Atomic structure:

The nucleon number/ mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom.

The atomic number/ proton number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons.

Protons are deflected towards the negatively charged plate.

Electrons are deflected towards the positively charged plate, and because they are much lighter
compared to protons, they are deflected to a larger extent.
As neutrons are uncharged, they remain unaffected by the electric field.

Extent of deflection = charge/ mass

An orbital is a region of space where there is a high probability density.

1. Aufbau principle: electrons must reside in the orbital with the lowest possible energy first
→ 4s orbitals must be filled before 3d orbitals
2. Pauli exclusion principle: an orbital can accommodate a maximum of 2 electrons and the 2
electrons must be in opposite spins
3. Hund’s rule: when electrons are added successively to a subshell, they must occupy orbitals
singly and with the same spin first before pairing can occur.

24Cr: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1 → half filled d orbitals are more stable
29Cu: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1 → fully filled d orbitals are more stable

Across a period, first ionisation energy generally increases. Across a period, nuclear charge increases
while there is negligible increase in shielding effect since electrons are removed from the same principal
quantum shell. The atomic radius decreases. As a result, the valence electrons are increasingly attracted
to the positive nucleus and more energy is required to remove them.

From Be to B/ Mg to Al:
The 2p electron to be removed from B has a higher energy than the 2s electron to be removed from Be.
Hence, the 2p electron requires less energy to be removed from B. Thus, the first IE of B is lower than
the first IE of Be.

From N to O/ P to S:
Coulombic repulsion between the paired 2p electrons in O makes it easier to remove one of the paired
2p electrons from O as compared to the unpaired 2p electron from N. Less energy is required. The first IE
of O is lower than the first IE of N.
Down a group, the first ionisation energy generally decreases. Going down a group, shielding effect
increases due to the increase in number of principal quantum shells, which largely cancels out the
increase in nuclear charge. The atomic radius also increases. As a result, the valence electrons become
increasingly less attracted to the positive nucleus and less energy is required to remove them.

In general, there is an increase in ionisation energy as electrons are removed from an ion of increasing
positive charge. The first 2 ionisation energies increase gradually since they involve the removal of
outermost 3s electrons only. There is a sharp increase from 2nd to 3rd ionisation energy since it involves
the removal of a 2p electron from an inner principal quantum shell. Hence, since there are only 2
electrons in the outermost shell, Mg is a group 2 element.

Atoms, molecules and stoichiometry and redox:

1. Isotopes: atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons.
2. Relative isotopic mass: the mass of one mole of atoms of an isotope relative to the 1/12 the
mass of 1 mole of 12C atoms.
3. Relative atomic mass: the mass of one mole of atoms of an element relative to 1/12 the mass of
1 mole of 12C atoms.
4. Relative molecular mass: the mass of one mole of molecules relative to 1/12 the mass of 1 mole
of 12C atoms.

Mass [g] = mol x molar mass [g mol-1]

Volume [dm3] = mol x molar gas volume [24 / 22.7]
Number of particles = mol x avogadro’s constant [6.02 x 1023]

Concentration [mol dm-3] = mol/ volume [dm3]

Mol dm-3 x molar mass [g mol-1] = g dm-3

Empirical formula:
Elements:
Mass ratio:
Mole ratio:
Simplest ratio:

Let (xy)n be the molecular formula

Percentage yield: actual / theoretical

CxHy (g) + (x+y/4)O2 (g) → xCO2 (g) + y/2H2O (l)

Vco2 ≡xVcxhy Vo2 reacted ≡ (x+y/4)Vcxhy
Neutralisation:
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l)

Double indicator:
CO32- (aq) + 2H+ (aq) → CO2 (g) + H2O (l) → thymol blue/ thymolphthalein

HCO3- (aq) + H+ (aq) → CO2 (g) + H2O (l) → methyl orange

Reducing agent is a chemical species that reduces another chemical species while it itself is oxidised.
Oxidising agent is a chemical species that oxidises another chemical species while it itself is reduced.

Oxidation Reduction

Loss of electrons Gain of electrons

Increase in oxidation state Decrease in oxidation state

In acidic/ neutral medium:

A: balance all elements except H and O
O: balance O atoms by adding H2O
H: balance H atoms by adding H+
C: balance charges by adding electrons

In alkaline medium:
A: balance all elements except H and O
O: balance O atoms by adding H2O
H: balance H atoms by adding H+
C: balance charges by adding electrons

Neutralise any H by adding OH to both sides of the equation and combine to form H2O and remove any
extra H2O.

MnO4- (aq) + 8H+ (aq) + 5e- → Mn2+ (aq) + 4H2O

Cr2O72- (aq) + 14H+ (aq) + 6e- → Cr3+ (aq) + 7H2O

I2 (aq) + 2S2O32- (aq) → 2I- (aq) + S4O62- (aq)

Chemical Bonding:
Giant metallic lattice structure
Giant ionic lattice structure
Giant covalent structure
Strong electrostatic forces of
attraction between positively
charged metal cations and “sea”
of delocalised valence electrons.
Strong electrostatic forces of
attraction between oppositely
charged ions
Strong covalent bonds between
atoms
The greater the charges, the
smaller the size of the metal
cations, the stronger the
electrostatic forces of attraction
for the delocalised valence
electrons by the metal cations.
The greater the number of
valence electrons in the metal
atom, the greater the charge of
the resultant metal cation, the
greater the number of
delocalised valence electrons
contributed to the sea of
electrons. Thus, the stronger the
electrostatic forces of attraction
for the delocalised valence
electrons by the metal cations.
The larger the charges, the
smaller the ionic radius, the
higher the magnitude of lattice
energy, the stronger the
electrostatic forces of attraction
between cations and anions.
The larger the size of the
bonding atom, the larger and
more diffused the valence
orbitals used for bonding, the
less effective the overlap of
orbitals, the weaker the
covalent bonds.
Single bonds < double bonds <
triple bonds.
A polar bond is formed when
atoms contributing electrons to
 the covalent bond have a
difference in electronegativities.
The atom with higher
electronegativity has a larger
share of electron density and
this results in a net dipole
moment, hence, an ionic
character for the covalent bond.
Polarisation of covalent bonds
increases the strength of the
bond.

Simple covalent structure Permanent dipole - permanent Pd-pd interactions: weak

dipole interactions electrostatic forces of attraction
that occur in polar molecules.
Instantaneous dipole-induced
dipole interactions The greater the magnitude of
the net dipole moment, the
Hydrogen bonds stronger the pd-pd interactions.

Hydrogen bonds > pd-pd Id-id interactions: weak

interactions > id-id interactions electrostatic forces of attraction
that occur in non-polar
molecules.

The larger the number of

electrons in the molecule, the
more polarizable the electron
cloud, the larger the dipole
moment, the stronger the id-id
interactions.

For two molecules with similar

Mr, the straight chain molecule
has a larger surface area to form
more extensive id-id
interactions with other
molecules.

Hydrogen bonds: weak

electrostatic forces of attraction
 between a protonic hydrogen of
a molecule and a lone pair on a
highly electronegative atom of
another molecule.

H-F > H-O > H-N

Electrical conductivity:
Metals can conduct electricity due to the presence of delocalised valence electrons that become mobile
and migrate freely through the metallic structure when a potential difference is applied.

Ionic compounds can conduct electricity in aqueous and molten state as the ions are mobile and can
migrate freely to the electrodes when a potential difference is applied.
But they are unable to conduct electricity in solid state as the ions are held in fixed positions in the giant
ionic lattice structure and are not mobile.

Giant covalent substances are unable to conduct electricity as there are no mobile charge carriers since
all valence electrons are involved in the formation of covalent bonds.

Graphite is able to conduct electricity as there are delocalised valence electrons present within the
layers, allowing graphite to conduct electricity in a direction parallel to the layers by electrons migrating
when a potential difference is applied.

Simple covalent substances are unable to conduct due to the absence of mobile charge carriers since
these substances exist as discrete, uncharged molecules.

Metals are malleable and ductile due to the non-directional nature of the metallic bonds, allowing the
layers of metal cations to slide over one another without breaking the metallic bonds.

Hardness: A large amount of energy is needed to overcome the strong electrostatic forces of attraction
between oppositely charged ions.

Brittle: When a sufficient force is applied, the layers of ions will slide, bringing ions of like charges next to
each other. These ions of like charges will repel each other and the ionic lattice shatters.

A large amount of energy is needed to overcome the strong covalent bonds between the atoms. The
atoms are held in fixed positions in the giant covalent structure and do not slide over each other easily.

For graphite, there are strong covalent bonds between carbon atoms, but there are weak id-id
interactions holding the layers of carbon atoms together. Only a small amount of energy is needed to
overcome the weak id-id interactions, allowing the layers to slide over one another easily. Hence,
graphite is often used as a lubricant.

A small amount of energy is needed to overcome the generally weak intermolecular forces of attraction
holding the discrete molecules together.

Ion-dipole interactions are electrostatic forces of attraction between charged ions in an ionic compound
and oppositely charged dipoles on polar molecules in these solvents.
Energy released during the formation of solute-solvent interactions is insufficient to overcome the strong
covalent bonds between atoms.

Non polar molecules are generally soluble in non polar solvents.

Substances in non polar solvents tend to form favourable id-id interactions with substances in non polar
solvents.

Polar molecules are generally soluble in polar solvents.

Substances in polar solvents tend to form favourable pd-pd interactions with substances in polar
solvents.

The number of oppositely charged ions surrounding an ion is known as the coordination number of that
ion in a crystal lattice.

Molecules with a central atom that has fewer than 8 electrons in its valence shell are known as electron
deficient.

Molecules with a central atom that has more than 8 electrons in its valence shell. The central atom can
accommodate more than 8 electrons in its valence shell. This expansion of octet configuration is due to
the presence of energetically vacant accessible d orbitals, allowing the atom to accommodate more than
8 electrons in its valence shell.

Sigma bonds are formed when orbitals overlap head on, resulting in a concentration of electron density
between the nuclei of bonding atoms.

Pi bonds are formed when orbitals overlap sideways, resulting in a concentration of electron density
above and below the internuclear axis, forming a single pi electron cloud with 2 lobes.

Due to the more extensive overlap of orbitals in sigma bonds as compared to pi bonds, sigma bonds are
stronger than pi bonds.

Single bonds are sigma bonds, while multiple bonds are made of a sigma bond and the rest are pi bonds.

VSEPR theory:
Electron pairs must be arranged as far apart as possible to minimize repulsion.
Bond pair - bond pair repulsion > lone pair - bond pair repulsion > lone pair - lone pair repulsion

Aluminium ion have a small size and have a high charge density. It is highly polarisable. Chloride ion have
a large electron cloud and are easily polarised. The electron density between the cation and anion
becomes shared between them and the bond is no longer strictly ionic, but one that has covalent
character.
The Gaseous state:
Kinetic theory:
1. The gas particles are in constant and random motion
2. The gas particles have negligible volume compared to the volume of the container
3. The gas particles exert negligible intermolecular forces of attraction on one another
4. Collisions between gas particles are perfectly elastic
5. The average kinetic energy of the gas particles are directly proportional to the absolute
temperature

pV = nRT

P = pressure in Pa or N m-2 (1 atm = 1.01325 x 105 Pa)

V = volume in m3 ( dm3 = 10-3 m3, 1 cm3 = 10-6 m3)
N = amount in moles
R = molar gas constant, 8.31 J k-1 mol-1
T = temperature in k

Boyle’s law:
At constant temperature and pressure, V directly proportional to 1/p → pv is constant
P1v1 = p2v2

The volume of the lungs is controlled by the muscles in the rib cage and diaphragm. Inhalation occurs
when the rib cage expands and the diaphragm moves downwards. Both of these actions cause the
volume in the lungs to increase, thus decreasing the atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure
then forces air into the lungs until the pressure in the lungs equals atmospheric pressure. Exhalation
reveres the process. The rib cage contracts and the diaphragm moves upwards, both of which decrease
the volume of the lungs. Air is forced out of the lungs, resulting in an increase in pressure of the lungs.

Charles law:
At constant pressure and amount of moles, V is directly proportional to T → V/T is constant
V1/T1 = V2/T2

Avogadro’s law:
At constant temperature and pressure, V is directly proportional to n → V/n is constant
V1/n1 = V2/n2
Fixed amount of gases under 2 different sets of conditions:
p1v1/t1 = p2v2/t2

Molar mass of gas:

N = m/M
M = mRT/pV

Density of gas:
Density = m/V = pM/RT

The partial pressure of a gas in a mixture of non-reacting gases is the pressure that the gas would exert
as if it alone occupied the container under similar conditions.

Pa = naRT/v = (na/ntotal)ptotal

The gases deviate from ideal behaviour at higher pressures and lower temperatures.

Gas particles with a larger electron cloud and/ or polar deviate more from ideal behaviour.

Large electron cloud: the strength and extensiveness of intermolecular forces of attraction between the
gas particles would be more significant
The volume of larger gas particles would be more significant than that of smaller gas particles when
compared to the volume of the container.

Polar: For polar molecules, the intermolecular forces ie. pd-pd interactions/ hydrogen bonding would be
stronger as compared to the weaker id-id interactions between nonpolar molecules of similar Mr.

The gases approach ideal behaviour at lower pressures and higher temperatures.

Lower pressures: the gases occupy a large volume and thus the volume of the gas particles would be
negligible compared to the container. The intermolecular forces of attraction would be more significant
as the particles are far apart.

Higher temperatures: the gases have high kinetic energy and hence have sufficient energy to overcome
the intermolecular forces of attractions

Chemical energetics 1:
Heat released/ absorbed = mc∆T

∆H for exothermic reactions = -mc∆T/ n

∆H for endothermic reactions = mc∆T/ n
M = mass in g or volume in cm3
C = specific heat capacity, 4.18 J k-1 g-1
T = temperature in degrees celsius or kelvin

Standard conditions:
Temperature: 298k or 25 oC
Pressure: 1 bar or 1.00 x 105 Pa
Physical state: the most stable physical state of the substance at 298K and 1 bar
Concentration (for aqueous solution): 1 mol dm-3

Standard enthalpy change of formation: enthalpy change when one mole of substances is formed from
its constituent elements in their standard states under standard conditions. [∆Hf ]

Standard enthalpy change of combustion: enthalpy change when one mole of substances is completely
burnt in oxygen under standard conditions [∆Hc ]

Standard enthalpy change of atomisation: enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous atoms is formed
from its constituent element in its standard state under standard conditions. [∆Hat ]

Standard enthalpy change of neutralisation: enthalpy change when one mole of water is formed from
the reaction between an acid and alkali under standard conditions. [∆Hneut ]

Standard enthalpy change of hydration: enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous ions is hydrated
under standard conditions. [∆Hhyd ]

Standard enthalpy change of solution: enthalpy change when one mole of substances is dissolved in
enough solvent under standard conditions so that no further enthalpy change takes place when more
solvent is added. [∆Hsoln ]

Ionisation energy: the enthalpy change when one mole of electrons are removed from one mole of
gaseous atoms. [ IE ]

Electron affinity: the enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous atoms accepts one mole of electrons. [
EA ]

Lattice energy: the enthalpy change when one mole of solid ionic compound is formed from its
constituent gaseous ions under standard conditions. [ LE ]

Bond energy: the average enthalpy change when one mole of covalent bond between atoms of a
gaseous molecule is broken. [ E(x-x) ]
ΔHr = ∑E(bonds broken) - ∑E(bonds formed)
ΔHr = ΔHf(products) - ΔHf(reactants) → away from elements in their standard states
ΔHr = ΔHc(reactants) - ΔHc(products) → towards products of combustion
ΔHsoln = -LE + ∑Hhyd

Formation = element (standard) → 1 substance

Atomisation = element (standard) → 1 atom (g)
Combustion = substance + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Neutralisation = acid + alkali = 1H2O + salt
BE = 1E(X-X) from molecules (g)
1st/2nd IE = atom/cation (g) → smt + 1e-
1st/2nd EA = atom/cation (g) + 1e- → smt
LE = ions (g) → 1ionic compound (s)
Hydration = ions (g) → ions (aq)
Solution = ionic compound (s) → cation (aq) + anion (aq)

Chemical energetics 2:
Entropy is a measure of the disorder of a system. The more disordered the system, the higher the
entropy. Entropy is a measure of how probable a state occurring in a system is. The higher the probability
of a state occurring, the higher the entropy.

∆S > 0 → increase in disorder

∆S < 0 → decrease in disorder

Temperature increases:
∆S > 0, when temperature increases the average kinetic energy of particles increases, there are more
ways to distribute the larger number of quanta of energy at higher temperatures.

State:
Entropy of solid < entropy of liquid < entropy of gas
∆S > 0, there are more ways to arrange the xx in liquid/ gas state than solid/liquid state.

Number of particles:
∆S > 0, increase in disorder as there is an increase in the number of moles of gas particles from xx to xx.

Mixing of particles:
∆S > 0, increase in disorder due to mixing of different particles. There are more ways to arrange the
gaseous atoms in a larger volume.

Gas expansion:
If a gas is under pressure, the gas spontaneously expands when the pressure is released. Upon gas
expansion, there are more ways to arrange the gas particles in a larger volume, and entropy increases.

The spontaneity of a reaction depends on the enthalpy change and the entropy change. These two
factors can be combined and expressed as the Gibbs Free energy change, ∆G.

∆G = ∆H - T∆S

∆G = kJ mol-1
∆H = kJ mol-1
∆S = kJ mol-1 k-1

∆G > 0 → reaction non spontaneous

∆G < 0 → reaction spontaneous
∆G = 0 → reaction at equilibrium

Since ∆S > 0, - T∆S < 0. At higher temperatures, the - T∆S term becomes more and more negative and
the ∆G term becomes negative eventually. Reaction is spontaneous at higher temperatures.

Reaction kinetics:
Rate of reaction is defined to be the change in concentrations of reactants or products per unit time.

Xxx of known concentrations are mixed together. At regular time intervals, a known volume of the
reaction mixture is pipetted out for analysis. Since the reaction is catalyzed by an acid, the withdrawn
sample is quenched by adding sodium hydrogen carbonate. The concentration of the unreacted iodine in
the quenched sample can be determined by titrating it with sodium thiosulfate. A graph of iodine
concentration against time is plotted. The rate of reaction at various time intervals can be determined by
drawing tangents to the curve and calculating the gradients.

Rate equation is the relationship between reaction rate and concentration of reactants.

Rate equation = k[A]m[B]n

Order of reaction: the power of a reactant’s concentration term in the experimentally determined rate
equation is known as the order of reaction with respect to that reactant. The order of reaction with
respect to A and B are m and n respectively, and the reaction is said to have an overall order of m+n.

Zero order reaction:

Rate equation = k
Units of rate constant = mol dm-3 s-1 or mol dm-3 min-1
Rate of reaction is independent of [A].
First order reaction:
Rate equation = k[A]1
Units of rate constant = s-1 or min-1
Rate of reaction is directly proportional to [A], ie. when [A] doubles, the rate of reaction doubles.

Half life is the time taken for the concentration of reactants to be halved. t1/2 = ln2/k
Based on the graph, t1/2 = xxx and the successive half-lives are approximately constant, the rate of
reaction is first order wrt xxx.

Second order reaction:

Rate equation = k[A]2
Units of rate constant = mol-1 dm3 s-1 or mol-1 dm3 min-1
Rate of reaction is directly proportional to [A]2, ie. when [A] doubles, the rate of reaction quadruples.

Pseudo order reactions

If reactant A is present in large excess wrt to reactant B, the concentration of A would not change
significantly during the reaction and can be regarded as a constant.

Rate equation = k’[B]n where k’ = k[A]m whereby [A]m is essentially a constant.

Rate of reaction becomes independent of [A] but still dependent on [B].

(𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒)1 [𝐴]1
(𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒) 2
= ( [𝐴]2 )m

Hence the rate of reaction is xx with respect to A.