized with the pressure in Ihis
space to be equal 10 Ihe oUlside air press ure if Ihe
holes are large enough. However, as Ihe weep hole is OU..lde
facing front and there is no canopy li ke fac ilit y 10
protectlhe hole againsl rain water, waler can gel inlO Fig. 7.3 $ub-frame~ for a window are clipped 10 the
Ihc pressure-equalized space lell-ding to the exterior main frame (mullion or transom). and then locked in
gasket by·passed by the rain watcr through the weep place with screws.
hole. and a two water barrier system becomes a one
barrier system. 95% apartme nts of that rl!Sidentiai
development were complained faT water leakage
Screw hole below Wiler level
during a nO.10 typhoon and duri ng black rain signals
in 1999..
Fig.7.3 shows how window sub-frames are fixed 0"" -----.....\ Screw

onto the mai n frame (a mullion). The two sub-frames

next 10 the mull ion are dipped to the mullion and
Inside
the n locked in place with screws. There is sealam on o Outside
the front of the joint between the sub-frame and the o
mullion. Such a joint will nOI leak water should the o
workma nship be good. However, a second sub -frame o
onto the tim sub-frame is fo und 10 be si mply clipped
to Ihe first sub-frame without any screw 10 fix it
lightly. The tolerance w ithin the clips will allow the Screw hole above water level
second sub--frame to rOlate a little and will open the
joint at "Joint A" caus ing water leakage. Such design
aCCQums fo r many water leakage through windows
during typhoons. When the screws fixing the firsl
sub-frames are missing or when a design does nOI
Grill

./

t> .

use screws to fix the sub-frame. Ihe joint between the

sub-frame a nd the main frame may be open up under

~
Inside
a posit ive o r negative wind pressure. The sea lant on Outside
the front of the joinl will be gradually pulled
detached from aluminum. Waler will get in through
Ihis joinl.
Fig.7.4 shows how the screws used to fix gnlls
Onto window frame can lead to water leakage. A
window sill for a sash could contain water <luring a Fig. 1.4 Screws 10 Cix a window grill mOlY cause water
rain (the weep hole for the sill is usually blocked by leakage.
the exterior gasket·see Fig.7.5). The interiur gaskel
will keep the window watenighl. However, the screw A weep hole provided by notching the edge of a
used 10 fix the grill onto the window will penetrate transom below a sash (see Fig.7.5) is OOt very
the sill section sometimes and might cause water effective in weeping water. This is hecause that the
leakage should the water level be above the screw exterior gasket on Ihe transom edge will block the
hole. water from weeping away when the window is

74
 0. _3

Coulse NOles on Curtain Wall Design WILSO N Curtain W aH Consultant (HK) Lid.

closed . When the window is open, the water above Can a metal lug under compression be used? Can
Ihe 3mm high edge of the transom will flow away . drive pins be under pul! out tensile forces?
The waler within the edge however, will not flow
away so easily due to the surface tension of the water Sash frame
(see Fig.7 .5). A modifi cation 10 this design may be as L-l
shown in Fig.7.6. The protruded edge of the transom ----;
below a sash is taken away by using a new extrusion
that contains no protruded edge. The gasket covering
the transom is lowered by 3mm (Fig.7.6). A lTansom
like this will still have water on its lOp when the sash
Edge of (he sill is not protruded
is in closed position (water enters the space above
the transom is nOI much as the exterior gasket will
reject most of the rain water on the sash). When the
sash is o pen however, the water stored on the lOp of
the transom will flow away immediately. The
transom wiil be dry most of the time . T here will be Transom below a sash
no water that will. increase bimetallic electrolyte
effect between the SHlinless steel hinge and the
a luminum section.

Gasket is lowered by 3 mm
Window .iIl under a ~

Fig. 7.6 An alternative design for the section of a

~
\ ::"00" \ window under a sash .

~~o:~~\:.
tS;:"~ [Example]: Calculate the metal lug for a window
of 1800mm high by 2000mm wide as shown in
~ . . _ u
Fig.7.7)
Cons ider a window of l.8m high is fixed to concrete
wi th metal lugs al 300mm centers is under a positive
wind pressure 2.5kPa. Due to Ihe limit of .he
w.,.,. tev.t II the IIOIch
concrete edge distance, the pin could only be applied
0.... '0 sunK<: 'eJUion on the interior (or exterior) face of the concrete wall
(Fig.7.7). The distance from the top of the concrete
Fig. 7.5 The surface tension of water will keep the wall to the pin location is say SOmm (minimum
water stored on the top of the section below a sash in allowable edge distance-see Hilti catalog for the
place for a while before it is evaporated. pins). Find the bending sn ess in the lug. Assu me the
lug used is 2Smm wide by 1.6mm thick.

7.2 Calculation afMetal Lugs Load on each lug:

F '" 2.5kPa x (1 .8 mJ2) x O.3m

Typical fixings for \~indows include the fo llow ing: = O.67SkN = 67SN

a. Metallugs
b. Anchor bolts + steel pl.ltes, Bending moment in the lug about the drive pin:

c. Embeds + brackets. M '" 67SN x 50mm = 337S0Nmm

Calculations for embeds and ancho r bolts are the Section modulus of the lug resisting this bending:

same as discussed earlier for curtain walls . We will Wx = 25 mm x (1.6mm)2/6

discuss here the calculat io n to check the metal lugs = 10.67mm

only.
Following questions should be answered when Bending Slrcss in the lug:

2
the structural calcul ation for metal lugs is conducted: <1 = MfWx '" 3164 N/mm » 150 N/mml

75
 Course Notes Qn Cunain Wall Design W1LSON CUl1ain We.. Consul tant (H K) Ud .

The bending stress obtained in a metal lug is 20 cannOi be considered as su uctural by SD. Gro uting
times as much as it is allowed. was found failcd during a pe rformance tes~ for a big
window which was fixed solely w ith metal lugs
,.., which were applied al inlcrior side of the "concrete
wall'· which was simulated with steel I-seetien
r 1
beams.

1\ / '1

'­
§
"­
)-
_'"_-<
, I
/
Lo.d'"i " •• on' Ill<""llull
7.3 Expansion JoinL<;

There is no need 10 provide an expansio n joint for a

~
/ window usually. The relative movement between the
/
/.
"­ Me"llug.<>ppli<d .. lOOmm",.
concrete walls above and below the window is
always assumed to be zero or so small thai the
1/ --; '\j compression or expansion o n the window can be
'*' ).00"" )ooof- JOO"" 300-" absorbed within the system. However, large windows
are now widely used in Hong Ko ng for re!iidential
buildings. Such windows can be as high as 2.0

S
meters and as wide as 6 melers (scc Photo 7.1) .

Dri,,""_~"''''''''''

PhelO 7.2 shows a window wall that is 2.2m high and

is inStalled between floor slabs .

Large windows for

)"!el.Jllug
'I ' 160.1

\/'11>
• . [), • .(j
.V . 'A
_ L'> Dri~. p'n is .ppl,.,.i 1>:"

l>
4
6 t. D

l l
>f ~
Wullh ~f COfICo"(l< - 100m,.,

Fig. 7.7 Metal lugs should be benef fixed with drive

pins so installed that the load on the pins is a shear
force when under a wind load.

Solutions:
a. One of the solutions to this problem is 10 use
rnel3l lugs on the other side (exterior side) of the
concrete wall. This may however cause wattr Photo 7.1 Large windows installed on a residential
leakage at lhe lugs locations. Another issue \0 be building in Hong Ko·ng.
noted is that the metal lugs used on the exterior side
should be very well protected with galvanization or The relative movement between the concretes above
other adequate coating. Otherwise, the lugs might bc and below the aluminum window can be as much as
rusted after several years in use. This is becaus¢ thaI 3mm (o r more) for a 2m high windo;'v due to thermal
the external face of the concrete wall is exposed to expansion and/or contraction (noticing that therma1
rain water that will cause the surface of the lugs wet expansion coefficient for aluminum is 23x lO·hm/moC
all the lime. Rusting on the lugs may cause grouting and th;)t for concrete is around 10 xlD""m/m"q,
over it to spall . deOection of floor slabs and conere,le contractions
caused by creeping or shrinkage of the concrete.
b. The cement grouting can greatly reduce the To absorb the relative movement within the
bending stress in the metal lugs. But such grout ing w indow system, the fixing fo r the mullion for the

76

Course Notes on Curtain WaN Design WIL.SON Cunain Wall Con~ ultanl (HK) Ltd.

A window wall of2.2 m high

Photo 7.2 A window wall installed between floor slabs

for a commercial building. The roof of a dome can be
seen covered with plastic sheets due (0 the water
leakage through this melal roof cladding system.

window thai is resting on embeds (or steel plales

fixed with anchor boil s) should be allowed to sl ip
within the mullion box. The usual metal lug fixing,
though not very slrong in resisting wind loads, can
absorb such relative movcmenl. Another thing to be
noted is the clearance between the top of the glass
panel and the window frume in which the glass is
installed. Such clearance should be large ~nou gh to
allow for a relative movement at least 2 limes of the
calculated movement.
mass panels insta.lled in a window wall in Macau
were reponed broken due to the deflection of
concrete floor slabs \\-'hich is more than the glass
clearance allowed in the design and installation.

77
Coul:se Notes 00 Cur1ain Wan Design
8. HOW TO DESIGN A STONE
CLADDING SYSTEM
8.1 General
Slone claddi ng panels may be mechan ically fixed
onlo concrete walls aT be simpl y plastcred OntO the
wall with say cemenl/sand mix ture. In this chapter,
we will d iscuss those stone cladding systems fixed
with mechanical fixings .
8.2 Stone Data
The stoncs used for cladding on concrcte walls in
Hong Kong are usually granite, marble. limestone
and sandstone . Their physical and mechanical
properties are listed below:
a. Specific weight (similar to alumin um and glass):
Specific weight of natural stone is from 2500kg/nr'
3 J
10 2700kg/m • You may use 3000kglm · for ut!au
loading calculations as suggested in BS 8298.
Test to ASTM C97 ';Standard Test Method lor
Absorption a nd Bulk Specific Gravity of Dimension
Stone" can be carried out to determine the specific
weight of the stonc.
b. Thermal expansion coefficient (Table 13 of BS
8298):
Thermal expansion coefficient for different slOnes:
Limestones: 3x10·.. mJmoC \0 lOx 10"" m/moC
Sandstones: 7x lO-i> m/moC to 12xlO.... m/moC
Granites: 8xlO""" m/moC 10 lOx10-6 m/moC
Marbles: 3x l 0·" m/mo C 10 15xlO~ m/moC
Notici ng again the thermal expansion coefficient I,),
concrcle of dense gravel aggregate is lOx to"" m!m~C
h
10 14xlO- mlm"C.
Anificial slO ne panels will usually I!xpallll mort:
lhan the natural stones and concrelc. Their thermal
expansion coeffi cient is dominat~d by the resin used
to produce s uch artificial stone pancis.
c. Ultimate stresses and allowable stresses of
define an allowable stre.'>s by dividing the average
stones :
ulti mate stress from the tests by a safety factor
The ultimate tensile bending slress for slOn~s:
(usually 3105 fo r granites depending on the number
au, -lDM Pa
78
WILSON Cunaln Wall Coosullant (HK) Ltd.
This fi gure varies greatly for d iHerenl stOnes. Actual
values should be obtained from te..<;ting to, say,
ASTM C880 or ASTM e99.
Safety factor used for stone. design is usuall y 3.
Thcrefore, allowable bending sirength of sto nes
a(allowable) = (ou,)J3.
wh ere ou, is the averag~ ultimate bending (tensile)
strength determi ned by the stone tests.
The safety facto r used 10 determine th ~ allowable
stresses depends on the sampling of the testing. A
larger safely fac tor is req uested by BD, if less than
10 samples_are tested and/or Ihe standard deviation
of the lesting results is signiti canl.
A llow able shear stresses of stones
Hong Kong Buildings Department allows only
O.9M Pa as the allowable shear stress for graniles.
An often used empirical formula 10 get the
allowable shear stress for slOnes is T.IJ =
o~,15. A
shear suess teSI for the stone 3t anchorag~ should be
carried out to determine accuTately the ultimate shear
stress at the brackets fixin gs.
Ulti mate compressive stress of stones.
Ooc = 120MPa 10 250MPa »0",
which is a lot greater than the ultimate tensile stress
of the stones.
d. Argumen ts about the allowable stresses ror
s lones determined by tests .
BS 2846 parI 3 ';Stalistical inlerpretUlion of data"
(althoug h a general standard) can be used to give the
tolera nce range for testing data hased on the teslS for
the ulti mate stresses on limited numbt!f of stone
samples. When the lower limit of say 95%
confidence for a proportion of 95 Q (: is 10 be to und,
the lower li mit of thc stone stress will be the:: mean
from the limi ted tests minus a [actor (k-faclO r) times
the standard deviation. This is II lower limit and can
he therefore used as the allowable stress with the said
confi dence level and pro portion. One may also
 ·

LSLM.

CO\.I"e NOle, 00 cunaln Wan Design WILSON Qmain WaiL Consuhant (HI<) LId.

of the specimens Ihat was tested). The smaller the Table 8.2 Safety faclor for the determination of
number of tests, the larger the safelY factor should be. allowaOLe snear Slress for stones at anchorag:e
Some consultants or engineers may ask 10 define Variation Gran ite Marble and Limestone
an allowable stress by dividing the lower limit with a within each Travertine
safety fac tor (of 3 10 5). This is do uble safet y. The subgroup
allowable stress such de[ined w ill be far 100 small from
and the design will be 100 conservative. A avera!;!c
compromise could be using a usual safety faclo r such <10% 4.5 6.0 7.5
as 1.5 if s uch a formula with lower limit used as the
average stress is requested 10 be used to define <20% 6.0 7.5 9.0
allowable st resses.
>20% S.O 10.0 12.0
Safety factors dcnned by the Hong Kong
Architectural Services Department (ASD)
Based on ASD' General Specifications clause 16.52 e. E lastic modulus:
and 16.77, the allowable bending suenglh Or shear Elastic modulus (E·value) of stones (I cannot fi nd the
stress for preliminary design shall not be more than E·value fo r sto nes from books. As the stone panels
1. 7MPa for gra nite, l.lMPa for marble and O.92MPa uscd are of bi g thickness, such E·value can be
for limestone. Fin al design shall be based on the test assumed infinite as the deflections of stones arc very
results and the safety factors given below. low, and sto ne \v ill break before it will apparently
Average ult imate slrength for SlOnes shall be bend).
determined based on tests on minimum 20 specime ns A formula suggested in a book "Design o f
composed of 4 subgroups. Each group comains 5 Masonry Structures" gives the following estimation
specime ns which are the stone pieces c ut from 5 for the elastic modulus
different quarry Sjone blocks. Average for each =
E 7000c
group sho uld be calculated based on the testing where o. is 75 % of the ultimate compressive Stress
results. T he minimum average value of the 4 groups (o~) .
should be used to determine the allowable bending Assuming that the 75% uilimate compressive
stress for the stone design. The safety factor to be StTCSS of granitc is lOOMPa, the E·value of granite
adopted to determine the allowable st ress is as listed should be around:
in Table 8.1 below: Eg ... 70000 MPa
which is similar to aluminum.
Table 8.1 Safet), factor for the determination o f
8110waOle oenOln2. stress [Or slOnes f. Minimum thickness
Variation Granite Marble and Limestone Minimum thickness p f the stone panels to be used as
within each T ravertine cladding has been specified in Table 4 of BS 8298.
subgroup This thickness range (rom 20mm 10 40mm is
from dependent on the way the ston e is fixed and also the
8Ver82.C
location where the stone panel is installed. For mote
<10%
3.0 4.0 5.0 details, please refer to this as standard .

<20% 4.0 5.0 6.0

8.3 Typical Fixings for Stone Panels
:>20% 6.0 7.0 8.0
a. K>!rf bracket (butterfly bracket)
Fig. S.l shows two types of bUlierfl y brackets used to
Similarly, the ultimate shear strength of the s tone at fi x slone pane ls. One characteristic for such bracket
anchors should also be determined based o n testing is Ihat the wind loads from the stone pane ls above
results. SafelY factors to be adopted to determin e tlie a nd below the brac ket are balanced on the bracket so
allowable 'shear stress of the stone at the anc~onlge that the bending moment in the bracket is minimized.
are listed in the Table 8.2. When it is the last stone panel at the bollom (or the
top) of an eleval ion, the fi xing for il will be a U·
shape bent bracket as shown in Fig.8.2a if the

79

l
 COU[S~ Notes on Cu rt llin W all Desi gn W ILSON Curtain W all Con$u ~ant (HK) Ud.

concrete reaches its end, or as shown in Fig.8.2b if wi I.l be chipped off if dead .load o f a stone is.
the concrete conti nues . s upported at Ihe joi nt and the edge is sharp. It is
noted that the shearing area resisting the dead lo ad al
C~re",
the ed ge is d ose \0 l.ero.
Fig.8.2a shows a fixing 10 a stone panel that
Sim in <too<! reaches the lOp of the concrete. Due to the

~" ; ~t:'OOh
req uirement for an edge diSiance of the installation of
the anc hor bo it , tbe bracket can o nly be installed
bpansionioim
/, somewhere below the concrete top. T herefort, (he
fixing point On the SLone panel has to be also

,., ~ "K'. \>eM <>1\ sit< 10 >1 low,bl.

101' inslJll1!ion 101~11Inc.
somewhere below the stone lOp. To achieve the
fixin g, a 30° bcnt bolt is embedded in a hole drilled
on the back of the stone panel with epoxy (or cement
grouti ng or structural silicone sea lant).

To? Qfthc .DOC,e'" WI\\

... boll b(,r.1J tr'
Rubbtrplld
i , cmbedtd in ,11< ,,_ ... ie. cplllY
c..m, Slone p1nd
·4

• e=du]~
<}

•••
.' "~"'
.
_. ,
/./.
" ~II(
10.'Slone . n .hoo", lI,tss
com~,
-. , hll
,vOId
:~'_4
fY
Wu/l<l ",.lcicd to
• >
~~

n 4 /1
Half.n .!wlllel and Halfen boll
\\jj
f'i 4L, ~~"'
,<:]
,
..'
6
6.

I S em:ltd .urface
10 allow fo: insuliatiOrt IOIt:rmu:C ,., U'Sb;ope~~' 1

<h'

Fig. 8.1 Butterfl y brackets to fix stone panels. Upper:

~
the bracket is bent on site to match the installation
lolerance; lower: the bracket is composed of two pieces
HalfeJ> ch...'II'ld

~I
bolted together on site. A sIal hole in one of the IWO
bracket pieces will allow fo r the installation tolerance. <"-iF
<
SIms are cut in {he stone on its top and bottom to
allow the bracket to be inserted in. Ho\vever, the •
0
stone panel at the slot edge is o f a 90 sharp co mer • S,rn1<d Sur i."" .. ".<\ a StOI
while the bracket is bent to a 90° anglc with a small 1O.tIIovo I'll:' the inruJlariO<ltok~

intemal radi us (usually 1 to 2 mm-Fig.8.1 a), Ihis

sharp edge may touch the bracket. A high shear
stress will be induced at this sharp edge of the stone
and can damage the stone although such damage is
invisible aCler installation. To avoid this happen, a
ru bber pad should be p ut under the stone between the
Stone and the bracket to avoid such stress
concentratio n (Fig.S. l a).
V-joint is a 45 0 CUI to the stone edge ( Figs.8. 1b
and 8.2b) to avoid shear failure of the stone at the
edges. Such joint is necessary when the stone panels
are in contact w ith each ot her al the joint. T he edges
'"
Fig. 8.2 One side bent bracket is ustd when the Stone
cladding system reaches its 101' or ha llam.
b. Pins
Fig.8.3 shows two fix ing details using sta inless steel
pi ns. T he bracket-pin system in Fig.8.3a is adequate
for a fi xing takes wind load on l y~. {Note: W hen the
dead load (vertically downward) o ( the stone panel is
suppon ed by {he pin as shown in Fig.8.3a, the load
will induce a rotation of the L-shape bracket that is

80

I,

\
 Co!J.se NOles on Cortain Wall Design
resisted by friction between the anchor boll and thc
brackel (and a lso bctween the bracket and the
concrete). If the L-bruckct does rotate, it will touch
the stone panel on its s ide, and the stone panel should
resist th is momen! of rotation. ]
Fig.8.3b shows a pin-bracket system that takes
both tbe wind load and Ihe dead load on the stone
panel. The pins that are put through a hole in the L­
shape bracket will resist thc horizontal wind load on
the stone panels above and below the bracket while
the L-bracket wi ll support the dead load fro m thc
panel.
a) A pin tpat takes wind load only
" "~
-­
~
b) Pins lake the wind load and
the L-shape bracket supports dead load
Fig. 8.3 Brackets usin g pins to fix stone panels
(extracted from BS 8298).
Pins are not encou raged to be used to (1)[ stone panels
by many fa~adc cpnsullants in Hong Ko ng. This is
possibly.due to the scction area of the pin 1S sma ll
compared with other fixings. The load from · the pin
on the stone cou ld concentrate at the edge of the
stone should the pin be bent much.
-)
W ILSON Curtain Wall Consu~anl (HK) Ud.
Calcul:ltions for pins should chcck the detlection o j'
the pin, and this deflection should be less than the
lolerance \vithin the pin hole. Sealant should he filled
in the hole in the stone where Ihe pin is inserted to
avoid di rcct contact of the pin to the edge of the
stone hole. The calculation should also check the
shear stress in the shearing arCa of the stone at such
pins and the bending stress of the pin. For more
fi xing design details, please refer to BS 8298.
A common mistake in design a stone cladding
system using pins is that the structural calculation
checks the shear stress in the pin only. As we know,
this stress is usually least critical.
PhOio 8.1 shows a spalling of a granite pam:l at a
pin fixing. Th is is possibly caused by a workman
ship problem.
Photo 8.1 A crack in a slOne panel at a pin fixing .
c. Bent bolts
S cnt bolts (u:>ually bent to 30° to 45 °j embed In a
stone panel with usually epoxy or sealant can be
considered as structural (mechanical) li xing. The
calculatiun for such bent bol t is similar 10 that for
pins. Fig.8.2a shows a typical fixing detai l using the
ben! boll.
d. Bent stainless steel plates
Bent plates can resist bot h the dead load and thl:
wi nd load from stone panels. To slip off the plale, the
stone needs to slip upward by several mm which is
not possi ble due to the restriction from the dead load
of the panel and the bracket on the lap. A typical
such bent plate fixing can be found in Fig.8.4 which
is extracted from 858298.
When the buncrfly bracket is fa vored by slone
cladding engineers (due to the fact that the fo rces
81
Course NOtt!5 on Curtain Wall Des ign
from above and below the bracket are bal anced
inducing minimum moment on the bracket), fo r the
locations where concrete wall reaches its tOp or
bollom the installation of the lOp or hallam bUlIerfly
bracket is impossible (Fig.8.2a). T he bent bolt or the
one·way bent plate brackets are used which can
allow the bracket to be inserted into the Slo ne al the
locations off the tOp or bo\lom concrete edges . Bent
brackels are usually bent on site to match the
inSlldlation tolerance of the Slo ne panels.
e. O tbers
For other fixings, please refer to BS 8298.
[Exercisej-Cnlculati on for a typical stone panel
Bent bracket slotted in stone
fi lled with cement grouting or epoxy
or structural silicone sealant
~
Anchor bolt
(a)
Anchor bolt
/ :"~'i:'J.
~: "'-~-'.;,·~?~.;':'l.
'" ..
:tji?: '4,,'t-gf;"~
/ .~ .7... : . . .: --.."" ~. ­
.• ~ Oli·- flb ' "
j1~.", " .• ' t;:~ ~ ~
~.~,::
()'
~~ ~ ...
' yO
_~ .;.,~. ...."a p••
?;-,;'"'V'k:!....
l'~ ,~ .
,..
.
/ ".
Ben! bracket sloned in stone
filled with cement grouting or epoxy
or structural silicone sealant
(b)
Fig. 8.4 Bem brackets can be used to fix stone panels
by inserting them into the stone panels.
82
WILSON Curtain Wall Consultant (HK) Ltd.
f. Sett!ng pads
When a Slo ne pane l sits on a bracket, Ihe cootact area
between Ihe Slone and the bracket could be very
small (close to zero) if Ihe benl corner of the brackel
is touching the stone edge at a sial (Fig.8.2) . This is
because that the bent corner is o f a ro und shape and
the stone edge is o f a 90° sharp comer. Using a
rubber or plastic sening pad of 2rum thick can avo id
the hard contact between the stone and the stai nless
steel ( Fig.S.2a) and therefor e, avoid the chipping-off
of the stone edge.
fixed with typical brackets Fig.8.S
Find the Slone panel of IOOOmm x ISOOmm x 30mm
thick fi xed with fo ur kerf brackets. Wind p ressure is
-l.68kPa, specific weight of the sto nc is 26kN/m"3,
allowable bending stress of Ihe slOne is 3.0MPa a nd
allownblc s~ar stress of the stone is O.9MPa.
Determine the size of the bracket and the diameter of
the bent bol! o Check whether the slone panel
thickness is adequate.
Kcrfbntcket Kerfbr.lcket
o 0
9 9
~
f ISOO i
~
f ig. 8.5 A stone panel Ihat is fi xed with four bUHerny
brackets.
Solution:
Check bendini stress in Ihe stone
Unifo rm load o n the slone panel
q ",,1 .5m x 1.68kPa
= 2.52kN/m=2.52N/m m
Bending moment in the stone panel is (Fig.8.S)
M =qe / 8
'" 2.52 N/mm x (lOOOmm/ 18
=315000Nmm
Seclion modulus of the stone ra nel under bending
Wx = 1500mm x (30mmt /6
 <

Coorse Notes pnoClK1aln Wall Desilln WILSON CurtaIn Wal! Con,ultant (HK) Ud.

, ..
. ,
..,
,
=22s000mm J
Bending stress in the Slone
r " .....' . a..dct
,'.

l> (J =- MfWx::: 1.4 N /mm1 < 3.0 N/mml

,d '4' '"
" '

[Comment: This calculation has assumed

bending of the stan\! is about thl! largest span
lh~
sOwini cf:~.
between supports. A formula for a beam is used
instead of that for four-point supported panel. The s_
(

results will over estimate the bending stress.

Acceptable.]

Cbeck shear stress in the stone at the bracket fixjn&

Stone will fail at a sheari ng area as shown in Fig.8.6.

,1 \ ';e~l;
Q
The weakest section in a Slone is thaI al 45 oblique
10 the loading direction where the shear Stress
reaches the maximum. [It should be DOled thai ,
different engineers might usc different formulas !O
estimate the shearing area. The form ula used in the
calculation below is one o f the form ulas usua lly used
in checking shear Stress..When a stone anchorage test --r;; ...... ~
has been conducted for a Slone fixing, the shearing
area used to calculate the ultimate shear sn ess in the
stone lest report should be the same as the one used
'" ~ '"
in the structural calculalion.j
Fig. 8.6 Shearing area o f a slOne panel at a bracket
Area of the stone unde r shearing fi xing.
=
A 10mm x 16.97mm x 2 + 0.5 x (70mm +
94mm) x 12mm / 00545° a. Such fixin gs should allow for the installation

= 1731mm1 tolerances (+/-250101 along any direction)

The brackets for slone cladding system can be fixed

Shearing fo rce o n Ihe Slo ne atlhe brackellOca1ion to concrete walls wit h HaJfen C hanne ls. The brackets

Fh :::: 1.68kPa x 1.0m. x 1.5m /4 = 0.63kN can also be fi xed w ith anchor boilS. As wind load o n

a bracket thllt fi xes a stone panel is usuaUy smaller

Shear stress in the stone than that used to fix a cU.Tlai n wall system, the strong

T = FhJA = 0.364 N/mml < 0.9 N/mml e mbeds used in cunain walls can be replaced with

anchor bolts which can be applied at a later Mag~

It is adequate to use tHe 30mm thick granite with the after the concrete is poured and can be applied wj[h

permissible strength given above. o.k. morc freed om for installation.

The calculation for the bracket is similar to that

for curtain waUs and will therefore not be repeated b. Calculation :

here. Calculations for s uch fixings are the same as what

we have discussed earlier for curtain walls (please

refer to Chapter 4).

8.4 Fixings to CQncrete: Anchor Bolts or

Embeds? ..
8.5 Will Mid-Spa n Support Reduce the
In the above section, we have discussed about the Bending Stress in a Stone Panel?
brackets used to fix stone panels. In this section we
will discuss the way to fix the brackets onto concrete Calculations find a stone panel of 30mrn thick and of
walls. The fixing system for the fixing o f the a span of L=3000mm under bending fail s before il is
brackets to concrete walls should satisfy Ihe denected by 11.25 mm.
following:

83

Course Noles on Curtain W alt Design WILSON Curtain Wall Consultant (HI<) Ud.

Calc lliation~
~ - 8.6 Installation Tolera nces
Load on the panel of say lOOOmm wide:
q . = l.68kPa x LOrn = l.68kNfm (N/mm) Design of a stOne fixin g system should allow fo r
.installatio n lolerabces of usually +/-25mm in all ine
Moment'in the stone panel of 1m wibe: directions (up/dowo,. backlfDrth and" lefl/right). The .
M '= qLIIB = 1.68N/mm x (3~rnm)218.
toleJance is provided "{ithin the bracket and tfie ~ •.
. = 1.89 x 1O~ Nmm .
anchor bolt (or e m.b.«?~) :

Section modulus I
Wx ::: 1000 x 30 2/6 = 1.5 x 105 mm l 8.7 Expansion Join lS
"I
Bending stress in the stone pa nel There are relative movements belween the stone

= =
ob MlWx 18.9 Nmm/1.Smml
eladding system and the concrete wall behind it.

= 12.6 N /m m2
These movements can be caused by many reasons

> to.OMPa (ultimate strength),

suc h as Ihermal expansion and/or contractio n,

Stone will break. concre te creeping etc. Following are the causes for

the movement of stone panels relative to the concrele

Moment of inertia of the stone panel of I m wide

walls behind the s to ne pan~ ls:

I = lOOOmm x (30mm)3 /12

= 2.25xl0~ mm~
3, Thermal expansion strain

Therma l expansion coefficients for concrete and for

Deflection of the stone panel stones are different. So arc the temperatures of these

5 = 5 x (1.68 N/mm) x (3000mm/ / 384 x two materials. When under sunshine, the stone panel

70000 N/m m2 x 2.25xI0" mm~ will be healed q uicldy while the concrete will still be

= 1l.25mm at a temperature that is relatively low. A stone panel.

which is under s unshine can be warmer Ihan the

When allowable stress of the stone is 3.0MPa, the concrele which is covered by Ihe sto ne panels.

deflection of this 3000mm long slone panel will T herefore , there will be relative movements between

deflect at this allowable stress by ' 2.68mm under a the stone and lhe concrete. When such relative

wind pressure of only O.4kPa. moveme nt (Ihermal strain)' is restricted by say

When the dimension of the sto ne panel i~ smaller, brackets, thermal Slrcss will be induced within Ihe

the panel will deflect even less when the bending stone panels . The value of the. strain can be the

stress has reached the allowable stress. When such difference in coeffi cicms limes Ihe maximum

deflectio n is lmm o r less, the mid·span support temperature va riation (say 50 0c).

which could be installed at a tolerance of Imm or

more will not be in the supporting status. Worst thing b. Concr ete shrin kage strain

that could happen is that the mid-span support does Due to the loss o f moisture in the concrete (0.01 % or

touch the stone panel under a wind load, but the lOOxlO.(; see BS 8110 page 4/8), concrete will shrink

suppon alone of the lWo ends is no\. Then the panel in quite a few years after JX>ured. The amouni o(

is actually unde r a cantilever supporting conditio n shrinkage depends on the age of the concrele and the

which gives a higher bending slress in Ihe slone than water content in Ihe original concrete ele when Ihe

(or the minimum the sa me bending stress as) tWo stone panels are inslalled.

side support will give.

The Hong Kong Buildings Department does c, Elastic deform ation (under compression for

accept mid-span support 10 reduce the superficial walls or columns, under bending for floor slabs) :

bending stress in the s tone panel of a long span. As This could be insignifica nt for a concrete column o r

designers for the stone fixing , you should check the a vertical wall as addition of Ihe weight of the stone

deflection yourselves and make sure the installation panels is minor compared with the weight of the

tolerance is within the deflection range befo re 8 building. The elastic deformation (compressions) of

failure might happen to the sto ne pane\. A rubber a concrete wall or a column can be calculated as 6.e ""

Iype gasket (spacing pad) between the bracket and o/Ec where a is the compressive stress due to the

the stone panel can help to distribute the load on add itional weight from the stone panels; Ec is the

brackets more evenly and smoothly.

84

)
 . Course MItes on Curtain W all Design W tLSON Curtail) Wall Cpn sult8nt (HK) l.!:d.

,.

, I .
:c..'
~
,
...- \"'~'.
: . ~"-
..... . elaslic
,.. . . OI()du1us of the conc.reLe-an.d /1e is the:·elastic "
- ; ~
:" ,: .::..' '~.' stram. .
;. '. '
.: ~. , ­
.... ..: ... ~~ ,.
:. ' '-.
.::~;. .,: ' .. ':I':~{ .
. ,"'" d. Concrete creep - ._ :~
A

.
• • •• " \ )
. ­
<, ~~
"."': :~
'.
...
'This can be calcu lated using the 'fmffiula on page 45 "

of "The Struct ural Use of Concrete-19B7, Hong

Kong". I.e. /1ce = fe x 4I1Ec

where $ ::: KI Km K9 Ke Kj Ks

in which Kl from Fig.4.1e,

K.m from Fig.4 .lf

Kc fTom Fig.4.1 b
Ke from Fig.4.1 g
Kj from Fi g.4.1d

"d
=
Ks 1/( I +AsEsiAcEc)
where As and Es are the area and the elastic modulus
of the steel reinforcement and Ac and Ec are the area
and the elastic modulus of the concrete.
After obtaining ;the strains. we can simply sum
them up to get a resultant strain AIOlal (usually in lhe
order of lOOOxlO-t. mJm o r say Imm for every 1 m
height). For a stone panel of lOOOmm high , the
movement relat ive to the structure is Imm. We can
provide a joint of 2mm (safety factor of 2) wide to
allow for the movement. If the joi nt is flllcd with
sealant, we may assumc an 25% a llowable
elon gation or cOn!rac tio n. Therefore, 4mm expansion
joint is needed.
It should be nOled thai the width of the join!
between stone panels (Fig.S.l a) does not have to be
Ihe width of the expansion join!. This is ·because thai
the moveme nl allowed w ithin a joint is actually the
gap width between the bracket and the stone which is
the joi nt width minus the thiCkness of the bracket
(Fig.B. l).

85
 CO\lfSO Noles on CLinain Wall Duign W ILSON Cutlain Warl Con$ultant (HI<") Url.
9. HOW TO DESIGN A METAL
CLADDING SYSTEM
Metal cladding systems on a building arc the metal
panels fixed onlO the concrete walls of the building
with various mechanical fixing systems. Mo;:tal
"
panels are also used to coveTa roof of a b.uilding.
9.1 Fixings for Metal Cladding Systems
There are many different methods 10 fix mO;:lai
c1addings. Two most commonly used methods arc i}
fi xing of metal panels onto a metal fra me with
screws and ii) fixi ng using hooks to hook a panel
onto a frame behind.
Due to several mistakes made in the slTuctural
calculations for several metal cladding systems thut
were installed in Hong Kong. failures had happened
to these metal cladding systems during typhoons . In
this chapter, we will discuss mainly about the
fai lures in different projects the author was invited to
investigate and to provide comments.
9.2 Calculation Should Include Local Buckling
Fig.9.1 shows a metal cladding system us ing
aluminum panels to cover a concrele wall. As can be
seen from the figure, each panel is hooked ontO four
MIO bolts. The panel at the hook (M lO boli) location
is under 11 compressive ben ding stress when under
wind pressures. The structural calcu lation for this
design did not check the local buckling of the hook.
Act ually the local buckJing effeci is very significant
for this hook which is 3mm thick only but II mm
deep and 11 mm high (Fig.9.2). The buckling
becomes worse when the panel itself deforms.
The aluminum panel is bent (folded) on all the
four sides. The structural calculation by Ihe
contractor for Ihis metal claddi ng system has
assumed the panel to be a section with a very long
bOllam web (Fig.9.2). The section modu lus of this
"section" will of course be much larger Ihan the
panel when it is considered as a plate. The
calculation using a section assumption should check
the local buckling for lhat 1200mm long web. A
86
more reasonable calculation should calculate the
panel as a panel supported along all its fo ur sides.
Rotation of the panel' s fo lded edges can be estimated
accurately by assuming a si mply supported panel
under a uniform load and the bent edge is always a
90° angle.
9.3 Panels Hung on a Frame Should Have a
Locking System to Avoid Uplift
Again let us check the aluminum panel hooked onto
MlO bolts as shown on Fig.9.l. This hook is locked
by the weighl of the panel and by a screw on the
upper end of the panel (Fig.9.1). When th e panel
reaches the top of the concrete waU, it was supposed
LO he locked by the screw on the top (Fig.9.3).
However, as the fi xing for Ihe panel inslalled
horizontally on the top of the concrete wall was
under-designed (Fig.9.3), the paner was lifted up and
blown off the building by a negative wind pressure
during a typhoon, noticing that the lOp panel was
designed to be fi xed with totally 8 screws at hs fOUT
corn<.!rs while the panel size was 1.2m hy I.Im. The
design negative wind pressure for the top panel is
7.7 kPa. T he side panel n~xt to it (Fig.9.3) was also
lifred off the hooks and blown off the build ing
together with this top panel. The remedial work
suggested by the author was to rein fo rce the top
panel (to reduce ilS deflection), and to fi x it with
more screws . Th e contractor was al so asked 10 lix the
sidt: panel to the x-section mullion independently
from the top panel.
9.4 Installation Toleran ces When Halfen
Channels Are Used
What Fig.9.1 shows is a Iypical design fOT a metal
cladding system. Aluminum panels are hung on M 10
sis bolts which are bolted onto aluminum mullions (a
n-shape section· see also Fig.9 .3).
Checking the design fo und the following
problems with the design:

 Cour$e NOles 00 CurtaifO Wall Design W ILSON Curtain Wall Consultant lHK) Ltd .

I ,

, ­ ''
Bracket- (steel-angle)
.
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".
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/ - .

-. ..,;;
,:
I
, .
g
';

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I.
I

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Detail C
~ .dJ: ' ~! \-Screw locking !.he panel 10 avoid up-lift

MIOboit
ii - shape mullion
, Hal fen Channel and Halfen bolt
I,
~
Hook notched in the panel
I

.
3 mm thick aluminum panel

Detail B

Fig. 9.1 A metal cladding sySlem Ihal failed in a
typhoon. Aluminum panels of 3mm thick are' of a
dimension of 1.2m by 1.2m with no reinforcements on
(he ba~k: The panels were hung on bolls with hooks
thai were of 3mm thick aluminum.
a. The aluminum panel at Ihe hook is on ly 3mm
{hick, but is 11mm deep and 11 mm long (Fig.9.2 nnd
Fig.9. 1). Calculation for Ihis hook by the author
found it would buckle when under negative design
wind pressure (4.2kPa). A structural test found the
hook would bend 0150% design wind load (2.1kPa).
It should be nOied that the alumi num panel
without reinforcement would deform so much under
a wind pressure o f say 2 .1kPa (50% design pressure)
thai the hook of Ihe panel at the M (0 bolt would
rotate under the 50% design wind pressure leading 10
the load on Ihc hook be inclined and tend more 10
buckle . A calculation can be conducted to check the

) 87
 COurse Noles an Curtain Wall Oesign WILSON Cun31n Wall CoI\$U~anl (HIQ Ud.

deflection of this panel by using the Timoshenko

-'k--- noo
formul as slated in Chapter 2 of this book.
h. The COnlr8C[Or calculated lht! aluminum panel ""
assuming that il is a section but w itho Ui cons idering
the local buckling. The panel :wou ld buckle !II the
long web of this "sectio n" under the design wind
pressure. Actually. Ihis panel will bend more as a
fou r-side simply suppon ed plale than as a two-side
suppon ed section.

I
c. No installation tolerance was allowed by Ihis
design . A 12mm wide gap between the panels
(Fig.9.l) was j ust marginally enough for the hoolting.

--··rs
Panel deflect!! so much tha~
When this horizontal gap was less than 12mm which M 10bol1
would happen, due to the installation tolerance. there
would be not enough space for the installation. T here
s ho uld be no problem for installation if Ihe panels ille
installed fro m bonom up (or lOp down). However,
when the panels are installed from bmh directions of
tOp down and bottom up, or when a pand needs \0 be
replaced, this space specified in the design would be
not enough. The hook was fo und nOlchl!d off at many
loc3\ions for the install ation when thl! comraclOr was II
installing alo ng both direction.s 10 accelerate their H
install ation. Two panels were blown off dUlil'S a ,,& / MIO bolt
no.3 typhoon. $everaJ ol her panels were observed
disengaged at their hooks.
Fig. 9.4 shows the design for a similar aluminum
panel system. The panel size is even larger (1250mm
wide by 3875mm high) and each panel was fixed
~ i l h 6 hooks along its longer sidl!s. The pand was
c:=t!!" 1"

calculaled again assuming that the panel is aU-share

section. No buckling was checked . Two panels wcrl!
blown of[ the building during a No.to typhoon in
19'99. T he calculation {or this panel should consider
iI as an aluminum flat panel supported along two
sides notici ng the big aspect ratio (H/a) of the panel
which is more than 3 (=3875mmll25Dmm).... A
section detail for Ihe vertical joint between the panels
is also shown in the figure. As can be seen, the
1250mm wide by 3mm thkk aluminum panel is
fixed 10 two aluminum angles (3mm thick) along Ihe
bot h long sides with stud bolts. The angle is then
hooked onto MI D stainless steel bolts whieh are
bolted to a Ii -section mu llion. The ,-r - mullion is
further fixed to GMS brackets (li-::!hdpC or angle
shape) with M8 bolts.
Re.m edial works
Remedia l work should reinforce the panel 10 reduce
the huge deformation of the panel and should also
ensure that Ihe fixing of the panel is strong enough to
avoid the panels being blown off the building.
Fig. 9.2 T he 3mm thi..:k hook of an aluminum panel is
hooked onto an M 10 bolt. The hook was twisted under
a wind pressure which is less than design wind pressure.
The pa nels were taken dOWn and reinforced with
aluminum box sections (glued on the back of the
panel horizontally with structural sealant) al 500mrn
centers. These reinforcemenl hoxe.s were fixed with
aluminum angles to a box section installed along the
vertical sides o( the paneL The box sections along the
verrical sides were fixed 10 the aluminum angles
along the panl.!! skks With structural sealant and
screws (Fig.9.5). For pleC<lUt io-n. an aluminum
segmenl of angl e shape is screwed 10 the panels sides
first, and then fi xed 10 the back of the ,7 -mullion
with screws. For detai ls of the remedial design.
please refer 10 the Fig.9.5. As a result of this
remed ial work, the new hook is actually 7mm thick
(4mm thick of the section + 3mm origi nal aluminum
angle) inslead of the original 3mm Ihick (see Fig.9.S).

ss

 •.-- ~-'--~-~------------
.'-,
Course Notes Of\ ~l1ain Wall Oesign .'
WIlSON Curtain wan Consultam (HK) LId.
. :.
.,
...
.'
-, "
...­ ., ";".:
":" .-<.

.. · ~ ~ 'j:lie.. bending of· I~'e

panel is greatly rl!$luced du~ (0 reduce thc·,v.ater penelration to the spaoe beh'iJ1Q the
. 1he s~ppor t fro m the reinforccr:JH;ntS 01\ the back of panch. . '. . .
,.. lhe'Panei (at 500mm c/c). This modified panel design
was proved structurally sound by a performance test .-'."...
under a load up to 1.5 limes design wind pressure 9.5 Panels Fixed Around Its Edges with Scre~r '.
(6.3 kP,).
Fig.9.7 shows a typical fi xin g detail for a metal panel
TOp po.r>el fox ed ontQ fixcd with screws . The panel can be either bem inlo
• .,...1f./Igle Ol four CQmeB
an S-sbape edge or be bent as shown and further
fixed with aluminum angles. The joinl is filled with
n.'._ ' .".~
....... undet design«!
,r"'. silicone sealant which is applied over a rectangular
.' ......
-, " backing rod . The sealant thickness will be uniform.
Thi s is compared with the joint shown in Photo 5.1
where a round backing rod is used and the thickness
of the sealant at the center of the joim is thinner Ihan
at the sealant near edges of the joint (Photo 5. 1).
, Calculation checking the screws should incl ude a
check for the tensile force induced by the moment at

.~
<
.
•
the edges. T he ' prying action will induce an extra
tensile force in the screw which is very often
overlooked in structural calculations.
Structural calculation for the screw should also
, , chec k for ils pull out shear stresses al the screw hole
." (sec section 6.4 of this course notes) as well as Ihe
usual tensile and shear stresses.
The bending of the aluminum angle aboul point B
(Fig.9.7) should also be checked.

" • ..:ction mullion

9.6 Metal Roof Claddings

Fig. 9.3 An isometric view of a metal cladding system
near the lap of a concrete w all .
Fig.9.6 displays anomer metal panel system s imilar
10 the above twO systems. Horizontal and vertical
aluminum reinforcements Bre fi xed o nlo the
alumi nu m panel (3000mm wide by 1200mm high by
4mm thick) wilh stud bolts fi rst. Hook bolts are fixed
to the vertical reinforcemenl along the panel vertical
edges . The hooks arc fixed onto a mullion behind the
vertical joint between the panels. The panel with
hook bolts is hung on the hooks in a way as shown in
Fig.9.6. The mullion is fixcd to V-shape brackets
with scr~'fS. The V-bracket is fi xed to the concrete
wall through a Halfen Channel and Halfen bolt
system (Fig.9.6).
A scrd,r is applied on the top of each panel to
lock the panel to the mullion behind (Fig.9.6) to
avoid uplift of the panei. Sheet Iype gaskets are
installed to dose the joint between the panels and to
The fixing detail in Fig. 9.7 has also been used to fix
the metal panel all roofs. The only matter 10 be
worried is the water leakage through the joint
between the panels and through the screw holes. A
direct solulion is 10 seal the joint with silicone
sealant. HoweVt:r, as we know, sealant will age hnd
can detach from the metal panel leading to water
leakage after the roof is in use for several years. The
gravit), of water will help the water to travel
downward 10 the interior although wind pressure on
the roo f is usually upward (negative).
Fig.9.S shows a popular European roof cladding
system named Kal Zip system. The thin steel (or
aluminum or zinc) sheet is profiled to give a slronger
section to resist the wi nd-induced bending about an
axis paralle l to purlins (purlins 3Te the steel frame
underneath the roof cladding). Thermal insulation is
inserted in between tWO such metal sheets to improve
the therm'al performance of the metal panel. The
profiled sheet is fixed onto a brackel with a round
head (Fig.9.S) by usi ng a special clamping machine.
This bracket is fu rther fixed onto the steel fr ame

)
89
Course Notes on Curtain Wa~ Design
WILSON Curtain Wall Consultant (HK) Ltd,

-"' \250 150 1250 150 150

1250 1250
" 1t' # ,f¥ "
J..­

. ,­
~
""
M

".,
<­
'"
M

Halfen channel 7r • section mUllion

U·sbape bracket
Steel angle bracket

3 mm thick
aluminum panel

Aluminum angle ofJ mm

10 stainless steel bolt

Hooks
2nuu [hick aluminum panel

Fig. 9.4 A metal cladding system which failed in II

typhoon. (the purl ins) underneath with screws. Similar
systems arc also s upplied by other European
suppliers such as Hoesch.

90

)
 ,

r " : Coooe NMes on CurtainWal1Design

.: .

, .
',\.. ,

WILSO N Curtain Wall Consultant (HK) ltd.

"
., "
. .-
".;
• •.v. ". ':
. ,"
.... .
"

.. ' ,t, o' , "~; ':~;50 150 1250 150 1~50. 150 1250 ' . ' ,: .,
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, "
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~"", 1'11' ¥'"
" ,
fV
Y>
, ,v ",

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Halfen channel
Aluminum angle bolt
to fiX the box section
to the al'uminum section on the
i

Alwninum box section glazed

the panel at 500mm c/e. 3 mm thick
aluminum panel
Aluminum section glazed to Hooks
the panel with structural sealan~

Screws to fix the aluminum section

to the existing aluminum angle

Fig. 9.S The modified metal cladding system.

,
downward (see the discussion in SOC:lion 4.5 of this
Waler leakage Ihrough such system can be prevented notes). Ai r infihralion through the syste m could be

if the system is correctly installed noticing that the significant as the system is "breathable".

space below the upper metal sheet is open·joimed, or Calcu lation for such melal sheets sho uld nOlice

say pressure equa lized, and the open joint faces the fo llowing:

91
 Course NOl es on Curtain Wall Design WILSON Cu rta in Wal l Consultant (H K) Ud.

U-shape bracket (500~ long)

Mullion

Elevation

Horizontal aluminum sec~

Halfen channel and Halfen bolt

Screw to fix the mullion to the bracket

Stainless steel bar of 12nun diameter /­
I
(installed on the reinforceme,nt)

Hook of 6mm thick

(installed on the mulli
Screw to lock the panel to the mullion
o
Aluminum reinforcement section

1St' v v v. . VI ".j~ ! .7~.~I mm clc

Fig. 9.6 An aluminum panel system rein forced with

4mm thick aluminum panel

a) The wind load on the metal sheets is shared by

alumin um sections. bath metal layers on the ei ther side of the thermal
insulation similar 10 the calculation for double

92

I
 Course Notes on Curta in Wall Design W LLSON Curtain Wall Coosutla/'l\ (HK) U d.

Weother u~l.m

tum i

Sac' fnme
,
L,
c ,. +,
~
RecWllulor b",";~g rod

Tb - P' It

Fig. 9.7 A metal cladding system which is simply fixed

with screws around edges.

glazing units or for laminated glass (sec chapter 2 of

this course notcs).
b) The profiled section of the sheet can be calculated
as a section if the local buckling is checked and when
the bending about an axis parallel to the purJi ns is
checked. When the bending about the other axis
which is perpendicular to the purtins is checked, the
panel should be considered as a plale of the thickness
equaling the sheet thickness. As the proliled sheet
has been folded at the bent corners (Fig.9.8a) by cold
fo lding, the sheet has yielded at these bent corners.

Extremely significant denecl ion of the panels could

be observed across the panel profile simpl y because

of the opening up of these corners (Fig.9.8a) when

under high wind pressure.

c) The Kal Zip and the Hoesch should have testing

data which you can use to compare with your

calculation results.

93
)
Course NOIItS on Cuoaln Wall Des.igo WILSON Curtain Wall Consukanl (HI<) lid.

Folded comers
(may open-up under a high pressure
leading to large de Oeclions) .

The profile of a typical panel

(a)

Clips (fixed to purHns)

Metal panels clamped on clips

by using a special clamping machine

(b)

Fig. 9.8 A metal roo f cladding system branded as ··Kal

Zip" or ""Hoesh". Profiled mela] sheets (aluminum. zinc
or mild steel) are to be clipped on site 10 the brackets by
using a special clamping machine.

94
·- r
Courso Notes on Curtain Wa~ Dl!sign WILSON Cunain Wall Consoltallt (HI<) Lid.

10. DESIGN FOR GlASS WALLS ,

CANOPIES AND SKYLIGHTS
In this c hapler, we will discuss the systems that use bolt hole in the glass. A point support with a ball
glass as the covering panels to cover openings in a Iypc hinge is usually used to m inimize such stress.
roof (skylight), a wall (glass wall) or a walkway Ca lc ulatio n [o r glass panels has been discussed in
(canopy). The fixing methods for these systems are Chapter 2. The problem here is about how to defi ne
quilt s imilar 10 each OIher w hic h will be discussed in the stress in bolt holes of the glass.
the fo llowing sections. A typical spider is sho wn in Fig,lO.l. As can be
secn in Fig. lO.l , slightly flexible bUi tough malerial
(nylo n bush) is put in between the stainless steel bo lt
10.1 Glass Walls and lhe glass a\ the bolt ho le 10 e nsure that the load
distribut ion on the glass al the hole is close to
Glass walls are basically the big glass panels fix ed uniform. T herefore, it is acceptable ir this
onto metal frame or glass fra me (fins) with structural assumption is adopted fo r the calculation of the stress
sealant o r with point support spiders. T he block of in the glass at the bo lt ho les.
the vision through such a system would be very lillie
compared with a cUrlai n wall system composed of
glass and aluminum sections. Very often a glass wall
is installed between two fl oor slabs similar to a
window wall but with morc vision panels and less
blocking [0 the vision of a building· user fro m inside
the building. Glass wall is o ften used to close the
s ides of an atrium of a building.
Glass walls can be of the fo llowing several
systems based on its fi xing methods.

a, G lass wa lls with spiders a nd a truss system or

simply a s teel column
Pho{Q 10.1 shows a glass wall supported by a truss
system. Wind load on the fac ial glass and the dead
load of the faci:!.l glass panel are tHlnsferred to the
truss 'through the point support spiders. Supporting
points to the facial glass (usually fou r points for each
panel at every corner of the rectangular panel) are
a lways arranged symmetrical about the spider about
the central axes of the g lass panel to provide a
balanced support to the glass panel. When the
architect aUows, a heavy steel column can be used to
re place the truss to give the same s upport. Design
s hould also ens.ure that the loads o n the spider are
balanced andlor the arm o f the spider should be so
st rong that the rolation (or deOection) of the spi der
arm is negligible. Any significant deflectio n of the
spider arm will rotate the arm and the point support
bolt which will induce a stress concentration at the Photo 10.1 A glass wall supported by a truss syslem.

95
Course NOles 011 Curtain Wall Design WILSON CurtaIn wall Consuhanl (HK) Ud.

(Example): A glass panel of lOOOmm x lO00mm 2. The bearing stress at the spider boh in tho! glass
xlOmm thick tempered fixe d with spiders at fo ur (Fig.JO.2)o
corners is under a wind pressure of 3.1 kPa. Pleas~
find the maximum bending stress ovo!r the glass Dead load on the bolt (venical) .
panel and at the spider locations. x
Fd", 25 kN/m3 x 1.0m x LOrn 0.01 m =O.25kN

Point support boll

Steel arm to the truss

Hard gasket
Spider ann

...
At'd ~ lJI ... t<:I

~ Glass panels

~..

@,\p

Fig. 10.1 A spider used to fi x point supported glass Load on each spider
panels . =
Fd/4 62.5N

1. The maximum bending sITes:; at glass center and Bearing area

edge (refer to the fonnulas in Chapter 2): Ab .:od x !
abc = 0.916 w a2 ; t2 = lOmm x lOmm = lOOmm 1
= 0.916 x 3.1kPa x (lOOOmm)2 l(lOm m/
= 28396 kPa = 28.4 MPa < 50MPa o.k. Bearing stress
obr = O.625N/rnm 2 < 50MPa 13.

96
Course Notes on Cunain Walt Design WILSON ClJI'taill Wall ConlllJltant (HI<) Ud.

(A factor of 3 has been adopted (0 allow for the

stress concentration eff ect at a round hole ( Pi lkev, [Comment 2: You s hould also check the bending
1997).) slress at the rool of the spider arm and also the
tensile and shear s tresses of the bah etc. The
.,~ k
1
deflection of the arm should also be checked to
e nsure that the twisting of the bah within the bolt
hole is not significa nt. T he truss as a frame should be
checked structu rally with a soft ware. The embed o n
which the truss is fixed should also be checked
structurall y. )

Photo. 1O.2 shows a g1ass waJl supported by a heavy

truss system. Glass panels are glazed onto aluminum
Fw o extrusions. Then the aluminum frames aTe fix ed to
the truss system which provides supports at
approx imately 2000mm centers. Th is glass wall is
actually a curtain wall with the truss to function as
bui lding structure for the fix ing of the curtai n wall.
Expansion joims are nc<:essary as the height of this
glass wall (curtain wal l) is about 20 mete rs.

Fd

Fig. to.2 Forces on a spider bolt.

Wind force o n the bolt (a horizontal force):

= =
Fw 3.1kPa xl .OmxLOml4 3.1kN/4 = O.775kN

The outside cdgt of the articulate (point support) bolt

is say, 35mm diameter, the shearing area
As = 3.14 x 35mm x lOmm lO99mm l =
Shearing stress
"[ =775N l i099mm 2 = 0.7 N/mml
=
< SOMPa 13 16.7 MPa

(Co mme nt I : The stresses in the gloss at the point

bolts are minor if the bolt is not twisted and (he load
fro m th is bolt on the glass at this bolt hole is close 10
uniformly distributed. When the fixing design do~s
no t allow the bolt to rotate wilh the glass, a stress
concentration will occur at the bolt hole. A more Photo to.2 A glass wall that is supported with a htavy
COmplic.1led calculatio n with fi nite element method tru!.s systtm. Htight of the system is around 20 melers.
should be adopted. The effect from the twisting of Supports from the truss to the glass wall are 3t 2 meters
the bolt shoul~ be considered.] cemers.

97
Course NOles on Curtain W all Design WILSON Curtain W all Consu ltant (HK) Ltd.

b. Glass walls fi xed with spide rs a nd pre-str essed te nsion in one cable and release the te nsion m Ihe
cables Olher cable (or even cause co mpr es ~io n) . ,
Fig.1O.3 shows a s ma ll glass wall fixed with spiders T itus the mo re tlte cable is forced to move, the
<1 nd pre -s tressed cables. larger Ihe normal force is provided fro m Ihal cable in

1700 1700 1700

1 ~
7C
l J.,
71
" "
0 0 00

~
0 0 0 0
00 0 0 ,

~ -
00 00
00 0 0
I

\ ~

g
00 0 0

Pre-stressed cables , \
Support fo r the cables A tie to avoid rotation
Sleel rod
orthe cable system

0 c3 <?d -~
.C) _ _ "~
--- - [§~
0' ­
Q./
- \) . ,
() 0
Embed " 0
Glass
Spider Cables are tightened here.

Fig. 10.3 A glass wall Ihat is supported with spidl'rs
and pre-stressed cables.
Structural calculation for such a systcm should
cons ider stress in the pre-stressed cables. When Ihere
is no wind load, the tension on the front and back
cables are bala nced . The movcmem of the glass
panels caused by any wind load will induce more
tensio n due 10 the del.'reasc of the ang le of the cable
in tension relative 10 Ihe steel rod. The cable in
compressio n ho weVer, will be funher compressed to
show less or zero support to the fa~a dc.
For exa mple. when the glass pane l is moved
outwa rd, the: (rant cable will be fun hcr e xtended and
the back cable will be released so that the force on
the steel rod (which is supporting and is
perpendicu lar 10 the glass) is pointing backward

98

 Course Notes on Cunaln Wall DeSign WtLSON Cooatll WaH Consultant (HK) Ud,

(inward) to balance the wind load which is trying to
pull lhe glass wall OUlward. The more the glass wall
moves, the higher the supporting load will be.
fNote: 11 is nOI difficult to estimate the tension
increase in the cable due to the elongat ion of the
cable caused by the wind load o n the glass panel.
You can first determine the strain increase in the
cable which is i:: t.. L/L whcre l...z: the length of the
cable under zero wind load, llL:: L' - L in which
L' is the lenglh of the cable under Ihe wind load. The
increase of the tensile stress in the cable is CI "" Ey
where E is the elastic modulus of steel
(2 10000N/mm 2). The additional tension force 6T ::0 a
the fin :;;hould not be less tha n 6mm to ensure good
x A in which A is the section area o f the cable. Add
qua lity of sealant application.
this 6.T to the original pre-stressed force T, you c an
cannot be too high, or else, laleral restraints would be
necessary 10 prevent the fin from rotationa l buckling.
Structural calculation for this system is very
simple a~ only i) facia l glass; ii) the glass fin (as a
mullion of a simple seelion) and iii) sealan t bile are
to be calculated (see Chapter 12 of the British
Standard BS6262).
A typical T -joint between facial glass and the
glass fin is shown in Fig.l0.4. Sealant is in shear
when the facial glass is under a wind load. The
sealant bite is limiled to the glass thickness. The
thickness of the sealant between the facial glass and

getlhe new tens ile force in the cable T' "".Ill' + T.]

II should be noled that the pre stressed cables will

exert a permanent load T on the embeds. Therefo re,

the embeds should be designed with a higher safely

factor due to this permanent load.

A better design is to bll.lance Ihe load from the

cables with each olher.

Holes In glass
When a spider fix ing is used to fi x facial glass panels
to the frame behind, not o nly the stress concentration
in the glass due to the slight ro tation of the spider is a
con~m for such fixing system (many point support
"V

will have a ball type hinge thai allows the supporting

point to rotate), but also the hole itself that will cause
Stress concentration near the hole in the glass. When
calculat ing the stress at a round hole, Iht;_maximu m
stress expected at the hole edge could be assumed as
3 times of the no minal stress that is obtained from a
calculation without cons idering the stress
concentration efftcl : (see W.D. Pi lkcy (1997). To

-away
limit the effect o f stress concentration tQ..f..ause g lass
breaka&,W ,t 1~'dlugg~SlcdJhaLaJlole dolled in a.,.glass
panel should be more than 3 . .
times the glass
from the ~cares;~ge of the gL1SS. T he distance
'
Ihl~knes~
Gliwfin
7

1'f<m'ith-e- edge oratiole 10 Ihe ~est S!,rneLof th~

glass pane l should be again n91 Ie.EJll<l:!,L6_times.lhe
g ins:. thickness. Struetur1ll seallil'l

c. Glass waUs with glass fin s as the structural

member
Tbis is the most popular glass wall system in Hong
Kong due 10 its simplicity in design and calculation.
The transparency the architects want for a glass wall Facial glass pane!
system can' be most achieved by such a system. A bun joint
Limitation 10 such a syslem is that the glass wall
Fig. 10.4 Facial glass ~nels are supported by a glass
fin at aT-joint.

)
99
Course Notes on Curtain Wall Design WILSON Curlain Wall Consuttaflt (HK) Ltd.

This butt joint is sometimes designed as shown in
Fig.IO.S. Facial glass is stuck together with the
structural sealant and the fi n is glued behind the
facia l panels at the bun joint. Sealant is under a
tension w hen under a negative wind pressure. Sealant
bite for such a joint, to be adopted in a structural
calculation, s hould be not more than half of the fin
thickness. Again. the sealant thickness should be nOI
less than 6mrn.
Fill thicknt')S
found to be aro und SOmm due to a low allowable
sl'ress (6.9 kPa only) for the silicol)e sealant (see
Chapter 5 of this book). To achieve this large seaiant
bile, aluminum angles were boited to the fin in a way
shown in Fig.1O.6b. The angles would be first-glazed
on to the facia l glass panels in factories. Then the
glazed glass panels would be bolted to the fins to the
pre-drilled ho les in both the fin and the aluminum
angle.
A<:; sealant will creep under long term loading, the
design in Fig.1O.6b for an outward inclined glass
wall is not ideal. Though a very low allowable stress

7
I
.4 Gll,s fin
in the sealant has been adopted in the design (6.9 kPa
or O.OO7MPa), the stress in the sealant will not be
-l
r uniformly distri buted along the almost vertical joint
between [he aluminum angle !\nd the fa cial glass. In
particular. the StIess in the sealam near a bolt
location will be much higher than the stress in the
sealanU hat locates elsewhere. This is because that an
Suuc:tura.[ statant aluminum a ngle which is so small (50 x 50 x 3mm
thick) will deform under a wind load or even the
dead load of the glass. The loads arc transferred to
the aluminum angle thro ugh the sealant (rom the
facial g lass panels. Mnre force will be supported by
the portion of thc aluminum angle at Ihe bolls where '­
the angle is not allowed to move. A mechanical
H
support for the facial glass (say a spider system)

.
Mmimum /
~o;"' A bun jl
sho uld work beller and safer. The other shortcoming
for this design is that the clear view expected from a
fin glass wall system has been blocked by a 1000m
gap width .. >mm
~
Facill glass panel
wide b:Jnd from this pair of aluminum angles at the
fin locations.
Fig. 10.5 Glass fin is glued behind facial glass pilnels.
Sealant bite for such a fixing is limih!d by the thickness
of the fin.
Glass lin

It is always a problem when the architects want a

wider facial glass while structurally the sealant bi te is
limited to the thickness of the facia l glass (Fig. lOA)
or the fin (Fig.lO.5) only. To solve Ihis problem, Slope to be 45' 10 achieve Structural :scal~nt
various methods have been tried but nm all of them I. good load tr.I.rI,ia ~ Sn.lanl bile
are accepted by BD. Fig.l0.6 shows two of such
details. Fig.l0.6a gives a method to incre:lse a
sealant bile (by say 20'ic morc tnan the gla$s ~-- e;J' \
-V
,,:c
thickness) when the thickness of the facia l glass docs
not give enough bite. A cont inuous aluminu:n angle
was used to give increase to the sealant bite to ~ glass
f . d.1 ~las$ panel
w<'lU-fin system as shown in Fig.1O.6h.
A glass wall (about 12m high) for a Hong Kong
project was designed inclined outward by 1O~ from
its top. As there is a dead load component exerted on Fig. 10.6a Wider sealant bite is achieved by applying
the sc<'l\ant joint between the facial glass and the more sealant on the back of the facial glass panels al the
gl<'lsS fin, sealant bite required for this design was butt joint.

100
 ColKse tWles on Cunein Waft Design
G!UJrm
Gasket (hardn~s .. 80 ~ A1
AlumlnWll angle
Stain!en Slul boll and nUl
Salllnlbile
SU\lCluraI se.lbnl
Faci3l glass p.l
Fig. 1O.6b A wide sealant bite is achieved by bolting
aluminum angles onlo the fin and glazing the facial
glass to the aluminum angles.
Seala nt to be used fo r g lass walls supported with
fin s: . For taU glass panels which are tal ler than say 6m,
DC SH781 was the sealant good for suc h glass wall
system. This sC<l lant is no longer available on the
market. DC 795 is the sealant suggested by Dow
Corn ing Company to replace it. However, the
strength of Dow Corning 795 sealanl and its bonding
wilh glass is not high enough to be a good structural
sealant for the purpose. Actual ly, th is sealant was
observed detached from glass during several mock­
up lests witnessed by this author. Sealant tests
carried Qut b y the author to check-the bonding
strengt h of sealants with aluminum and w ith glass
have also fou nd tDal the DC 995 and 983 a re beller
and stronger Slructural sealants th3 n DC 795. $0 il is
this autho r's s uggest ion to use DC 995 for the bun
joints of a glass walVfi n system.
If use GE sealants, you may use GE SCS 1201
(please call 24 11-6330 for information about GE
sealants).
Two ma tters should be noted for a glass wall
d esign using glass fins :
a. Glass fin is calculated with its depthllhickness
ralio very high. Buckling could sometimes happen
when Ihe free edg.e of the tin is under compression.
As the fin is restricted continuo usly along one of its
edges, no lateral buckling should be worried.
However, rOlational buckling could still bc a problem
and should be checked when the free edge is in
compression (refer 10 paragraph d of this section
WILSON Cunein Wall Consullafll (HK) IJd.
below for a calculation checking the buckling using
AS I288).
b. When the fin glass is te mpered, the allowable
bending stress for tempered glass is always used ror
the calculations for a fin . Actually, Ihe lin glASS
shou ld be considered as an annealed glass not a
tempered glass. This is because that Ihe tempering o f
a tempered glass exisls nea r the s urface or the edge
o f the glass o nly. When it is several mm deep inlO
the glass frum the edge of a fin w here Ihe bending
stress is only a lillie less tha n that o n the fin edge, the
fin glass becomes annealed (Fig.2.lO). As allowable
bending stress for annealed glass is usually only o ne
third of thaI for tempered glass, fins that are designed
using the allowable stress for tempered glass might
fail in a mock-up lest. T his ca lculation mistake
accounts for ronny test fail ures to g lass fins since the
allowable bending Stress for a tempered glass which
is used in these calculat ions is close to the ultimate
bending st ress of an annealed glass.
Bottom fixin g of glass pan els
buckl ing. of the glass panel under a compressive
suess from its gravity is to be worried if the dead
load of loe panel is supported at the bonom as shown
in Fi g. to.7. Suspend the panel o n the lOP can avoid
the dead -lo ad-induced buckling. In contrary , when
the panel is suspended Ihe dead load w ill help to
keep the panel flat by providing a tensile force in the
panel.
The boltom of a glass panel s its usually inside a
U·shape steel or aluminum channel on selling blocks
of Shore A 75 to 80 hardness (Fig.1O.8) . The selling
blocks arc 10 be provided 2 nos. per panel to give a
balanced support ro the g lass panel. To e nsure the
load from the support even. these twO seILing blocks
should be PUI at v~ of the glass width from either
edge. PUlling the selling blocks tOO close to glass
edge may ind uce a locally high shear stress near
glass edge where the shearing area is close to Ze ro.
T he surface of the selling blocks shou ld be kept
clean. Any debris of glass or other hard Sluff (sand or
other construction debris) will cause a high local
stress to the glass bottom. The thickness of the
selling blocks are 10 be equal SO that the glass siuing
on it will not incline.
To prevent the glass from touching the steel U­
channel, spacing materials (gasket of usually s il icon~
type rubber) should be inserted in the gap on eith~r
side of the glass panel. The spacer of other materials
such as neoprene or sanloprene may need to be lested
by Ihe sealant supplier (Dow Corning or GE provides
101
Couise Noles on Curtain W alt Design
free testS of compatibility or adhesio n with any of
your base materials w ith their seala nts) to confirm
thaI it is compatible with Ihe si licone sealant used to
cap the gap.
Dead load
Dead load
Wind load
Dead load ! I ! 1,.·..---­
Glass bends
(may buckle when the panel is thin)
\ Silicont sc~1am (DC 791·N}
t
Reaction from the bonom suppon
Fig. 10.7 Supporl the dead load of a glass panel is only
good for those lower than 6 meters. Taller glass panels
are suggested to be supponed from the top to avoid
dead load induced buckling.
(t should be noted that the wind load on a fin-glass
wall system is mainly supported by the lap and
hanom of the fins as shown in Fig. 10.9. T his is
because that the wind load on the facia l glass will he
nansferred to the fins, and the load on the fi ns is
supported by the V·channels at Ihe I(lp and thc
102
WILSON Curtain Wall Cons ultant (HK) Ud.
bottom of lhe fin . A common design mistake the
au tllor has seen from the failed testS of glass walls is
.that the lop/boltom U-channels are nOI well
supported at fin locations. The U-channel would be
bent due to the extremely high wind load at the fin
bottom (or top) . M issing of setti ng blocks or using of
wrong setting blocks (such as using timber blocks)
has caused glass failures to the glass fin during
performa nce tes ts. Although the fin is sitting in a
c hannel and the wind load on the fin will be
transferred from the glass to the channel thro ugh the
sealant (weather sealant usually say DC 79 1N) that
was applied between the fin glass <lnd the channel,
quite a hig share of the wind load on the fi n will stiU
be sup ported directl y hy the steel on Ihe front (if
under negative w ind pressure) or on the back (if
under posilive pressure) of the fin channel. T herefore,
a strong support (usually a steel stiffener) s hould be
installed on the front face of the horizontal U­
channel ( Fig. l O.9) and on the back of the fin -chanJlcl.
A structural calculation should be carried out to
chec k the bend ing o f the c hannels at Ihese two
lm:ations. The sealant filled in the gap between the
fi n glass and the tOp bottom channels should nOt be
considered as structural support 10 the fi n as the load
o n the c hannel fro m the fi n is Inainly supported by
thc selling blocks on the front and hack of it
(Fig. 10.9).
O\;lSS fU\ or a illcial gbu
Capping clipped in place Gasket >p3tCI or backinS rod
~~Ctip weldOO 10 the U-channc:1
Set1in~ btO<;K 5\(<,,\ U-channel
Fig. 10.8 A g l<lsS panel sits in a U· shape steel channeL
Two setting blocks are used to give balanced support to
the panel.
Weep holes
When facial glass panels arc inserted in V-channels
of steel or alumin um (Fig.lD.B), (he joi nt between the
U-channel and the glass is covered with silicone
sealant. Suc h joint is water tight if the bonding of the
Course No!es on Curtain Wall Design WI LSON Curtain Wal Consultant (HK) Ll.d.

sealant to the base materials is good. Any defects to We noticed a design by a company in Hong Kong fo r
the sealant can be repaired easily. Therefore, weep a glass wall system as shown in fig.lO.1O. Two weep
holes for such U-channels are not necessary. holes were proposed to be drilled on the front of a U·

I-=-I=~l Loading area on the fin

1­
I
I­ -I
i­ -J
,­
1
I: j
:r::)
Loading area on the bottom U· channel
U.chllIlllel in which the glass sits

~etti ng block

Stmctural sealant

Facial glass panel

A butt joint

Strong suppon is necessary here

Fig. 10.9 Strong suppan should be provided at the fi n c hannel under every facial glass panel. This weep
locations to the steel C·channeL The back of the fin hole similnr to the weep holes we discussed earlier
channel should also be well supported . for a windowsill will become an entrance for water
to get in the channel. The weep holes were not

103
Course NOles on CUrtain Wall Design
protected against di rect rain fall . Therefore, the dry
inside space of the U-channel w ill becom~ wet
because of the holes. Dirt y water might flood in as
the weep hole is very close 10 the ground level
(Fig. l O.! 0).
F3.~lal g1:l..",
Imide
Outside
Scal:l<ll
Gasket spacer or backinll rod
OoOe /, ­
a bk>ck. J
.C) Sating
aGOe) '0
Embed
Fig. 10.10 Weep holes facing front and ncar ground
level will allow dirty rain water flood inlo the dry space
in the ~teel U-channel and will defeel the water
tightness of the well sealed glass WAll system.
You should be very careful w hen a weep hole is
pro vided in your design. This space in the U·channel
will have a pressure equaling the wind pressure on
the fro nt of the glass wall. The s pace in the channel
will also be full of water leading \0 the exterior water
barrier (sealant) defected. The imerior sealant takes
the w hole responsibility for the water tig htness. Dirty
water in the U-channel can also defect the setting
block and/or ca use corrosion to the .GMS U-channcl.
Butt join ts
T he butt jo ims for a glass wall supported with glass
fins can be designed as fin slotted in between the
facial glass (Fig.lO.4) or the facial glass on th" front
o f the fin (Fig. 10.5).
Corner of a glass wall
Either facial glass pane l at the corner can bc trcllted
as a fin which will provide a structu ral suppon for
the other glass panel al the corner join! (Fig.IO.II).
d. Calcul ation of the glass fin s with r otational
buckling check ed using AS1288.
104
WILSON Cunain Wall Consultant {HK) Ltd.
For glass walls w hich usc glass fins protruded to
either ins ide o r o utside to provide a support to facial
glass pa nels (Fig.I O.4), it is important to ensure thaI
the fins w ill no t buckJe under bending due to wind
pressures. B uckli ng (rotational) will o nly happen at
the free edge of the: fi n when this edge is under
compression. The other edge o f the fin will of course
be restricted from buckli ng (roralional) by the facial
glass panels.
Glass panels al fl comer
;1
Stmctural sealant
Fig. 10.11 A joint between twO glass panels meet with
each other at a corner.
The analysis of the buckling requires the knowledge
of the critical clastic huckling mo ment whose value
can be obtained from a str uctura l ana lysis. In th is
section, we will discuss about how to usc AS l288 to
determine the b uckling effecL
It is noted that the AS1288 gives a critical
bending mo ment (Mer) beyond which the fin might
buckle. This is not like our usual calculation which
will check the maximum bending stress.
For the beams with co ntinuous restraint along
one edge of the beam (such as a glass fin):
For glass walls supported with glass fi ns, the fins are
actually the beam with continuous restraint along one
of the tWo edgl!S fr om lateral buckling. The buckl ing
10 be checked is therefore the rotational buc kJing
o nly.
The c ritical elastic monu:nt hefore the rotational
buckli'ng happens may be taken as (see AS 1288,
Appendix H)
Me, = {(rrlL•• )' (EI),,[d'/4+(y.)'] + (GJ)}
I [2 x (Yo) + y.J " .(lO,I)
Where
Mer = critical elastic (rotational) buckling moment
 -

Course Notes on Curtain Wan Oesign WILSON Curtair"l Wall Consultant (HK) Ltd.

L.<l> :: distance
betwee n"effectively rigid rotational (rolational) buckling moment (Mer). When the glass
restraints wall is tall lind the fin used is relatively deep
(El}r :: effective rigidity for bending about the compared with its thickness, say d is 900mm bUI b is
minor axis only 12mm. such rotational buckling should be
GJ :: effective torsional rigidity checked.
)'0 :: the distance from the neutral axis 10 the
continuous restraint (sec Fig.l0.12).
[Example}
Yh =the distance [rom the neutral axis to the fin
Consider a glass fin under a uniform load from the
edge under compression (Fig.l0.12).
[acial glass which is under a negative wind pressure
G '" 28300 MPa is the IOrsional elastic modulus
(Fig.l0.12 say width of the facial glass is l.5m and
'nd the wind pressure is 3.08k.Pa , the fin height is 9m, fin
J == d b3 /3 {i -0.63 x bid} is the torsional
X deplh is 1000mm and the fin thickness is ISmm).
moment of inertia, in which d and b are the
depth and breadth (thickness) of the fin Bending moment at mid span of the fin is
respectively. M =qe!8
E = 70000MPa is the elastic modulus. of glass = (1.5m x 3 .0BkPa) x (9000mm)2 f 8
'nd :: 46777500 Nmm
Il, = d x b3/12 is the moment o f incrtia about the
minor axis. Secl ion modulus (about the major axis) of Ihe fin
under the bending is
Wx :: 15 mm x (lOOOmm)!! 6 :: 2500000mm"
b

-+ ~;...; -if' Be nding stressin the fin

a bc = MfWx = lS.7 1 N/mm2 < 20 N/mm2

GlMSfm" ,
•• > Looks okay. BUI rotational buckling should he
checked fo r s uch a deep but th in glass fin.

d C I • •- .• Check rotational buckJing:

{MUlr,1.! a.'lis) Use the formulas from AS 1288 presented above, and
,. not ice:
;: = 3. 14,
~ =9OO0mm.

< r,
fac:i~1 gJ~~
i
panel
w :~ -r~ ~ j i
Negalj,·t wind load
W)
ly
d
b
y"
=: lOOOmm x (15mm)' 112 :: 281250mm~.

=IOOOmm,
= 15mm ,
= 492.5mm (assuming the thickness of the
StruC lural sealanl facial glass is also 15mm),
Yh :: 500mm,
E ::70000 Nlmm!,
Fig. 10.12 Dimensions of a fin for the calculation usi ng
G = 28300 N/mm 2 , and
AS1288. The front edge of the fin is restricted from
lateral movement by the facial glass panels, while the J = d x b~ 13 {1-0.63 x b/d }= 4953 mm~ ;
back edge is not.
The critical elastic momen!
For glass fin under a uniformly distributed load such Mer = {(<tiL,.,)' (Ell, [d'/4+(y.)'j + (GJl j
as wind load, the slenderness is not to be worried as I [2 x (y,,) + Yh!
the lateral buckling is restricted by the fa cial glass = 889033 Nmm < 46777500 Nmm
panels and the structural sealant in between. For
many glass wall designs wi.th fin s used, no c heck for It is not adequate to use a very deep (d=lOOOmm) but
the buckling fo r glass fin s is necessary as the very thin (b:: 15mm) glass fi n for this design. A
bending stress will exceed the allowable stress before correct design should e ither use horlzomal mid span
the bending moment exceeds this critical elastic s uppo n 10 Ihe fins (say stainless steel tie rods or

)
105
Co urse Notes on Curtain WaH Desigrt
horizontal fins) or thicker fins or less wide facial
glass panels or all of (hem. If the thickness of the tin
is limited by' the availability of the glass products
from the glass suppliers (maximum thickness for
float glass is 25mm), )'ou may choose to use
laminated glass (say 22mm+22mm).
e. Determination of the glass for use for fins by
using BS 6262 (refer to the diagrams Figs.39, 40
and 41 in th is code)
For a glass fin as discussed in the last section whose
heigh t is 9m . the "tOp-hung" fixing for the fa:ic l
glass panes and the fins should be nccessary to
reduce the compressive Stress in the glass due LO the
dead load (see the above paragraph c of this seclion).
As the fin and the facial p~ne l are high. such
compressive stress could lead to laleral buckling,
especially when the panels are under a wind load . By
suspending the glass from the top, such compressive
stress can be el iminated. Actually, the dead load will
provide a tensile stress in the glass which will help to
keep the glass panel suaighl.
When a glass wall fixed with fins have been
designed as shown in Figs.1O.4 and 10.5. the fin
thickness can be selected using the Figures 39, 40
and 41 of BS6262 (Chapter 12 of the standard). The
thickness was determined based on the maximum
sealant bite the fin glass could provide. The
maximum height these BS fi gures cover is 5m only.
As the allowable stress for sealant in this HS code is.
O.3MPa (not O.138MPa as suggested by Dow
Corning or other sealant suppliers), the tin thickness
or the thickness of facial glass may be under­
designed should the diagrams in the code is followe d.
The author suggests the methods discussed in this
book are used instead of the diagrams in 13S6262 to
avoid such under designing. We will not discuss in
Ihis book any funher aboullhe method using BS6262
diagrams. Any person who is interested in this part
can refer to the Bri tish Standard 8S6262 (1982).
The discussion in seCtion D should be more
useful for our design of glass walls using g lass fins.
10.2 Skylights and Domes
a. Introduction
Light from lhe sky is the most efficiem and intense
Source of lighting energy. The design of skylighis is
10 close the top openings of a building roof while
allowing the naturallighls to come in. Environmental
controls to guard against solar gain, glare or daylight
106
WILSON Curtain Wall Consuttant (HK) Ltd.
of too much intens ity need to be considered in Ihe
sky light design.
Design of skylights should~ also ' take into
consideralion Ihe high w ind pressures on Ine building
tOp where the negative pressure coefficient can be_up
10 2.2 based on Hong Kong wind code. Live loads
plus dead load of the glass panels and plus a litlle
positive wind pressure o n thl.': top of the building can
some times give even a higher load on the skylight
frame than the negative wind pressure does.
Due to the horizontal installation, a skylight can
very often suffer water leakage problems. Water wi ll
now 10 interior under its own weight with or without
positive wind pressures. PhUlo 7.2 shows a metal
roof which had been covered with'-pillstic sheets for
months due to the water leakage.
A skylight ;s very o ften installed to cover the top
of an atrium of a commercial building or a hotel
building. It can also he Ihe tOp portion of a dome.
b. Samples of skylights
Photo 10.3 shows a skylight which is the top of a "l
dome. This dome is the entnlllcc of a shopping mall
in Beijing. Big box sections of aluminum cladding
an a steel frame look like an aluminum frame is
s upporting the glass panels (Photo 10.3). The section
details for such a skylight systein are shown in
Fig.lO.13.
Glass pane ls for the skylight are actually fixed
ontO aluminum sections, and the aluminum seclions
are fixed onto steel boxes (Fig.IO.l3). T he sleel
boxes arc covered with aluminum chlddings \vhich
were extruded (no t fo lded) to give this perfect
appearance of al um inum box sections (Fig.lO.13 and
Photo 10.3).
The glass panels used are double-glazing units
with reflective coating applied on the hackside of its
upper panel (exterior pane l). Solar heat gain is
welcomed in Beijing where temperature in w inter
can be as low as ·lO°e. The glare of lhe strong
sunlight is avoided by a coaling o n the glass altho ugh
the long wave solar heat is allowed to come in
through the rcnectivc gh,ss.
Fig. lU.14 shows a design for a skylight for a
project in Hong Kong. This skylight is supported
with spiders and pre-slTcssed steel rods. Steel rods
along One di rection provide the support to resist the
suction (upward force) and the rods along the other
directio n provide lhe force to suppor! the downward
load . A pre-determined torque shall be specified to
ensure the rods arc tightened to Ihe dc:gree that will
provide enough s upport to the loads the skylight wiil
expe rience, while {he glass panels are still kt:pt in the

 CoUfse Notes on Cur1ain Wall Design WILSON Curtain Wall Consultanl (HK) Ltd.

right posilion. Laroimned glass (nOt double-glazi ng) cause the crack that Sianed hom that corner where
is used for this project as the thermal performance of the glass is weakest (see Photos 4.6 and 4.7).
a skylight is not so critical in Hong Kong as that in
Beijing. \-auea! .... _

.~=;'\',

~\U!!i<><>"
'• : '.._ j•
~ ~ 1
I- ., 1
.~ ~ ~~_L-M~u"""lo<lN'n:lw t>t>.:k'"
8,..:1<."'o/lod N
_ 1110. "';' ''' "",,,M

./
/
Detail (""""inl; :Il't .n,\Idcd \0
Iliw • pc,rcrt >;>pe:or"""<
ofbo. '''<li"""
I, T nI100m ~
I
~" . ,0 ii •• tnII,..n '" I mulli<>n

\ '

A.'
\
r--;-~ - - .
1l,...,..,...:.>I IIIC"'t'fl .

Photo 10.3 The appearance of a skylight fOI an
cntrance for a shopping mall.
Also to be nociced is that the skylight is inclined by
100:1 along a specified directio n (an arrow in
Fig.l O. 14 indicates the di rection o f the slope) to
guide rain waler to a drainage down the stream.
Pho tos 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 (see C haplcr 4) show a
small skylight for a project in Hong Kons- 18 o ut of
the total 64 glass panels fo r Ihe project cracked
within twO years after Ihc installatio n. Checki ng thc
design, we can find!flc s kylight (Fig.IO.IS) was buill
Q
into a 45 -inclined pitched-roof. The fixing adopted
in this design however i!i a detail for a ho rizo ntal
installation. In particular, the glass pancls (although
inclined by 45°) are not supported at their bottom
edge. The heavy glass panel (JO+lOnun thick) was
kept in p lace by the friction between top cappings
and Norton tapes and also weather sealant
(Fig.10.15). This was not so effective. Therefore,
glass panels were fo und to uc hing the fixing screws at
its bottom or along its sides. Another problem found
was the capping cover which is aboul 5m long but
·the glass panel is 2m wide. Movement between the
neighboring glass panels tends 10 bend the capping at
the joint between glass panels. The capping however
is fixed onto the sleel underneath with screws at
500mm centers. As a resu lt, the capping is bent
between screws inducing a local pushing down force
on the glass at the lower cornet of a glass panel and
)
r · ~"'-co:".1a""~1
I . y.
lor, .1
lm'·':· ~~ l
; _,
1. ..1.-_
}-' ig. 10.13 Section d.:tails for a skylight shown in PnOiO
to.3. a) aluminum mullions are fixed 10 steel box
sections with bolls; b) alumi num tr,msorns are screwed
to the aluminum mullions,
10.3 Can o pies
Canopies arc basically similar 10 skylights regarding
the fix ing fo r the g lass pane ls. Only thing d ifferent is
that Ihe canopy is exposed and slight wa ter
pcnetration thro ugh a canopy is not a big issue. The
supporting frame fo r a canopy is often a canti levered
system structurally (Photos 10.4, 10.5 and 10.6).
Other materials that are used 10 cover a canopy in
Hong Kong ralher than glass include transparent or
translucenl plastic glazing sheets. FOr canopies
without a need to see transparency (hrough it, metal
sheets mighl be used to cover its top (Photos 10.5
and 10.6).
Photo lOA shows a typical canopy cantilevered
ontO a strong steel tube section beam. Photo 10.5
shows a T-shaped steel fra med canopy cladded with

107
 C ourse Notes on Cuna ln Wall DeSign W LLSO N Curtain Wall Consuhanl (HI<.) U O.

Sleel sheets. Photo 10.6 displays a canopy

c1added with stainless steel panels that gives
'1'- i' iffi'
i"
r '
-,......;.-.
t,
~
,
f~ - -:-
"
an IT look of the structure. The 316
stainless steel aHoy is u~ ed for that canopy
as 304 alloys mighl corrode on ils surface 10
.::= -" --' give ugly rusting stains.
Sleel rods to r<:siS'! Photo 10.7 shows a ca nopy of two wings

~
~~;:-:-::}~;.~Pwardloading
~ of different arm lenglhs. When a wind
induced lif! is applied onlO this canopy, the
v>-- , : ' , «,~ force on the wings arc nOt balanced. A
.v )----
/ .t :" ,"'. ',
/y' , , " .•. • " rOlational moment will be induced about the
1 " y\
".:~\
I f,'
;/
.'
I
!, '. "
vertical steel fTame of the canopy, Therefore,
a very heavy steel frame has been adopted

!J .,""
J:
i.
r:
,

''¥I"
I
*.,. ,

,
I
'",
\\.'\

\',
".
for this canopy. The design fo r a similar
canopy is shown in Fig. 10.16. As can be
seen, a slope of 1:100 Js provided to the
\8
~"
-'! ! i
I i i~ '
glass panels on the lap of the canopy 10
guide rain water to flow 10 the gutter in the

\\'.•. f ~ :,ii&':
\

'\
middle of the canopy where a water pipe

\\, under the gutter will drain the w3ter down

~
," \
~..

;\:. I t
St~el rods \0 tcS,st
\",;f .. 1 J
'~:-:••1}_. ____ ..~r""'"

me downwaffl loading

I ""
"
10 grou nd.

When you calcu llile a canopy, the wind

load on the canopy is always taken as Ihe
basic wind pressure ti mes 2.0. This is
because that according to the "Code of
Praclice on Wind Effects, Hong Kong
(1983),', the drag coefficient for open frame
is 2.0. To avoid over-desjgning you canopy,
Spider s~lS\em \0 fix the glass panels )'ou may define Ihe wind pressure on your
(s« Fig.IO .l)
canopy by using the British Standard CP3,
/

GllW panels arc slightly sloped LO

Chapler Y, Pan 2 (or BS (399). Live load
(taken as O.75kPa in Hong Kong) is another
~\1ow water flow 10 the drainage system downward load other than dead load and
wind load on canopies.

Fig. 10.14 A skylight supported with pre·stressed steel

rods and spiders.

10.4 Glass Doors

Glass doors arc usually fi xed at three or

four corners when in a locked position.
When Ihe glass door is nOI locked, only two
points at the top and Jhc bottom of the glass
door sash is pivoted to allow the other side
oi the sash movable. Fig.lO.17 shows a
typical illslallation for the pivols at the lap
comer of a glass sash. A pair of melal
castings are fix ed to the glass panel above
the door sash to allow a pivol installed.
Another pair of the melal castings are bolted
10 the glass door sash at the upper corneT
where glass has been CuI to aHow fo r Ihe
installalion of this recess for the pivot
Photo lOA A cantilevered canopy. (Fig. l O.l 7). Holes are drilled in glass to

108
 ,

Course Notes on Curtain Well Desig n W ILSON Curtain Wall COl1sultant (HK) Ud.

allow [or the application of the through bo lts.

St ainless (or sometimes alumin um) coveri ng plates
are screwed 000 the cast ings to give a finished
appearance o f the glass door at p ivols locatio ns .
A calculslion to .c heck the glass doo r sash can use
the formulas for point supported plates given in
Chapter 2 of this notes.

''''-'' \' ".

friction one!
Photo 10.5 A canopy that is caldded with steel panels.

Sore '" hOle< drm.don ,;t<

Photo 10.6 A cano py thai is cladded with stainless steel

panels. The stainless steel alloy of 31 6 has been used.
Fig. 10.15 A sKylighl which covers a 45° pitched roof.
The seclion detail ado pted is for a horizontal skylight.
There fore, no dead load support was provided al the
lower edge of the glass pam:1.

109
)
 \

'Slll;3U:I!
W1C lUJJ:lJJ!P JO SSU!II'\ 0"""\ JO ,{d o u'R:) V l.'Ol oloqd

,,,l>llt'> U\ tu;) p>qw. M nH

OJlO,Q~Oo~O
<3 ·Q\'Xi()N~flj2 (lor; ,
'0.. ,

tU1PI'110 wnU!""'I< >'1'1 p<I'~"l u>P?!~

>oj,d ." '''" "l>w'l!P1lJltlH - " '. .,

h !pp<p1lll\1,!'_"
lI-'I~'u/W( l{l"" pow''!'
~., """001: I jt <lfl' 0: ucddM <=op,uud
wuq UQ!I= XOCII"''' 001:"<001 .
 -"
Course Notes on Curtain Wall Oeslgrl WILSON Curtain Wall Consuttant (HK) Ud.

U. HOW TO DETERMINE DESIGN

WIND PRESSURES ON A BUILDING
ENCLOSURE
could be as high as 50 mls o r higher. The highcst
11.1 The Wjnd hourly mean wind velocity recorded during a No.9
typhoon in 1997 in HK was close to 38 mls recorded
Definition or wind
at Hong Kong observation at Kowloon.
Wind is the movement of the air.
Fig. 11.2 s hows the main directions and paths
typhoons usually travel all over the world. Tht: figure
Seasonal wind
shows clearl y Ihal HK is attacked by three main
HOI air is lighter and will then ascend. Cooler a ir at
typhoon paths.
lower location will come from a coo1'er place to fill
Photo 11.1 shows the damage 10 a curtain wall
up the space left by the hot air. Thus a seasonal wind
system of a high-rise building in Hong Kong caused
is induced. Fig.1Ll illustrates the seasonal air
by a very strong typhoon (the No.lO Typhoon York
c irculation which explains the dominating wind
in 1999) tha t blew over Hong Ko ng.
directions in dif£erenl seasons.
Wind flow (airflow) is a turbulent flow with the
direction and magnitude of its velocity changes all
the time. Fig.Il.3 shows the record of wind speeds
•
~ recorded by an anemometer. The vibration of tnc
airflow velocity is apparent. The mean velocity
Nonh po!e
(speed) of a wind depends greatly on the length of
Wann liT
-..... the time period over which the mean is taken. The
maximum mean velocity will decrease if you
increase the length of the time over which the mean
is taken (Fig.I!.3). A maximum g USt wind speed
recorded in a Iyphoon is usually taken as the peak
mean velocity averaged over 3 seconds.
Equa\or

11.3 Boundary Layer Wind Flow

Fig. I Ll A ~ implified illustration of atmospheric
circulation.
11.2 Typhoons
Typhoons are also called Hurricanes in North
America or Europe, or Tropical Cyclones in
Australia.
Typhoons or tropical cyclones are actually storms
caused by thejlUge latent heat energy re leased by the
condensation of water vapor in the air. Typhoons are
generally originated (started from) between 50 and
20· latitudes usually of a dimension of hundreds of
kilometers in diameter and tens of kilometers in
depth. Highcst wind speed in the Center of a typhoon
Wind flow near the ground (say fro m zero to 300m
above the ground) is of a boundary layer type. The
d istributiOn of the mean wind velocity in this
boundary layer is as shown in Fig. 11.4. This
velocity distribution can be simplified as of a power­
law, i.e.:
U/Ug=(UZg)"
Where U is the velocity at the height Z above the
ground; Ug is the gradient velocity ( i.e. the
maximum velocity wi thin rhe profile in the boundary
layer) al the gradient height Zg (tOp of the boundary
layer). Ct is Ihe power law exponent.
Both Ihe exponent a and the gradient height Zg
are determined solely by the land exposure (or called

.,
1 111
Course NOles on CunaJn WaU Design WILSON Cunain W aH COl"\Suitanl (HK) LId.

land roughness or terrain roughness). For rougher should be taken 10 pUI enough d ampers at the
ground. the a and Zg wi!! be bigger . upstream of the airflow during your wind tunn,el tesls

Hong Kong

~
&jullor

Average directions and paths of typhoon

Fig. 1l.2 Mean directions of the mOlions of typhoons

on the earth surface.

Power-law wind speeds adopted iD BD PNAP 150

and code of practice on wind effects - Hong Kong
(1983)
In BD PNAP 150 and in the Code of Practice on
Wind Effects Hong Kong (1983), tWO different land
exposures have been adopted in Hong Kong:
a. General Terrain (for the land on which onl y 10\....
rise buildings exist)
b. Buill up T errain (where high or medium high
(H>Z5m) buildings constitute 30% of the land area).

T he a and Zg for general terrain are selected as 0. 19

and 200m; while those for the built-up terrain have
been selected as 0 .33 and 300m respectively (see BD
PNAP 150).
The design wind pressures presented in the "Code
o f Practice on Wind Effects Hong Kong-1983" are
based on a 50-year return peak gUSt C3-second)
velocity recorded at 10m above the ground on
Waglan Island in Hong Kong. T his velocity is Vw = Photo 11.1 ApproXimately 200 glass panels installed
64m/s which is based on a record in 1960's on the on a cunain wall for the Revenue Tower in Wan Chai,
peak of Wagll1n Island. I'long Kong were bro ken during the Typhoon York.
The BD PNAP 150 has specified further that the
gradient hourly mean velocity to be adopted in a as the geography of Hong Kong and the high rise
wind tunnel lest should be Ug (60min-mean) = 64m/s. build ings around your building can reduce the
Wind Engineering specialists found this gradie nt velocity greatly in the coming airflow (or increase
velocity extre mely high when they were detcrmiJtin g the gradient height-Zg). Correct resuhs will o nly be
the wind pressure distributions on building surfaces. obtained when such "surrounding protections" have
The wind pressures determined based o n this been taken into consideration in the wind tunnel tcst.
gradient hourly mean velocity is apparently higher The dynamic pressure (see next section) adopted to
than thaI presented in the above wind code. Care estimate the wind pressure on the surface of your

112

I
 Course Notes on Cunalt'l Wall Design WILSON Cunaln Wall Consultallt (HK) Ud.

building should be based on this velocity at building pressure (P,), The reference pressure used is usually
height. the coming wind 'pressure al roof height of the
Pressure coefficients obtained from a wind tunnel bui lding. It can a lso be the inlernaJ pressure of Ihe
test cannot be applied directly to get the wind building.
pressure difference across Ihe building envelope. The The pressure coefficient (Cp) is defined by the
inlemaJ pressure of Ihe buildi ng which is almost formula:
equal to the average pressure over all the su rfaces o f Cp = (p-p,) I (y, p V,') ( 11.1 )
the building will change the distribution of the
pressure diHerence by adding (or deducting) a Where p is the air density (=1.25kglm1, V, is the
constant value i.e. the internal pressure. When there airflow velocity in the coming wind at roof height.
is an apparent opening (also called dominant opening
in BS 6399) in the building, the internal pressure will
be even higher (or lower depending on the z
orientation o f the opening relative to the wind u,
direction) . These will be discussed later in the
following sect ions. Interested person may a lso read
the book by E. Simiu & R.H. Scanlan (1977).
f
Zg (for roug.he, terrain)

t
U(z) j Zg (for smoother
temln)

I ~ ,) / /
z
~ tz , u
" "
Wind veloci~ profilu for. smooth temin and . rougher terrain

Fig. 11.4 Profiles of mean wind flow velocities in a

boundary layer above the ground of a smooth terrain
and a rougher terrain.

b. Dynamic pressure
The term Vl P v,2 in the formula (11.1) above is
called dynamic pressure at a reference location.
• Therefore, the pressure difference pop, pressure =
coefIiciem (Cp) x dynamic pressure.

Fig. 11.3 A record of wind speed. c. Bernou lli Equ ation

11.4 General Distribution of Wind P ressures 00
Building Surface
To determine pressure distribution on building
surfaces, we need the following definitions:
,
8. Pressure coefficient
Pressure coefficient on a building surface is a
dimensionless expressio n of the difference between
the pressure (P) on bui lding surface and a reference
Bernoulli (refer to Streeter & Wylie (1979» fou nd
the followi ng formula is valid along a streamline (the
fl uid is assumed frictionless, incompressible and the
flow is steady. For airflow, these are not exactly
valid. So this fo nnula is o nly approximately
applicable for mtan airflow):
pip + liz yl = constant
In particular, this consta nt at location 1 equals that al
loc.-ltion 2 along a streamline:
i
·PI 1 P + 112 (V = 1>1 1 P + V: (Vl )2 constant =

113

l
Course Notes on Cunaln Wall Design WilSON eur1 ai rl Wall COllsuUant (H K) Ud.

If location 1 is the upstream (reference location), and below which the wind pressu res in Table IS of the
location 2 is o n the building surface, we can have the code [or built-up terrain should appl y as fo llowing:
pressure differe nce on the bu ilding su rface ai h. = 3.5Jx
location 2:
P2-PI =V2 P leV ()l.(V'Zil L
,".,
.~
Or we can drop the number 2 to imply any location

on bui lding s urface, and use r to replace 1 to impl)'

the location at a reference location 10 get this

1·0 D +0
pressure coefflcient on the building surface:
Cp" (P' p,)i{ tn: p v,')
p.p, '" lh. P lV?,V"} (11.2)

Notic ing
Pressure coefficienl onlhe fron tal and bact su rfaces of a venica\ plale
Cp = (p-p') I (V, p V,' ) (1 1.1)

We can gel

Str....mlines
Cp = l -(V N,), (1 U)

Checking the second term of the equation (11.3), we

can see that the positive pressure coeffic ient w ill
never exceed +1.0 since the second term in this
formula is minimum zero. However, if the airflow
velocity (V) near a building surface at a certain ,
location is very high, then the pressure coefficient
which is negative could be more negative than -1.0
U(z)
(suction).

d. Pressure coefficients on buildings

Figs. l L5, 11.6 and 11.7 show Ihe distribution of
pressure coefficients o n buildings of various shapes. "
From the diagrams. we can see that the negative
, "
pressure coefficient can be more than 1.0 but the ,,
positive coefficient cannol. We can also see thlll the Dividing st ~am line

negative pressure coefficient on a side wall or on a

roof of a rec tangular shaped buildi ng is very high
near their wind ward edges but drops very quickly Fig. 11.S Pressure coefficient distribution on the fro nt
when go further downstream. and back faces of a vertical plate . Wind blows normal
to the plate.

11.5 How to Use Hong Kong Wind Code to
Determine the Design Wind Pressures on a
Building Enclosure?
We can fo llow the fo llowing steps to determine the
design wind pressure on a building surface at
different locations:
L Define lhe terrain type (built-up terrain or general
terrain), and define the height below which the
curtain wall is hidden inside a built-up terrain. From
$Ce liO'>l 3.3 of the "Code of Practice on Wind Effects
Hon g Kong-1 983". we can determine this height (h1)
In Ihis formu la, x is the upstream distance [ro m the
edge of the built-up tcrrai n 10 the front of the
building. If, say, x :::: 300m. we'can get h~ = 60.6m.
For the part of the curtain \Vallihal locale!> bdow this
height, the less critical wind pressure for buill-Up
terrain can be adopted fo r your dc.';ign.
ii . Defi ne thc bas ic wi nd press ure using either Table
lA or IS (use the formula above in i., to determine
which table sho uld be used). De fin e the artificial
base level based on Appendix A of the code. It is
very often that the gro und level will be the artificial
base level if the slope of the land is less than 3:10

114
Course Notes on C1Jrt ain Wall DesiQf1
0° azimuth
Wi ndward
eo­ - -.-r-r
Pressure coefficient contour lines
Fig. 11.6 Contour lines of the pressure coe ffi cients on
the surface of a cubic bui lding (0° azimuth). After Zhau
and Stathopoulos (1996).
everywhere in an area- within a 400m diameter circle
around the building - see the note below). ­
iii. Find the pressure coefficients from the Appendix
C of the code, As was di scussed in section 11.5 of
Ihis book, positive wind pressure coefficient is never
more than l.0, and negative wind pressure
coefficient is highest near the edges. Therefore, you
need to define edge zones and middle zones for side
wal ls and for the roof of your building. Define your
pressure coefficient according \0 the Table C l of the
code. fi g.ll.8 shows. Ihe edge zones on the side
walls and on the rO'of of a rectangular building
dermed by Ihe code (Code of Practice on Wind
Effects Hong Kong -1983).
It should be noted that if the building is located
on a mountain whose slope is more than 3: 10
somewhere within a 400m diameter circle area
around this 'building, a base level othcr than the
ground level should be adopted. Refer to Appendix
A of "Code of Practice on Wind Effects Hong Kong­
1983" to fi nd s uch artificial base level.
WILSON Curtain WaiLConsultant (HK) Lid.
Roof Leeward
~
.o·'l
Side
11.6 Wind T unn el T ests
When your building is of a complex shape or when
the building lOcales al a place where the land
topography affects the pressure distribUlion on your
building significant ly, a wind tunnel test should be
carried oul 10 determine the wind pressure on your
building.
A wind tunnel is a (unnel at its one end installed a
powcrful fan to hlow the air into (or blow the ai r Out
ot) the tunnel. Wind tunnels were originall y designed
to lest ai rplanes in which the airflow will be ensured
uni form and potent ial. The wind tunnels to lest
buildings are the so-called boundary layer wind
tunnels in which Ihe airflow will be ensured of a
boundary layer type (power-law) distribution (see
section 11.3 of this book).
To carry out a wind tunnel test, one should make
a building model 10 a scale say of 1:400. [A 200m
high building to this scale will become a 500mm
high. medel of the same shape (or 400mm high if to a
1:500 scale)]. Pressure measurement taps will be
installed on the building model to delect Ihe
pressures al various locations on the building su rface.
The dynamic pressure (section 11.4) measured at the
coming wind now will be used \Q convert pressures
11 5
Course Noles on Curtain Wall DeSigl1 WILSON Curta il1 Wall Con sultant (HK) Ud.

45° azimuth
Roof
~

_0.6

":0 . 4
"--
':0. 6

Windward ~ Leeward

Cp - ~.o . _2.1
Pressure coefficient contour lines Cp - -<J.O. - 1.2
/
0. 1',
0.15.
~A.<-
Fig. lL7 Conto ur lines of Ihe pressure coefficients on
0
Ed,._ · r - ~I.o.-l .'
the surface of a cubic building (45 azimuth). After
Zholl and Stathopoulos (1996). ""! .,. .. I Cp - - l.o._IO
k
into pressure coefficie nts using the formula (I Ll ) . ~ VII
Cp t " 1.0. _ 14
iP'l!
presented in seclion 11.4. I I~ I
As a wind tunnel test is expensive (about
~I [,,<
HKSlOO,OOO to HKS200,OOO), the client should Cp " -l.O. - I.o ~ k I
determine by consult ing with a wind engi neering "'4... r 1
:;.--1 !9
speclalist whether a wind tunnel le S\ is necessary for
..... , 1....., ' 1 b~
their building. A wind lunnellest is necessary when
the building is of an unusual shape and/or the
building locates a t a location where the surrounding
t-.--4( I, »,
O.2l . M O.2l.
topography will significantly affect the wind 0.13.
conditio ns around this building.
• >b

Fig. 11.8 Edge zones on the surface o(a recL.angular

building defined in the Code of Pracl i c~ on Wind
Effects Hong Kong· 1983.

116

CQurse Notes on Curtain Wall DosIgro
12. MOCK-UP TESTING
Mock-ups of windows or c urtain walls are the full­
scale specimens selected from the relevant building
fac;ade (or roof) systems. Each mock-up should
include the typical porlion of a curtain wall (or
window etc) including its brackets, mu llions,
transoms, connections between the tTansoms and the
mullions, glass, sash hardwarc and sealant (and/or
gaskets). The minimum height of the mock-up
shou ld be one Ooor {or a curtain wall system. When
tested, the mock-up wi ll be installed onto the fron t
opening of a lest chamber with its edges closed up
w ith steel panels or plywood plates. Thc gap between
the testing chamber and the mOCk-Up will be sealed
with sealant or neoprene (or nylon) fl ashing
whichever is adequate. It should be noted that sealant
could provide a support to the edge of the specimen
and will thus reduce the del1eClion of the mullion
next to Ihe joint with the chambcr. Mock-up
drawings should have been checked and approved by
the consu1!ant or the architect before the curtain wall
specimen is sent for the mock-up performance tests.
The mock-up installation should be checked against
the approved mock-up drawings before the Icsting
(by the testing engineer).
12.1 Why ShouJd Curtai n Willis Be Tested?
A curtain wall design should have been checked by
the architect, the curtain wall con"uhant, the
contractor themselves and by the Buildings
Deparlment. Why should they be tested? II is
because that curtain walls design can be different
from project to project. It needs the checker to be
very professional and experienced on checking
different curtain wall designs. It is believed that
mock-up tests can find the problems with a curtain
wall system which could be overlooked by the
checkers. It is this au thor's opinion {hat once the
curtain wall design has been really carefully checked
by a professional curtain wall consultant, ihe
problems with the curtai n wa ll design should have
been solved a t the design stage. Therefore the mock­
up test for such a curtain wall \vould be not necessary.
A contractor requests a mock-up lest simply
because that:
"7
WILSON Curtain Wall COnsu~ant (HI<) LIO.
• The client wants to know the system is watertight
and is willing to pay for the test:
• T he registered structural e ngineer (RSE) /
Buildings Department (BD) want to know the system
is structurally sound under design and sa fet y wind
pressures.
• The structural engineer wants to know it is okay
under earthquakes.
• The Mechanical engineers wish to know it does
not leak too much air.
• The managemelll office wants to know that the
tie-backs for their gondolas are safe for use (a tie­
back test).
Consequently a mock-up test contai ns usually the
following lestS:
• Ai r infiltration test
• Water penetration lest under sta tic pressure
• Water penenat ion tcstunder cycl ic pressure
• Water penetration test under dynamic wind
pressure (pressure generated by an airplane propeller
to AAMA 501)
• Structural Adequacy Test under stalic pressure
(up to design wind pressure)
• Structural Adequacy Test under dynamic
pressure (usually cyclic pressures up to design
pressure)
• Seismic Movement Tcst- Vertical Movement
• Seism ic Movement Test- Horizontal Movement
• Gondula Fixing PuIl·out Tests (also called tie­
back test) - outward, up/down, left/right
• Structural Adequacy Test under staliC/cycl ic
pressure (up to safety wind pressure)
• Casement tesl
It is very often that a mock-up lest is carried out jusl
because the BD (Hong Kong Buildings Department)
requires it. Actuall y, the c urtain wall test may he
waived based on SO PNAP 106 if historical data are
avai lable.
The BD PNAP 106 says : "Curtain wall systems
wit hout a history of previously accepted lest will be
required to undergo a safety test ...... ". A comparison
report by a curtain wall specialist to prove that the
current curtain waH should have a similar
117
 Course Notes on Curtain Wall Design
perfo rmance as the o ne tested with valid results to be
compared is necessary 10 gel the test waived.
12.2 M ock-Up Size
Once a BD safety test (PNA P 106) is to be condul.:ted,
B55368 Part 2. This test again sho uld be conduc ted
the minimum mock-up size should con lain a one
to various wind pressures up to the pressure
floor high curtain wall section 10 a llow for the
interested. There is no fa ilure or pass for this lest , but
mullions, Iransoms , and the bracket fix ings to
Ihe pressure al which water is observed penetrating
undergo a full loading as they wi ll experience under
the system to interior should be recorded and
the design (or safety) loads (including wind load ,
rcpon ed.
dead load , and o ther imposed loads).
3. Water penetration lest under cyclic pressures. T he
Althoug h large windows (higher than 108m or
opening area is more than 6m 2) are to be submitted to
BD for approval, the mock-up.testing fo r windows is
nOt requi red by the BD since windows are install ed
within building structures rarher than hung outside
building structures. It is often the consultant or
architect employed by the d ient req uest for a mock­
up test to clarify what they believe could not be
round during their checking such as workmanship
quality. Therefore, it is preferred thai the lest
specimens are installed by the laborers who are also
going to install the c urtain wall (or wjndow ) system
on site.
12.3 Other Tests
Other testS may be carried o ut when applicable:
• Glass Impact Test (can be co nducted to the glass
installed o n the mock-up)
• Anodizing (Coating) T hickness Tesl
• Strain measorement during struclUrai (\!sts on the
glass panels or mollions 10 ensure that the m ax.;nlU m
allowable stress is not exceeded.
• Hinge Test
• Latch I Handle Test
12.4 Test R equired by Ho ng Ko ng H ousing
Authority
HKHA (Hong Kong Housing Authority) specifics
the following tests to their cUrlain walls or glass
walls.
1. Air infil tratio n test-to BS 5368 pan 1. It is noted
that the testing laborato ries in Hong Ko ng lend 10
simplify this test. They will usua lly measure the
airflow rates at a certain wind pressure (usually
600Pa) to determine the air infiltra tio n of the I.:urtain
118
-
I )
WILSON Cunain WaUConsunant (H K) Uti.
wall system at this pressure only . T he BS standard
calls for airflow rates measured at vario us wind
pressures. In the final test report, a gr~ph showing
the air infiltra tion against every pressure should be
plo tted.
2. Waler penetration test under static pressure to
BS 4315 has been withdrawn in UK but still used in
Hong Kong. Another valid testing procedure using
cyclic pressure..<; is de fined in the Austra lian code
AS/NZS 4284. The water lests to BS 43 15 are still
accepted by HKHA.
4. Structllfal adequacy tCSt under static pressures to
BS 5368 paT! 3. Deflections of typical members
sho uld be recorded al vario us pressures a t a step of
250 Pa.
5. Watcr penetration lest under static pressure
(re:peated).
6. StruClUral Adequacy Test under BD PNAP 106
Cyclic (Ihis is a part of the BS 5368 part 3 test).
7. Safet y leS.l to 150% Design Load.
8. Racking. test (scismic) 10 +/- lOm m or 1/500 floo r
height.
9. Water penetrat ion test under static pressure
(repeated) - CUI seal. T his test is also called
degradatio n test. A stri p of wcather sealanl at a jo im
where wate r lightness is expected should be c ut.
Waler test stated in 2 and/or 3 above shall be
repeated to evaluate the effcct of scalant degTadatio n
a t s uc h locations.
to. Glass intpact lest to BS 8200 (soft ball).
11. Glass impact test to BS 8200 (hard ball).
12. Sash tests (casemcnt teSt 10 as 6375 pari 2).
It wil l take one full day to finish all [he above tests.
12.5 Test Equipmen[
Mock-ups are tested in laborato ries w here the
following testing facilities are provided.
Equ ipment
• Test Chamber: A free standing test chamber
prcl"abricalcd of stee! w"h ich is designed
specifically for the perfo rmance tests. The
chamber should have an opening in which or
)
 Course NOles on Cunain Wall Design
against whic h the specimen can be installed. Care
should be taken (0 avoid the edge of the specimen
with the chamber is sealed in a way thaI might be
not representative o f the conditions thc curtain
wall is to be lesled.
• Blower: A reversible blower (or blowers) capable
of giving positive and negative pressures o n the
mock-up as required will be used to achieve the
pressure difference between the inside and the
outside o[ the chamber. Care should be taken to
avoid Ihal the air supplied into the cha mber blows
directly 10 the speci men SO Ihal the pressure on
the specimen is uniform.
• Water spray rack: A water spray rack bu ilt inside
the testing chamber (or a temporary water spray
rack outside the chamber) to supply waler onto
Ihe speci men .
Measurement Equipm ent
• Manometer: Pressute difference acro:;s the mock­
up will be measured using a manometer. The
manometer should be open to bOlh the inside and
outside the chamber SO that the pressure
difference across the mock-up will be recorded by
it. The probe of the manometcr should be so
located in the chamber that it is away from the
direct air flow of the air supply in the chamber
and to avoid faults readings. Manomcters are
l usually very stable and reasonably accurate.
Recalibration for thcm is not necessary after the
first calibration. The accuracy required by ASTM
for manometers is +1-2% of the value measured.
• Transducers: Deflection of structural-members of
a curtain wall specimen will be measured with
displacement transducers. Every transducer
sho uld be checked to see if it gives reasonable
readings before a structural test. The bases that
fix the transducer to an isolated steel frame from
the test specimen should be ensured Slable.
• Water flow meter: Water flow rates are to be
monitored with a water flow meter.
• Air flow meter: Airflow rates are monitored w ith
an airflow meters.
1 given in detail in as
Fig. 12.1 shows a testing chamber on which a testing
") mock-up can be instaUcd. A steel plate installed in
front of the inlet opening of the chamber is to avoid
) the air now to blow d irectly o n the specimen . The air
pressure inside the chamber will be uniform. so is the
) air presiure outs ide the c hamber (w ith o nly
negligible fluctuaHon). Therefore, the pressure
difference between the inside and the outside o f the
chamber indicates the pressure difference across the
)
")
WILSON Curtain Wall ConSUltant IHK) lJO.
specimen. When the exterior face of the curtain wall
is installed facing the inside o f the c hamber, a
positive pressure is applied o n the specimen when
the air is blow n into the cha mber (whe n the pressure
inside the chamber is higher than the pressure outside
the chamber). W hen a negative pressure is desired,
the air in the chamber should be vacu umed out. A
specified magnitude of the pressure difference across
the specimen is achieved by controlling the amount
of air supplied (vacuumed) du ring a given time
perio<!. Due to the unavoidable air leakage through
the chamber, the air blown in will be balanced by the
air leakage . W hen the air blown in equals the ai r
leaks out, the chamber pressure is stabilized. A
constant pressure is achieved.
12.6 T esting Procedur es
a. Mock-up inspection
Before the tests are carried out, the test engineer
should ensure thai the follow ing nave been done:
• Remove any sealing material or construction that
is nOt normally a part of the assembly as instalkd
on a building.
• Fh the specimen against the test c ha mber with the
external side facing the water spray (if a W<l.t~r
tcst is desired ). The specimen shall be installed in
such a way that no joints or openings of the
curtai n wall system are obstructed.
• Seal the outer perimeter for the specimen to the
chamber wall and seal at no other points.
• Allow sufficient time for sealants to cure.
• C heck the instal lation againsllhe design drawings
to ensure the mock-up is a true representative of
the system that is' going to be installed on site.
b. Structural adequa cy tests
T he st ructural adequacy tests specified by BD, ASD
or Hong Ko ng Housing Autho rity are similar. The
tests will us ually require the mOCk-Up undergo
pressures £rom design wind pressure up to 1.5 times
the design pressure. These testing procedures are
5368 part 3, ASTM 830 and in
BD PNAP 106. The key 10 achieve a good and
re liable s tructural test is to apply the pressure at the
desired value and hold it long enough to take
readings. A data acquisitio n system needs around 3
seconds 10 record the displacement readings from the
transducers. Hold the pressure less than this period
after the data acquisition system is staned will cause
fault s readings thaI record the displacements at lower
pressures. However, hold the p ressure for 100 long
119
 C<>urSG Notes on CurtaIn Wa UDesign
will overload the specime n and might break a glass
panel as the glass is designed to resist short term
wind loads (3-second gust) only w hile the loading
application during a performance test could lake a
period as long as several minutes.
Barrie r to avoid air flow
directly hit the mock-up
Control valve
io conuol the flow rate of the air
Test Mock-up
Test chamber
Chamber release
Manometer
to measure pressure difference
across lhe mock-up
Fig. 12.1 A test chamber and other testing facilities.
The blower is capable to blow the air into the chamber
or suck the air OUI to achieve positive or negative
pressure differences across the test specimen. A sleel
plate in front of the inlet and the exit is to guide the air
now to a direction thai will not hit the specimen and 10
ensure a uniform air pressure inside Ihe chamber over
the specimen.
Another factor that causes incorrect reading" is th;u
the transducers may be improperl y installed on an
unstable frame (or a frame thai is fi xed to the pan of
the chamber that moves under the pressure) or the
movement of the mock-u p al certain locations is out
of the reading range of the transducer.
Transducers are to be installed perpendicular 10
the specimen or to such a directio n along which the
structural member is expected to move the most.
120
I
I
WILSON Curtain Wall Cons~tanl (HK) LId.
The maximum de n ections of
the structural
mem bers in a curtain wall when under d,esign wind
press ures shaIJ be less than 1/ 180 span between the
supports as defined in SD PNAP 106 o r 1/175 span
10 the American standards.
Blowers
-To supplier air inlo the chamber or
to vacuum the air out of the chamber
Air in or out
Control
10open or close the chamber release
Structural adeq uacy lest on slo ne dadding systems
can be conducted 10 the standard A STM C1201.
Structural adequacy test on cunain walls or
,
windows with cyclic pressures ca n be carried o ul to
the A merican standard ASTM E 1233.
c. Water penetration test
Water penetration testS u ndcr static wind pressures
can be conducted to ASTM E331, BS 5368 part 2 o r
AS/NZS 4284.
Water shall be sprayed from a spray system
w hich delivers waler uniformly against the externaJ
face of the speci men. Water flow ra te shoul d be
checked to e nsure the correct water fl ow rale has
been achieved . ASTM E331 requires minimum 3.4
liters water / minute I m 2 area of the specimen . BS
2
5368 needs minimum 4 I/minlm • This flow rale
defined in AS/NZS4284 is 3 lJrnin/m2.
 Course Notes on Cun ain Walt Design WtLSON Curtain WaU Consultant (HK) Ltd.

While keeping the water spray, a static pressure
difference of 770Pa or 20% design wind pressure
whichever is more shall be applied to the mock-up,
The test is to be continued for 15 minutes based on
ASTM E330.
Checking water leakage is relatively quite straight
forward_ You can stay at the interior s ide of the
specimen (usually outside the testing chamber) with
a flash if necessary to check visually any water
permeation. Water leakage is defined as the water
seen at the innermost face of the specimen that is
visible by a building \Jscr when under a specified air
pressure difference across the specimen. Water
stored in the curtain wall system but not visible by
the building user <lnd will nOI wet the interior fin ish
and back to the normal position to achieve o ne cycle
is not considered as water leakage.
of movement. Totally 20 two-stroke cycles shall be
Water penetration lest under dynamic pressures is
getting morc and morc popularly used in Hong Ko ng
recently. The dynamic wind pressure is generated by
a wind generator which is actually an airplane
propeller driven by aero engines. Water spray rack
shall be installed o utside the testing chamber. The
specimen shall be installed so that the exterior side of
the curtain wall [aCes outs ide the chamber. The
standard to foll ow for this lest is AAMA 501.1.
curtain wall system caused by wind loads, thennal
cxpansion o r fl oor slab deformation.
Whi le test ing, the test engineer should e nsure that
the steel H-section beam which is installed in the
testing chamber to s imulate a fl oor slab and is
supposed to move during this test has been
djsconnected from other chamber supports. The
movement applied from jacks could cause hazards if
this is no t done.
The amount of the movement is usually 1/500
span between Ooor slabs or 10mm whichever is more.
The specimen is to be displaced at one floor slab (H­
section beam) to one direction laterally and back to
the original position, and then to the other direction
l:arried out as defined in the General Specifications
by ASD.
f. Casement test
A casemen t test is fl lest to check and confirm the
o perable sashes of a curtain wall w ill remain
operable by an ordinary people under different
conditio ns. A good standard to follow for such tests
is as 6375 pan 2.

d. Air penetration test

Air penetration test under a POSlhvc pressure (or
positive pressures) is called air infiltration test. If
under a negative pressure . it is called an air
exfiltration test. The air infihration and the
exfiltration through the fixed part of a stick curtain
wall system will be almost the same usually.
However, such exfiltration may be different from
infiltration at operable sashes or through the open
joints in a unitized curtain wall system.
The parameter to be measured in an air
penetration test is the :m now rate passing thro ugh
the syste m over a unit area (or over a unit length of a
joint) under a given pressure difference. This flow
rate sho uld be compared with the allowable leakage
through the system specified by the mechanical
engineer or the architect.

e, Seismic test
A real eanhquake is very fluctwlIing with various
rantlom frequencies. To apply such. a vibration to a
full size curtain wall ;'pecimen is very difficult if not
impossible. Therefore, lateral movement test is
adopted in Hong Kong 10 simu late partiall y the effect
of earthquake on the system. Such test can also
simulate the effect of building movemcnt to Ihe

121
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 ,

CoUlse NOlII$ 01'1 CUf\a1n W aH Design WI LSON Curlain WaN Consultant (HK) lid.
-,

13. FIRE RESISTANCE REQUIRED BY

BD TO SKYLIGHTS AND CURTAIN
WALLS

13.1 Objective of a Fire Resisting Construction Table 13.1 Maximum Compartment Volu!lles

(Code of Practice of Fire Resistance Construction-BD,

The objective of. a fire resisting construction is to l aOl1:: 11 .

prevent the spread of fire (and/or smoke) from one Use Maximum Compartment Volume i
building to surrounding buildings: from Ont: flo or \0 Bu lk storage 7000m' where the compartment
floor is above bast':mem level but
!
other floor.; and from one oompartrnent (or st':vt':ral "d
rooms) to other compartments. wareho use nOt exceeding 30m in height
According to Hong Ko ng CAP. 123 Building
(Constructio n) Regu lations Part XV, every building 3500 m where the compartment
-
in Hong Kong shall be designed and constructed so floor is at basement level or
as to~ exceeding 30m in height
a. Inhibit the spread of firt': within the building and
to nearby buildings by dividing the building into AJI o ther uses 28000m
compartments;
b. Provide adequate resista nce to the spread ';'If fi re Table 13.2 Fire Resistance Period-

and smoke by the separatio n of differ\!nt uses in a ICode of Practice of Fi r!! Resistance Cons.\ruclion·BD,

Table 2
building by compartmem walls and noors and by the
separation of the building from any adjoining
building or site;
ICl,ss Use Compartment Fire
Volume Resistanc
c. Maintain the stability of the building in case of e Period
fi re; and 1 Domestic Not exceed ing 1 hour
3
d. Provide adequate resistance to the spread of firt': 2 Hotel Bedroom 280ODm
over the roof of one building 10 another having 3 Office
regard to the positio n of the building. 4 S hop, Not exceed ing 1 hour
restaurant and 7000rn J
hote! fover
13.2 How to Achieve the Objectives 5 Place of public .
entertainment
To achieve the above objectives. the "Code of 6 Hospital
Practice for Fire Resisting Constructio n BO - 1996" 7 Place of Exceeding
3
requires the following: assembl y 7000m bUI 2 ho urs
a. Isolate and separate a building from other 8 Car park not exceeding
buildings . And keep the fire/smoke within this 28000m l
building only. 9 Bulk storage Not ex<?eeding 2 hours
b. Divide the building into several compartments, and warehouse 7000m J
and keep the fire/smoke within each compart ment. 10 Industrial Not exceeding 2 hours
c. Restrict the volume (size) of each compartment undertaki ng 28000m)
(see Table 13.1). excepl bulk
d. Define fi re resistance period for the enclosure storage and .
(walls, roofs etc) between compartments or buildings \""r,.h(),, ~ ..

(refer to Table 13.2). Make sure all tht:. gaps are filled

122
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 ""'"
Cou rse Notes on CUnalfl Wall Design WILSON CtaruJ!n Wall Consullant (HKl Ud.

with non-<:ombuslible material 10 prevent passage of

smoke or name.

13.3 Requirements for Skylights and Curtain

Walls

A skyl igh t or a cun ain wall as a ponion of a roof or

an external waH should be built to e nsure protection
agai nst spread of fire to adjoining buildings. Here
Ihe adjoinifig buildings are the buildings less than
1.8m away (rom Ihe building under construction.
Any part of a ny such building with in 1.8m o r any
adjoining building sho uld be enclosed by imperfo rate
external walls antlJor roof having the same Fire
Resistance Period (FRP) as that of thc internal
elements specified in Table 2. Curtain wall or
skylight having an FRP of nOI less than 112 hour (1
hour in thc case of a required staircase or ils lobby)
may be used provided that they are not less than
900mm away from adjoining bu ildings.
No fire resistance requirement needed for c urtain
walls o r sky lights provided that they are more than
1.800 away: from any unpro tected openings in any
adjoining buildings.
Skylight (as a pan of a roo£) should be
constructed of no n-combustible materials (glass,
al uminum and stainless steel are non-comhustible
materials that passes tests to as 476 pan 4).
Fig.3. ! shows a typical fi re insulation of 2 hour
resistance filled in betwee n concrete floor slab and a
curtain wall.

12:3
COI.Jfse Notes 011 Curtain Wall Design W ILSON Cur1$in Wall COllsultant (HK) Lld_

14. DlFINITIONS OF THE TERMS USED

IN CURTAIN WALL DESIGN

Following definitions are given for the understanding
of this course notes only. They might be differen t
from the definitions given in other public ations.
Absorptance: the percentage of the incident solar
radiation absorbed by the glass.
Adaptor: a section o f metal or other adequate
materials inserted into the normal glazing channel.
Buckling: (see local buckling and lateral buckling)
Buill-Up terrain: an arC<l of land which is covered
mainly by buildings of mediu m or high heights.
Bushes: a kind of tough bUI not hard material suc h as
nylon, or hard fiber ferrules used around the shanks
of the bolts on a spider to prevcnI direct contact
belween the boll and the gLass.

Air permeability: inability of a curtain wall/w indow

Butt joint where the edges of glass panes meet
system to resist the passage of air when it is under a
together and the space between them is filled usually
pressure difference. The permeability is
with silicone sealant.
characterized by a now rate through the system.

Cantile\'er: a beam Ihal is fixed at one end and free

Annealed g lass: the glass during processing is
cooled slowly and in a controlled manner to avoid
any slress wit hin it.
Aspect ratio: the ratio of the longer side of a pane to
its shorter side.
Basic wind speed: the maximum 3-second gusl
speed likely to be exceeded over an averagely 50
years lime period al 10m above the ground in an
open country.
to de flect a t the other end .
Capacity: limit of force or momenl that can be
expected to be carried by a section of a Slructural
member.
Capp ing: a p iece o f metal or other suitable malerials
to cover an open joint between glass panes.
Casement: a w indow or a pan of a window that
opens on hinges, pivots or variable geometry slays.

Basic wind pressure: the dynamic wind pressure at Ceramic coating: the e namel fini sh applied 10 the
any height when the basic wind speed is cxperi<!nc(',d . face of a tempered gl ass.

Bead or glazing bead: a s trip of metal (aluminum ,
sis or OMS) or other suitable rigid materials auached
10 the surround of a glass panel to retain iL
Beam: a member predominantly subjecllO bending .
Bending moment: see Momenl.
Bimetallic corrosion: corrosion of a metal caused
by COnlac( between dissimilar melals in the presence
of an electrolyte such as water.
Breadth of a building: the horizonlal dimension of
a building perpendicular to the wind direCtion.
Claddin g: external vert ical or ncar v~rtical non-load
bearing covering to a building struclure.
C lamping bars (fixing bars): a piece of aluminum
or stainless steel bar used to fix a gbzing unil onto a
melal framing member with screws.
Clear glass: glass Ihat is no t tin ted. Light
Iransmiuance through it is more than 80%.
C leara nce: the distance betwecn the glass edge and
the rcbale

124
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Course NoteS on Curtain Wall Design
Compatibility: the ability of a building product
(usually sealant or paint) to be applied to a substrate
without causing any unliesirable effects.
Condensation: format ion of water droplets on cold
surfaces.
Connection: location where a member is fixed to a
supporting member or other supports.
Curtain wall: a non-load bearing fa~de system
hung on thc struc ture of a building.
Dead load : a load of a constant magnitude and a
fixed position and orie.nt8tion that acts permanently.
Self weight is one of tlte common seen dead loads.
Delamination: a phenomenon happens to a
laminated glass in which one or two of the JayeiS of
the laminaled glass lose the bond between Ihc glass
and the imerlaycr.
Depth of a building: the horizontal dimension of a
building measured in the direction of the wind .
Design life: the period in which the curtain wall or
other build ing cladding systems is required to
perform safely with an acceptable probability thai it
will not require repair or withdrawal from service.
Design wind pressure: the wind pressure at a
location on a curtain wall or other building fallade
systems thaI is expected when the basic wind speed
is experienced (see also basic wind speed) anacking
o n the building at a worst direction. It is defined as
the basic wind pressure times the maximulU pressure
Cl, cfficienl.
Differential pressure (or pressure difference):
diffe rence between the absolutc press ure on the
external facc of " curtain wall and the absolute
pressure on the internal face at the same location.
T he pressure difference is posilive when the external
pressure is higher than the internal pressure, and is
negative if otherwise.
Distortion: warping of images when seen through a
glass due to that the glass surfaces are not exactly Oat
and parallef.
Double glazing: gla'4ing that incorporales two panes
separated for the putposes of sound and/or thermal
) insulation.
J 125
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WILSON Curtain Wall COr'l$ufianl (HK) Ltd.
Double glazing unit: two panes of glass spaced
apart and hermetically sealed in a factory around its
edges.
Dripping line: a pro truded line in a transom section
or at a window head to force water drops drip.
Dynamic pressure: the pressure of wind due to the
motion of the air. Its magnitude is a fraction of the
square of the air flow velocity.
Edge cover: the width of the glass edge that is
inserted in the rebate and supported with gaskets or
sealan t or other suitable materials.
Edge distance: distance from the centre of an llnchor
bolt to the nearest ed ge of concrete.
Effecti .... e length : length between points of effective
rest raints of a member multiplied by a raclor to lake
into account the end conditions and loading. This
concept is usually used fo r buckling calculations .
Emissh'ity : capability a material to emit energy
through radialion. T he value is less than LO, or 1.0
fo r a perfeci black body.
Enamel: a glassy material that is melted OntO the
surface of a glass at high temperatures to form a
ceramic coating.
Expansion joint (movement joint): joint that
permits movement between the adjacent parl$
meeti ng at the joint.
Fa~adc: the face of a building or the cladding
covering the build in g.
Face clearance: the distance between the glass and
the rebate in frolll of the glass. The space is usually
rill ~d with gaskets.
Fatigue: damage to a structural member caused by
repeated applications of stresses that are insufticient
to cause failures by a single application.
Finishes: treatment to surfaces of cladding panels or
extrusio ns.
Fire resistance: the abili ty of an ele ment of
construction such as a wall or a partition to prevcnt
propagation of a flame or smoke.
 Course Notes on Curtain Wall DesIgn
Fire protectioD material: a material thai has been
shown 10 be capable of re maining in position and
providing adequate thermal insul<ltion for the
spccitied fire resistance period by lests to BS ~176
teSts.
Fire resistance: a length of time during which a
to a high temperat ure (<J.pproximately 290°C) for a
structural member or other building compon:;nt is
period of time . The purpose is !.O break those glass
requir&l to withstand the exposure to a fire speci tied
pane ls with nickel sulphide inclusion to red uce the
in BS 476 standards.
spontaneous breakage o f the tempered glass in
Fixings: device to support or to tie back cladding
. panel to frames or to a building structure ,
Flex ible compound : a type of glazing material such
as sealant which rema ins. permancntl y elastic
( llexible).
Float glass: glass that has been tnanufa(.:tured by
noating the molten glass On a bed of molten lin. The
surfaces of such glass are very fl at and parallel.
F ragments: broken pieces of glass .
Framed: indicates the glass pane l is supported by a
framing system.
Frameless: glass panel is not supporled with a frame.
The glass itself is structural.
Galvanization: ga lvanization is the procl!SS of
dipping steel into hot molten zinc.
Gasket: a specially profiled glazing materia l for
bedding or secu ring the glass (us ually arOUIIJ the
edges) to be put in between glass and the frame or a
bead.
Glare: excessive illumination, or excessive comrast
between the lit and unlit areas that causes difficult)'
with vision.
Glazing: the securing of glass panes into a prepared
opening with scala lit or gaske,t or other suitable
materials.
GMS: galvanized mild steel (see also galvaniz.'llion).
G r ound roughness (or- called la nd exposure): The
na tu re of the earth 's s urface as intluenced by
obstructions to airflow such as trees, buildings nnd
hills etc.
126
Course Notes on Curtain Weill Design
Lite (or light): a panel Of 8 sheet o f glass.
Local buckling: buckling of the thin walls of a
section due 10 compression characterized by the
forroation o f waves or ripples along the member.
L<lcation blocks: pieces of resilient material used
between Ihe edges of the glass and the surround to
prevent undesired relative movement between the
pane and the surround and also to maintain the edge
clearance between the glass and the frame.
Location device: an item o f hard ware that limits the
inilial opening of a.sash \0 fI predetermined amount.
Long wave en ergy: Ihe part of thc energy in lhe
electromagnetic spectrum wb ich is from the radiation
produced by the objects at abo ut room temperature.
Low E glass (Low Emissivity glass): glass coaled
with a material that has an emissivity less than 0 .2
(20%) in the long wave parI of the radiation. The
us ual emissivity of a clear glass is 0.9 (90%).
M irror: a glass which is highly reflective and
opaque . Silvering . followed by an application of a
backing paint is the most com mo n type mirror.
Mock-up: a full -scale representative section o f a
curtain wall (or other building fat;ade system)
installed onto a testing chamber for - performance
tests under simulated cond itions such as a ir
infillration test , water penetration test and structural
adequacy tests.
Moment: a scale of a force times a distance from a
suppon w hose effect on a member is to cause
bending.
Movement joint (expansio n joint) : joint that
permits movement between the adjacent parts
meeting al the joint.
Multi-point lock system: a lock system that locks an
operable window at more than two points.
Negative moment: a bending moment Ihal causes a
member to hog so that the lOp of a beam is in te nsio n
and the bottom is in compression.
~.
Nickel sulphide i'nclusion: impurity in the glass that
might cause spontaneo us breakage of tempered glass.
o
W i lSON Curtain "Yam Consultant (HK) LKI.
Gutter: cha nnel to drain water.
Hardware: fill ings that allached to a window and
are used 10 operate and/or secure that window .
Heat soak test : a process to heat the tempered glass
service.
Hea t strength ened glass: glass which has been
heated to a high temperatu re (approximately 550°C)
and chilled rapidly \0 increase ils strength. Such
glass breaks likc annealed glass.
Height of a building: the vertical dimension of the
building 1.0 its utmost heighl above the ground.
Hermetic seal: an edge seal that is designed to
prevent or minimize gas OJ waler vapor passing.
imposed load: all the loads on the structure or a
glass panel of It curtai n wull system other than the
dead load and wind load.
Insulated glass: a spandre l glass with in$ula\jon
applied at the hack of it.
Insulating unit (d ouble glazing lmit) : a
construction consisting two or IllOTe panes of glass
spaced apart with spacers to form a cavity between
the panes . The edges at" the panels arc seaJed to close
cver y cavity to prevent ingress of the moisture into
the cavity . As the air is a bad conductor for heat ,
such a unit provides very good thermal ins ulalion.
Interlaycr: s heet of a material that is put in between
every tWO glass panes to bond them together. Glass
th us bonded together is called laminated glass.
Laminated glass: :m assembly con:.i:.ting of IWO or
more glass panels that are bonded together hy
inlerlaycr material.
Lateral buckling: the side movement ahout the
minor axis of lhe cross seclion of a member or
twisting of it duc to compro:s:o;ion on lJ part of or the
whole cross soclion of thai member.
L ateral r estraint: restraint Ihat limits the lateral
(side-way) movemenl of a beam.
WILSON Curtain Wal l COIl$uttam (HK) lid.
Non· load bearing element: an eleme nt of
construction that plays no part in s upporting any part
of the b uildin g structure.
Non·setting sea lant: sealant that does not set.
Notched end : an end of a member with par! of the
section of it cut away locally for cleara nce.
Off·line coating: a process to coal a glass usuaH y in
a vacuum chamber with spray coating. The glass
needs to be treated before such coating. Coating thus
applied is prone 10 damages. Care should be taken to
pro tecl sllch coating.
On-line coating: a process whereby the coal ing is
applied to the surface of a floal glass during the
manufact uring process. As the coal is applied while
the glass is hot, the coat will become a p art of the
glass. The on-line coated glass can be treated
(tempered, he;lt st rengthened etc.).
Opacified: made opaque of a glass by applying a
backing paint o r other backi ng material to the bac k
of the glass.
Opc n joint: a joint deliberately left open in a curtain
wall system o r other building fa91de syste ms usually
for pressure equalization purpose.
Pane (glass pane): a piece of glass sheet cut to size
and shape, and ready for glazing.
Patterned glass: . a clear or tinted glass made
translucent by passing through rollers. The rolling
give:, an impressio n Or a pattern imo the glass of Ont:
of the glass surfaces.
Permanent deformation: the permanent detlection
of a me mber that re mains after the test load is
released.
Polarized light: light whose waves vi brate in a
specific o riemation. Polarized light can be the lighl
passing through a polarized fil te r or the reflected
light from a surface or the light from the sky.
Positive moment: a bending moment that causes a
member to sag so that the lOP of a beam is in
compression and the bottom is in tension.
127
CQ(Jrse Notes on Curtain WaM Design
Pressure: the measure of a force over a unit area.
Unit for a pressure is Pascal (Pa) which equals N 1 11l ~
(Newtons pcr square meter).
Pressure coefficient: the ratio of the pressure acting
at a point on a surface to the dynam ic pressure of the
incidenl wind.
Pressure equaliz.ed system : a build ing fa~de
system that contains a chamber space ins ide which
the air pressure is approximate ly equal to the external
air pressure.
Primer: a coaling applied to a surface to improve the
adhesion of compounds o r sealallls subsequently
Shading coeffi cient: shad ing codlicicnt of a glass is
applied onlO that surface.
the ratio of the solar heat passing th ro ugh the glass to
P r ofiled metal sheet: a cold fo rmc:d melal sheet
pro fil ed 10 increase its capacity \0 resist bending
along one clirection.
PVB (P olyvinyl Butyral): a type of intcrlayer
material used in the manufaclure of laminated glass.
Rebate: that pan o f a surro und. the cross section o f
which for ms an angle or a U into w hich the edge of
the glass is p laced.
R ebate depth: the depth of the rebate in a Cramt!
w hich is the sum of the edge cover and the edge
clearance.
R eflectance (or reflection) : the perce ntage of the
visible light (or solar radiation) that is refl ected by
Ihe glass.
Reflective glass: glass with a coaling that reflects
light.
Rerraction: the distortion of the path of a light as it
passes through a glass/air interface (or air/water
interface).
RotationAl rest raint: sec T orsio nal re:.lrai nt.
Safety glass: such glass w he n tested 10 BS6206
satisfi es the cri teria given in the code. T he glass
should not break or breaks safel y unde r impacts of
predete rmined energies as defin ed in this code.
Sarety film: a plastic film that is adhered 10 a face of
a glass panel with the intention to hold iI together
after the glass breaks.
128
WILSON Curtain Walt Consultant (HK) Ud.
Sampling: a statist iCS method 10 take samples o ( a
building product or materia l for lests.
Sash : the operabk element of a window.
Setting bloc ks: pieces o f resilient material used
under a glass panel between the bottom edge of the
glass to support and centralize the panel within its
surround and to prevent the glass fro m touching the
rough and hard surroundings.
Sealant : a glazing compo und that sets after
application into u rubbery consistency.
the solar he:!t that would pass th rough a 3mm thick
clear glass.
Silicone sealant: a st!alant lha\ is made of silicone
mate rials.
Single glazed: an opening in !L waJI that is fitted with
one layer of glass.
Skylight: ally part o f a roof Ihal is installed
horizo ntally or inclined and cons ists predo minantly
of tra nsparent or translucent sheet mater ial.
Slenderness: The etrcclivc length of a member
di vided b y Ihe radius o f gyration o f its section.
Solar heat gaiD: the amount of heal fro m Ihe sun
which passes throug h Ihe gl ass to the inside of a
building.
Solar radiation: the hea!. lig.ht and UV emilled h y
the sun and received at the surface o f the earth.
Spacer: a preformed section that sp<lces apart the
panes of glass of a n insulating unic
Spandrel glass: a glass panel inslilllcd at non-vision
area of a build ing in a curtain wall. Such glass is
usually made of an enamded glass or opaque g lass
so that the thermal insulatio n sct behi nd it can nOI be
seen from outside.
Specimen: the sample selected for testing.
Sponlanwus breakage (s pontaneous fracture):
sudden breakage of glass of no immediate
ant icipated reasons.

Coul'$e Notes on CUf1ain Wall Oesign
Stream line: a line along whose tangent direction
wind moves.
Strength: resistance 10 fa ilure in a scale of stress.
Sub·frame: part of a larger frame usually connected
to the larger frame with screws or clips.
Substrate: Ihc surface of a building material on
which paint or sealant is applied.
Tempered glass (also named toughened glass):
glass which has been heated to a temperature close to
its melting point (approximately 650°C) and cooled
rapidly to create compressive stressed s urfaces of the
glass to increase its strength. Such glass once breaks
will break into small harmless pieces.
Thermal break: a cavity or a material of low
thermal colll.luctivilY provided in a metal frame 10
increase the thermal insulation of the framc.
Thermal conductivity (k): Ihc capabililY a material
in conducting heal. Unit is the power of energy
conducted through a material over a unit thickness
(m) over a unit area (m 2) when under a unil
temperature difference (1 0 K).
Thermal conductance (U =
klthicko ess): the
capability a layer of a material in conducting heat.
Unit is the power of energy conducted through a
material over a unit area (ml ) when under a unit
temperature diff~ rence (1 0 K).
Thermal expansion: increase in length , area or
volume due to Ihe increase of the body temperature
of a building material.
Thermal stress: stress developed in a glass or other
building materials of low conductivity due 10
diITerences in temperatures at one area from a
neighboring area.
Tinted glass (body tinted glass): dear glass that has
small amounts of colorants added 10 it to increase its
absorplance and to reduce its transmittance.
Torsional buckling: buckling of a strut
accom~a n ied by twisting.
Torsional restraint (rotational restraint): rcstraim
that prevents rotation of a member about its
longitudinal ax is.
-
WILSON ClJI1aln Wall Consultant (HI<) Ltd.
T oughened glass: another name fo r tempered glass.
The name is more often used in UK.
Transmittanct!: the percentage of the solar radilltion
(or visible li ght) that goes through a transpafent or
translucent sheet (such as a glass panel).
UV (U V radiation, Ultraviolet radiation, UV light):
the radiation that belongs to the part of the
electro magnetic spectrum with a shorter wavelength
than that for visible lights.
Vapor barrier: a layer of materia! applied in wall to
reduce passage of mois ture from one side of the wall
to the other side.
Visibl e light (\'isible spectrum): that part of Ihe
electromagnetic spectrum which is visible to human
eyes. The wavelength is between 380nm and 780nm .
Vision area: tht: pari of a window in a building wall
which is intended for the passage o[ nalural light.
Vision panel: a glass panel that is not a spandrel
panel. Or a glass pane! that allows vision through it.
Water leakage (water penetration): the penetration
of water Ihat would continuously or repeatedly wei
in ternal pan s of a building Of ilS component which
arc not designed to be wetted.
Weather stripping: strips of material applied aro und
opening lights to reduce air andlor water penetra.l.ion.
Weep hole: a hole drilled in a building fat;ade
syStem to allow \vater weep away through i1.
Wind tunnel test: test on a scaled building model
under simulated wind condition in a wind tunnel 10
estimate wind effects on the building and wind
environment around the building.
Window: any part of an external wall that consists
predominaml y of transparent or translucent sheet
maleriaL
Wired glass: glass that has metal wire mesh
completely embedded in il.
129
Course NOles OJ) Curtain Wall De sign
REFERENCES
a. Books and papers
Behr, R.A., Minor, I.E. and Norville, H.S. (1993):
Streeter, V .L. & Wylie, E.B. (1 979):
' Structural behaviour of architectural laminated
Mechanics' , McG raw·HiIl Book Company.
glass', Journal of StruclIIral Engineering (ASCE)
11 9(1).
Zhou, Y.S. & Stalhopoulos, T. (1996): 'Application
Bleich, F (1952): 'Buckling Strength of Met"i
Structures'. McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc.
Burberry, P (1999) : 'Environment and Services­
Mitchell's Building Series', SIb Edition, Longman .
b. lnternational standards
Hooper, LA. (1973): ' On the bendi ng of archi tectural
laminated glass', Intema tiollal Journal of
Mechanical Science 15, pp309-323 ..
Hutcheon, N.B. & Handegord, G.O.P. (1983):
'Building Science for a Cold Climate' . John Wiley &
Sons.
Jacob, L (1997): 'New Limit State Design Model for
Laminated Glass ' , Proceedings of the Fifth
Imernaliollal COllference 011 Architeclural lind
AII/omotive Glass, Tampere, Finland, 13-15
September 1997.
McEvoy, M. (1994): 'External Component'>­
Mitchell's Building Series', Longman .
Minor, J.E. and Reznik. P.L. (1990): ' Failure
Strengths of Laminated Glass ' , l oum al of Strucwm!
Engineering (ASCE) 1l6(4), pp1030-1039.
Norville, H.S . (1999): ' Strength Factor for
Laminated Glass ', Proceedings of the Fifth
International Conference on Architectural alld
A II/omotive Glass, Tampere, Finland, 13·IS
September 1999.
Pilkey, w.o. (1997): "Peterson' s Stress
Concentration Factors", John Wiley & Son 's, Inc.
Simiu, E. & Scanlan , RH. (1977): 'Wind Effects on
Structures: an Introduction to Wind Engineering' ,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
130
WILSON Curtain Wall Consultant (HI<) ltd.
'Fluid
of Two·Layer Methods for lhe Evaluation of Wind
Effects on a Cubic Bui lding', ASHRAE Transactions ,
102(1) pp754-764.
AAMA SQ.l (1983): "Methods of Test for Metal
Curtain Walls", AAMA.
AS 1288 (1994): 'Glass in Buildings' , Standards
Ausmliia.
AS/NZS 4284 (199S): ' Testing of Building Facades',
Sta ndards Australia and Standards New Zealand.
ASTM E283 (199 1): "Standard Test Method for
Dt:tcrmining the Rate of Air Leakage Through
Exterior Windows, Curtain Walls, and Doors under
Specified Pressure Differences across the Specimen".
ASTM £330 (1990): "Stand(lrd Test Method for
Structural Performance of Exterior Windows,
Curtain Walls, and DOors by Uniform Static Air
Pressure Difference".
ASTM E331 (1986): " Standa rd Test Method for
Water Penetration of Exterior WindOWS, Curtain
Walls, and Doors by Uniform Static Air Pressure
Difference" .
ASTM Cl20l (1991): "Slandard Test Melhod for
Structurul Performance of E.xlcrior Dimension Stone
Cladding Systems by Uniform Static Air Pressure
Difference ".
ASTM E1233 (1988): "Standard Test Method for
Structural Performa nce of Exterior Wi ndows,
Curtain Walls, and Doors by Cyclic Stalic Air
Pressure Differe ntial" .

Course NOles on Curtain WaH Design
ArchiteCtural Services Department (1993): 'General
Specifications' , Volumes I & 2, Hong Kong
Government Publication.
British Standard Code of Practice CP 118 (1969):
'The Structural , Use of Aluminium' , British
Standards lnstitutton.
British Standard Specification BS 729: ' Hot dip
galvanizing coatings on iron and steel articles' ,
British Standards Institution.
British Standard Code of Practice BS 952 pari 1
Standards Inslitution.
(1995): 'Glass for Glazing-Classification' , British
Standards Institution.
British Standard Code of Practice BS 8298 (1994) :
British Standard Code of Practice BS 1449 part 2
(1983): 'Specification {or Stainless and Heat·
Resisting Steel Plate, Sheet and Suip', British
Standards Inst itution.
British Standard Code of Practice BS 1474 (1987) :
'Specification for Wrought Aluminium and
Aluminium Alloys for General Engineering
Purposes', BTitis!1 Standards Institution.
British Standard Code of Practice BS 2846 part 3
(1975): ' Guide to Slatistic•.-ll Interpretation of Data',
British Standards Institution.
British Standard "Specification BS 4360 (1990):
'Specification (or Weldable structural steels' , British
Standards Instillltion. ­ Buildings Department (l987): ' The Structural Use of
BS 4783 (1986): 'Specification for Aluminium alloy
windows', Brit ish Standards Institu tion.
BS 505 1 pari 1 (1988): ' Bullet Resistant Glazing',
British Standards Institution.
as 5368 part 1, pari 2 and part 3 (1978): ' Methods of
Testing Windows' , Brit ish Standards Institution.
BS 5544 (1978): 'Specification for Anti-Bandit
Glazing', British Standards Institution.
BS 6206 (1981): 'Specification for Impact
Performance Requirements for Flat Safety Glass and
Safety Plastics for Use in Buildings' , British
Standards 1nsti tution.
- - -- --""'"
WILSON Curtain Wall Consutlant (HI<) Ud.
British Standard Code of PraClice BS 6262 (t982)
(or BS CP 152): 'Gla7jng for Buildings' , British
Standurds Institution.
BS 6375 part 1 (1989): ' Perfonnance of Windows' ,
British Standards Institution.
BS 6375 parI 2 (1989): 'Performance of Windows '.
British Standards Institution.
British Standard Code o f Practice BS 8118 ( 1991):
'The Structural Use of Aluminium ', British
' Design and Installation of Natural Stone Cladding
and Lining' , British Standards Institution.
Bui ld ings Department (1996): 'Code of Practice for
Fi re Resisting Construction', Building Authority
Publication.
Buildings Deparlment ( l 995): 'Code of Practice for
Overall Therma l Transfer Value in Buildings' ,
lluilding Authority Publication.
Buildings Department (1983): 'Code of Practice on
Wind Effects ' . Building Authority Publication.
Buildings Department (l987): 'The Structural Use of
Steel'. Building Authority Publication.
Concrete', Building Authority Publication .
Bu ildings Departnient • Practice for Registered
Contractors 47 : •Aluminium Windows' , Building
Authority Publication .
Build ings DepartmeOi • Practice Note for Authorized
Persons and Registered Structural Engineers 106,
'Curtain Wall Systems ', Building Authority
Publication.
Buildings Department - Practice Note for Authorized
Persons and Registered Structural Engineers 150,
'Wind Tunnel Testing of Buildings ', Building
Authority Publication.
Buildings Department · Practice Note for Authorized
Persons and Registered Structural Engineers 239,
'Window and Window Wall ', Building Authority
Publication.
131
Course Note.! on CU rlaln Wall Design WILSON CUltain Wall COM ukant (HK) Ud,

Buildings Departrnem . Practice Note for Authorized

Persons and Registered Structural Engineers 248,
' Window and Window Wall ', Building Authority
Publication.

Build ing (Construction) Regulations (2000):

'Chapter 123'. Volumes 1 & 2, Hong Kong
Government Publication.

The Institute of Structural Engineers (1999):

'Structural Use of Glass in Buildings', The inslilUte
of Structural Engineers, 11 Upper Belgrave Street,
London, SWIX BBH.

132
www.CurtainWall.com.hk

~ WILSON Curtain Wall consult~nt (HK) Umlted

WILSON Curtain Wall Cons~ .dnt'{HK) Umited

Rm. 967. 9/F. T~cbnololY Parle. I.,On I.ai SI.. Sh Tin, NT.. ilK

Thl: (852) 264S . 1801 Fax: (1S1 , 264S- ' 824 '",

Web l ite: ",ww.Cu.!..''II''h ILcoru.l L:

Web site: hup:/lwww.CurtainWall.com.hk

Dr. Y. S. ZHOU is the managing director of Wi lson Curtain Wall Consultant (HK) Limited
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