Corso di Laurea in Medicina e Chirurgia

INGLESE SCIENTIFICO
I° ANNO SKILLS
II Semestre Anno accademico 2020/2021

Dott. Rosa Colacino inglese.scientifico@unicampania.it

Dott. Janet Gates

Lesson Pages: Title: Skills:

1 2-3 Mortality and Infectious Vocabulary, reading comprehension, note-
Diseases taking

2 4-6 Word Formation and Recognising different types of words,

Text Analysis text analysis, reading comprehension,
translation skills
3 7-9 The Body Systems Listening, vocabulary about body systems,
functions and organs
4 10-15 Linking Words and Text Understanding text cohesion, reading
Cohesion comprehension, writing skills –using
linking expressions
5 16-21 Numbers and Quantities Vocabulary, pronunciation, speaking,
listening, grammar
6 22-28 Graphs and trends Vocabulary – numbers, dates and trends;
grammar - use of verb tenses and
prepositions; speaking – describing trends
7 29-32 Medical terminology Prefixes and suffixes, vocabulary building,
definitions, scientific vs general English
8 33-36 Medical abbreviations Medical vocabulary, question forms,
and medical records medical dialogues

9 37-39 The Skin and Skin Vocabulary, reading comprehension, note-

Cancer taking – identifying key information,
speaking
10 40-45 Revision exercises Speaking skills. Revision of vocabulary.
Revision of grammar.
46-47 Online Learning References to online materials for study of
Resources general and medical English

48 - 56 Key to lessons

1
 LESSON 1 Mortality and Infectious diseases

Write down all the names of diseases that you know in the correct column
Non-communicable communicable Vaccine preventable

Exercise 1. Now match up the names of disease with the descriptions

Infectious diseases in the world

Diarrheal diseases Measles Malaria

Lower Respiratory Infections Tuberculosis

1______________________________
among infectious diseases, lower respiratory infections are the leading cause of
mortality overall and a primary cause of death for children under age five. Most of these
deaths occur in developing countries where children's immune systems are often already
weakened by malnutrition and other diseases. Pneumonia, primarily a bacterial infection
of the lungs, is the most serious of the lower respiratory infections, despite the fact that
it can usually be effectively treated with antibiotics, if they are available and affordable.
2________________________________
these are a leading cause of childhood morbidity and mortality in developing countries.
They are caused by ingesting certain bacteria, viruses or parasites present in water or
food, and can be spread by utensils, hands or flies. Diarrheal disease causes
considerable dehydration, which may quickly lead to death when not promptly treated.
Cholera, one of the most severe diarrheal diseases, is a significant cause of illness and
death in developing countries. An acute bacterial infection of the intestine, cholera is
spread by the consumption of contaminated food or water. Cholera symptoms include
acute watery diarrhea and vomiting, which can result in severe dehydration and rapidly
lead to death. Other diarrheal disease pathogens include rotavirus, escherichia coli,
salmonella, shigella and giardia.
Diarrheal diseases can be prevented through access to clean, safe drinking water and
through proper sanitation measures. Diarrhea generally can be easily treated using oral
rehydration solution (ORS), a combination of glucose and sodium dissolved in water
that replaces essential electrolytes lost through diarrhea.

3._________________________________
this infectious disease kills nearly 2 million people every year, more than 90 percent of
whom live in developing countries. While it is estimated that about one-third of the
world's population is infected with the bacteria that causes TB, the infection remains
dormant throughout the lives of most healthy people. The lifetime risk for developing
the disease is generally 5-10 percent.
For HIV-positive individuals, who have compromised immune systems and other risk
2
factors, the lifetime risk exceeds 30 percent. Symptoms of pulmonary TB include a
chronic cough, severe weight loss, night sweats and progressive, irreversible lung
destruction.
Tuberculosis can be treated effectively through widely available drugs, but 50 percent
of those left untreated will die of the disease.
4._______________________________________
This disease is a leading killer of children under five and a major contributor to adult
morbidity in sub-Saharan Africa. More than 300 million cases and more than one
million deaths occur each year. An estimated 10,000 women and 200,000 infants die
annually due to malaria infection, and severe malarial anaemia accounts for more than
half of these deaths.
Malaria is caused by a parasite that is transmitted through the bite of the Anopheles
mosquito. Individuals infected with the parasite that causes malaria may experience
several weeks or months of poor health, and children and pregnant women are less
likely to recover than adults who have built up some immunity to the disease.
Symptoms include fevers with chills, headache, back pain, sweating, weakness, nausea
and anaemia.
Malaria disproportionately affects people living in poverty. For adults who survive
malarial attacks social and economic consequences include low productivity and
depression.
Malarial disease can be prevented with prophylactic anti-malarial drugs. Those who
have been infected with the malaria parasite can be treated with relatively inexpensive
anti-malarial drugs where available and affordable. However, drug resistance to the
anti-malarial drugs chloroquine and sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine has, in some regions,
rendered them virtually ineffective.
5 ________________________________
despite the availability of effective vaccines, this disease is still a major childhood killer
in developing countries. Children account for more than 50 percent of measles deaths
annually, and the disease is responsible for 4 percent of the total deaths of children each
year. Caused by a virus, measles is highly communicable and is transmitted by contact
with nasal or throat secretions emitted through sneezing or coughing of infected
persons. Measles symptoms typically consist of a high fever, cough, runny nose and a
generalized rash. Complications that accompany measles, such as pneumonia, diarrhea
and malnutrition are often fatal to children living in developing countries.

After reading the text fill in the table with the most important information

Disease:

Who/where? -Young
children (with
weak immune
systems)
-Developing
countries
Signs and death
symptoms

treatment antibiotics

3
 LESSON 2 - VOCABULARY – WORD FORMATION AND TEXT
ANALYSIS
3 MAIN WAYS TO FORM NEW WORDS

1. ADDING PREFIXES + SUFFIXES TO THE BASE WORD:

e.g. science (n. base word) - scientist (n) - scientific (adj) – unscientific (adj)

– scientifically (adv) (no verb form >> to study science)

discriminate (vb) – discriminating (adj) discrimination (n)

indiscriminate (adj)

2. COMPOUND WORDS FORMED BY COMBINING 2 WORDS:

i) Adjective compounds: time–consuming (n + gerund), hard–working
(adv + gerund)
ii) Noun compounds - T-shirt , science teacher , notebook (n + n),
my girlfriend’s brother (possessive n + n)
iii) Verb compounds – to sightsee, to babysit

3. WORDS WITH THE SAME FORM BUT USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS

OF SPEECH
They study science (vb) He’s working in his study (n)
This sometimes involves sound / spelling changes – advise /z/ (vb)
advice /s/ (n)
an export to export a record to record

LOOK AT THE TEXT BELOW. FOR EACH WORD UNDERLINED,

IDENTIFY ITS PART OF SPEECH AND FORMATION TO COMPLETE THE
TABLE.

WORD FORMATION Word + Part of speech

Adding prefixes + relationship (n)
suffixes

Compound words lifestyle (n)

Words with same form debate (n / vb)

4
Nutrition and the health debate in Sub-Saharan Africa
(Adapted from Food Africa Internet Forum 2003)

Many other lifestyles and environmental factors, in addition to nutrition, influence

health and well-being, but nutrition is a major, modifiable and powerful factor in
promoting health, preventing and treating disease and improving the quality of life. The
relationship between food, nutrition and health is thus one of the global challenges that
we are facing today. In the developed world, nutrition is now considered an important
determinant in the development of chronic diseases like coronary artery diseases and
cancer. In the developing world, especially the countries in rapid transition and
economic development, there is a double burden of disease: on the one hand, the
occurrence of nutrient deficiencies, and on the other hand, the emerging burden of diet-
related chronic diseases.

This internet forum asks food scientists, nutritionists, health care workers, managers and
development workers from all over the world to debate the challenges of Sub-Saharan
African countries. Their objectives are to review the current research and development
plans that affect the food and nutritional situation in Africa, to identify the gaps in
current food, nutrition and health research strategies, to recommend future research
strategies, and to improve the links between different researchers working in this area.
The forum hopes to contribute to an international agenda for the future of the African
world.

NOW FIND OTHER EXAMPLES IN THE NEXT PART OF THE TEXT

The main questions to debate are:
1. Nutrition in relation to HIV/AIDS: do we have sufficient recommendations for
specific cases such as HIV- positive women concerning breast-feeding?

2. Nutrition for vulnerable groups in African societies such as young children, pregnant
and lactating women: which nutritional strategies should be followed to overcome intra-
uterine growth retardation in pregnant women?

3. Micronutrient deficiencies in trace elements like iron and zinc, and for vitamins like
vitamin A. Should the strategies to combat these deficiencies include supplementation
or a local food-based approach?

4. Overcoming malnutrition: which models should we develop to alleviate under-

nutrition without creating a problem of over-nutrition?

TEXT ANALYSIS – PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH TRANSLATION:

1. UNFAMILIAR VOCABULARY
......The relationship between food, nutrition and health is thus one of the global
challenges that we are facing today.
..... there is a double burden of disease: on the one hand, the occurrence of nutrient
deficiencies, and on the other hand, the emerging burden of diet-related chronic
diseases.

2. FALSE FRIENDS - words which look similar to/same as Italian but have
different meanings in English
….an international agenda
(Italian = diario, English = ordine del giorno/agenda)
(agenda - Italian = diary - English)
... to recommend (consigliare)
5
3. GERUNDS AS NOUNS , VERBS OR ADJECTIVES

...but nutrition is a major, modifiable and powerful factor in promoting health,

preventing and treating disease and improving the quality of life.

....In the developing world....

4. NOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES – identifying the noun

.......coronary artery diseases

...... the food, nutrition and health research strategies
......to overcome intra-uterine growth retardation in pregnant women?

5. ADJECTIVE/NOUN CLUSTERS – identifying the noun clause and the subject

/object of the sentence/clause

........This internet forum asks food scientists, nutritionists, health care workers, decision
makers, and development workers from all over the world to debate the challenges of
Sub-Saharan African countries.

NOW CORRECT / IMPROVE THE TRANSLATION OF THE TEXT:

Nutrition and the health debate in Sub-Saharan Africa

Molti altri stili di vita e fattori ambientali, oltre alla nutrizione, salute di influenza e sul
benessere, ma la nutrizione è la maggiore, fattore modificabile e potente nel favorire la
salute, nel prevenire e nel trattando le malattie e nel migliorare la qualità della vita. La
relazione tra cibo, la nutrizione e la salute è dunque una delle sfide globali che stiamo
affrontando oggi. Nel mondo sviluppato, la nutrizione è ora considerata un importante
determinante nello sviluppo di malattie croniche piaccia le malattie di arterie coronarie
ed il cancro. Nel mondo sviluppando, specialmente i paesi in transizione rapida e
sviluppo economico, c'è un doppio peso di malattia: sulla mano del una , l'avvenimento
delle deficienze nutrienti e d'altra parte il carico che emerge di malattie croniche e
dieta-relative.

Questo foro di Internet chiede a scienziati di cibo,nutrizionisti, lavoratori di cura di

salute, i manager e ricercatori di sviluppo di tutto il mondo di dibattere sulle sfide dei
paesi africani sub-sahariani. I loro obiettivi sono di rivedere la ricerca corrente e piani
di sviluppo che colpiscono il cibo e la situazione nutrizionale in Africa, di identificare le
aperture in cibo corrente, nutrizione e le strategie di ricerca di salute, di raccomandare
le strategie per la ricerca futura e di migliorare i contatti tra ricercatori vari che lavorano
in questa area. Il foro spera di contribuire ad un'agenda internazionale per il futuro del
mondo africano.

6
 LESSON THREE – THE BODY SYSTEMS

Body System Main function Major organs (3) Field of medicine

Skeletal Protects organs, bones Orthopaedics
Gives us shape cartilage
ligaments

Muscular

Nervous

Endocrine

Digestive

Respiratory

Circulatory

Excretory

Reproductive

7
Label the parts of this Label the parts of this system: Label the parts of this system:
system:
groin muscles appendix
pelvis triceps large intestine
ulna back muscles small intestine
ribs chest muscles (pectorals) mouth
sternum deltoid pancreas
tibia abdominal muscles salivary glands
patella hamstring muscles rectum
skull quadriceps oesophagus
femur biceps stomach
phalanges calf muscles gall bladder
clavicle gluteus maximus anus
8 liver
COMPLETE THE CROSSWORD – BONES AND JOINTS
15. This is one of the bones forming the spinal column.
ACROSS 16. These attach bone to bone.
1. A bone in the arm which sounds as though it should be funny! 18. Commonly called the breast bone.
4. The last bone in the back. 19. A small pit in the cartilage on the femur.
7. A little bone in the throat. 25. The long central section of the femur.
9. The patient calls this the collar bone.
11. This bone in the ear means ”anvil”.
12. Another word for lower jaw.
13. It protects the brain.
17. The final limb bones.
20. It provides support, movement and protection.
21. The patient calls this the “funny bone”.
22. This is known as the knee cap.
23. This is the spherical top end of the femur.
24. Arms and legs.
26. Joints allow arms and legs to do this.
27. The shin bone.
28. You will find the metatarsals here.

DOWN
2. One of the bones in the lower arm.
3. There’s fluid in this type of joint.
5. The socket for the eye.
6. The most abundant extracellular fibre in the body.
8. The common name for spinal column.
10. These protect vital body organs.
14. It’s tough, flexible and much lighter than bone.

9
 LESSON 4 - LINKING WORDS AND TEXT COHESION

COMPARE THESE 2 TEXTS:

1. There are many kinds of science courses at university. Basic science classes can be
divided into two groups; laboratory courses and non-laboratory courses. Biology is a
laboratory course. Chemistry is a laboratory course. Mathematics is usually a non-
laboratory course.

2. Although there are many kinds of science courses at university, basic science classes
can be divided into two groups; laboratory courses and non-laboratory courses. An
example of a laboratory course is biology. Chemistry is a laboratory course as well. On
the other hand, mathematics is usually a non-laboratory course.

A well-written text is easy to read. Words and expressions which link one sentence
to another function as signals to the reader to indicate the logic of the text. These
“linking words” and are usually conjunctions or adverbs. In scientific and medical
texts the most common functions of these expressions are to:

1) add information

2) give examples

3) express similarities

4) express contrasts / concession

5) show an effect / result

6) summarize ideas

10
EXERCISE 1. IDENTIFY THE FUNCTIONS OF THE LINKING WORDS IN
THE SENTENCES BELOW AND PUT THEM IN THE TABLE ON THE NEXT
PAGE. NOTICE THEIR POSITION IN RELATION TO THE CONCEPTS:

1. Plant cells are enclosed in a non living wall whereas animal cells are enclosed in a
membrane.
2. Solids are matter. Liquids and gases are matter too.
3. Cakes and biscuits contain large quantities of sugar so they are bad for our teeth.
4. Infectious agents act in different ways. While viruses act inside the cells, bacteria are
mainly extra-cellular.
5. Despite (having made) major advances in medical research, a cure for AIDS has not
yet been found.
6. A developing embryo can be affected by a disease of the mother. For example,
during the early months of pregnancy, German measles can lead to abnormalities of the
heart and eyes.
7. If a woman smokes during pregnancy, this may retard the normal growth of a foetus.
As a result, doctors advise women to give up smoking when pregnant.
8. Experiments using a nasal spray containing an antiviral substance “interferon”, show
that it can prevent transmission of the cold virus in families. However, it can cause
discomfort and even nosebleeds. In conclusion, further research is required before it
becomes commercially available.
9. The vertebrae interlock to form a strong flexible column through which the spinal
cord runs but they are also separated from each other by a disc of cartilage.

11
FUNCTION LINKING GRAMMATICAL
EXPRESSIONS INFORMATION ON THE USE
OF THE EXPRESSIONS
Adding
information

Giving an
example

Expressing
similarities

Expressing
contrasts and
concession

Showing an
effect/result

Summarising
ideas

12
 EXERCISE 2. READ THE TEXTS BELOW AND ADD THE LINKING WORDS TO
THE TABLE.
TEXT A
Good health is affected by a balanced diet. If we do not eat well, this may cause problems
and we may become sick. For instance, if our diet lacks vitamin A, blindness may occur. In addition,
many problems which affect skin and teeth are due to a lack of vitamin C. Nevertheless, if our diet
contains recommended amounts of vitamin A and C, our ability to fight diseases like cancer is
greatly increased. Consequently, it makes sense to eat well because this results in a longer and
healthier life.
TEXT B
The camera and the eye are similar in many respects. Both the eye and the camera are
sensitive to light, shade and colour. The film records light shade and colour. In contrast, the eye can
perceive them but does not record them. Whilst the camera lens produces only a two-dimensional
image, the two eyes together produce a three-dimensional image.

EXERCISE 3. THE FOLLOWING PAIRS OF TEXTS CAN BE LINKED IN

DIFFERENT WAYS. INSERT SUITABLE LINKING WORD(S) / EXPRESSION(S).

1. A. The cerebrum is the largest and best developed section of the brain. It performs the
function of directing muscular activity. It is ______________ the centre of intelligence and enables
human beings to reason and remember.
B. The cerebrum is the largest and best developed section of the brain. It performs the function
of directing muscular activity. ___________________, it is the centre of intelligence and enables
human beings to reason and remember.

2 A. _______________we are making steady progress towards improving cancer treatment, the
real hope for combating the disease lies in prevention and early detection.
B. __________________ making steady progress towards improving cancer treatment, the real
hope for combating the disease lies in prevention and early detection.

3. A. _____________ men and women are affected by lung cancer. _____________ /

______________ deaths of men from lung cancer increased after World War I, deaths of women
increased following World War II.
B. Men and women are ________ affected by lung cancer. Deaths of men from lung cancer
increased after World War I. ____________, deaths of women increased after World War II.

13
4 A. The medicine in Tylenol goes into your bloodstream and works immediately to relieve
pain. _______________ you feel better quickly. _____________, Tylenol contains aspirin ________
people who suffer from severe allergic reactions to aspirin should not take it.
B. The medicine in Tylenol goes into your bloodstream and works immediately to relieve
pain _______________ you feel better quickly. Tylenol contains aspirin.____________ people
who suffer from severe allergic reactions to aspirin should not take it.

5. A. Plants are stationary. Animals, ___________________ can usually move about.

________________, plants appear to be less sensitive than animals ____________ they respond in
some ways to light, heat, physical contact and other stimuli.
B. Plants are stationary _________animals can usually move about. Plants appear to be less
sensitive than animals ____________ responding in some ways to light, heat, physical contact and
other stimuli.

LINKING EXPRESSIONS IN LONGER TEXTS ALSO INDICATE CONNECTIONS

BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS.

EXERCISE 4. READ THE TEXT ABOUT ‘LUPUS.’

A. ARE THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS TRUE OR FALSE?
CORRECT THE FALSE ONES.

1. Lupus is caused when the body’s immune system malfunctions.

2. Inflammation of the tissues is a common symptom.

3. Lupus can be treated with cortisol.

4. Drugs are available only in the form of pills.

5. The treatment has very limited side effects.

6. Treatment can take a long time.

14
LUPUS

LUPUS IS THE COMMON NAME GIVEN TO A GROUP OF CHRONIC AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES.

THE MOST COMMON AND SERIOUS TYPE OF LUPUS IS CALLED SYSTEMIC LUPUS

ERYTHEMATOSUS (SLE). WITH SLE, THE BODY'S IMMUNE SYSTEM STOPS WORKING
PROPERLY AND ATTACKS HEALTHY TISSUES (AUTOIMMUNITY). ________________, THE
TISSUES BECOME SWOLLEN AND PAINFUL. INFLAMMATION CAN HAPPEN IN THE SKIN,

MUSCLES OR JOINTS. THE HEART, LUNGS, KIDNEYS, BLOOD VESSELS OR THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM CAN BE ATTACKED BY THE AUTOIMMUNE REACTIONS ___________.

THE MOST COMMON DRUGS USED TO TREAT LUPUS ARE CORTICOSTEROIDS.

CORTICOSTEROIDS ARE DRUGS THAT CLOSELY RESEMBLE CORTISOL, A HORMONE

NATURALLY PRODUCED BY THE BODY WHICH HAS AN ANTI-INFLAMMATORY EFFECT.

CORTICOSTERIODS CAN BE TAKEN ORALLY IN PILL FORM , _______________

PREDNISONE, OR CORTISONE WHICH CAN _________ BE INJECTED INTO THE AFFECTED

JOINTS. ___________ CORTISONE MIMICS THE EFFECT OF CORTISOL, IT HAS A MUCH MORE

POWERFUL ACTIVITY AND CAN PROVIDE ALMOST INSTANT RELIEF FROM PAIN.

_____________________, CORTICOSTERIODS CAN PRODUCE UNWANTED SIDE EFFECTS

FROM LONG TERM USE , _________________ CATARACTS, HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE, SLEEP

PROBLEMS, MUSCLE LOSS, BRUISING, THINNING OF THE BONES (OSTEOPOROSIS), WEIGHT

GAIN, IMMUNE SUPPRESSION AND INCREASED SUSCEPTIBILITY TO INFECTIONS.

__________________,THE GOAL WITH THIS AND MOST DRUGS IS TO FIND THE LOWEST
EFFECTIVE DOSE THAT WILL AVOID AS MANY OF THE SIDE EFFECTS AS POSSIBLE.

________________, TO AVOID OR LESSEN SIDE EFFECTS, YOUR DOCTOR WILL GIVE YOU
THE LOWEST POSSIBLE DOSE AND SLOWLY TRY TO REDUCE IT AFTER ABOUT SIX MONTHS.

IN TIME, YOU MAY NO LONGER NEED TO TAKE IT. CORTICOSTEROIDS REQUIRE A

PRESCRIPTION.

B. NOW COMPLETE THE TEXT WITH SUITABLE LINK WORDS.

AVOIDING REPEATING THE SAME LINK WORDS WHERE POSSIBLE

15
 LESSON FIVE - NUMBERS AND QUANTIFIERS

LARGE NUMBERS (write a comma before 3 zeros)

100 = one hundred
1,000 = one thousand
1,000,000 = one million
1,000,000,000 = a billion (American English)
Read these numbers:
19 90 17 70 30 13
150 976 1,340 120,800 3,500,020
How much does a new small car cost?
A bus ticket?
A small apartment in town?
In informal American English now you will also hear
2,500 (twenty-five hundred)
1,250 (twelve hundred and fifty)

DATES
2010 = two thousand and ten
1945 = nineteen forty five
What year were you born in?

3 November 2011 = the third of November, two thousand and eleven

or, November 3, 2011 = November the third, two thousand and eleven
What’s the date today?
Do you know the ordinal numbers up to 31st?
3/11/2011 = British English = day, month, year
11/03/2011 = American English = month, day, year
say the following dates
25/12/80 15/3/05
When were you born?
Ask your partner

FRACTIONS
1/4 = a quarter
1/3 = a third
1/2 = a half
4/5 = four fifths
5/8 = five eighths
What fraction of the class takes the bus?

DECIMALS
Write the decimal point sign as a dot, not a comma. We say ‘point’
1.5 = one point five
1.2 99.9 36.8
0 can be pronounced as ‘zero’ or ‘oh’ (you may occasionally hear ‘nought’)
0.5 = oh point five / zero point five
Say the following numbers:
0.8 0.1
Pronounce numbers individually after a decimal point.
0.25 = oh point two five / zero point two five
Say the following numbers:
10.06 23.75 9.04

16
PERCENTAGE
% = per cent 50%= fifty percent
38.65 % = thirty eight point six five percent
Say the following numbers:
100% 57.5% 99.9%

TEMPERATURES
36.5 ° C = thirty six point five degrees Celsius / centigrade
- 4° = minus four degrees
100°F = one hundred degrees Farenheit
What’s the temperature today?
What is a healthy body temperature?

TELEPHONE NUMBERS, CREDIT CARD NUMBERS ETC.

These are pronounced as individual numbers
0 is pronounced ‘zero’ or ‘oh’
we can say ‘double’ or ‘triple’ for repeated numbers

0044 – 02 – 8543719 = double oh double four - oh two – eight five four three seven
one nine (UK)
=zero zero four four – zero two – eight five four three seven one nine (US)
What’s your telephone number?
Your social security number? (come il codice fiscale)
Ask your partner

TIME
In English we USUALLY use the 12-hour clock, and add ‘a.m.’ or ‘p.m.’
We say ‘5 o’clock’ OR ‘5 p.m.’
Common time expressions are
• Half past three
• A quarter past four
• A quarter to six
• Midday/noon
• Midnight
• In the morning/in the afternoon/at night
We can also use the 60-minute clock, so
2.30 (two thirty) 9.45 (nine forty-five) 8.15 (eight fifteen)
What time is it now?
What time does class start? Finish?
Say the following times in two ways:
7 p.m. 11.45 a.m. 9.50

WEIGHT, LENGTH, VOLUME

Metric system measurements are usually similar in English and Italian e.g.:
Kilograms, Metres , Millilitres
Notice the spelling differences:
• Metre (UK) /meter (US)
• Litre (UK) / liter(US)
How tall are you?
How much do you weigh?
How big is this room? (in square metres)

17
THE IMPERIAL SYSTEM

• In some countries (especially the US) the Imperial system is still officially in
use. In other countries Imperial measurements are still in use in daily
conversation
• Surgical instruments and engineering tool sizes are often given in fractions of
inches
• People often use the imperial system to talk about their height and weight.
• Food is often measured in ounces, pounds, pints etc

Match the units of measurements which are used in a similar way (N.B. they DO
NOT correspond exactly)

pound (lb) 2.54 centimetre

mile (m) 28.3 gram

pint 30.48 centimetre
inch 0.453 kilogram
ounce 0.473 Litre
foot (ft) 1.6 kilometre

EXERCISE 1 STUDENT A

DICTATE THE FOLLOWING NUMBERS TO YOUR PARTNER

378 56,890 128,470 2,450,000 33,675,000

10.5% 27.9% 14.6 0.006

081-7756634 0044-21-566983

1973 375 B.C 4.45 p.m.

100km/h 30ml 26°C

18
 STUDENT B

DICTATE THE FOLLOWING NUMBERS TO YOUR PARTNER STUDENT A

566 34,128 275,690 4,783,000 56,341,000

12.6% 61.8% 13.75 0.088

081-7766423 001-60-4598870

2001 1482 1968

7.55 a.m. 12.00 a.m.

87°F 155 sq m 5ml

EXERCISE 2
You will hear a news broadcast (at least) twice

LISTEN AND COMPLETE THE TEXT WITH THE MISSING NUMBERS

You should write them as figures and not words, if possible

Here is the news.

 There are fears for the safety of a Boeing __________ on its flight from Lima to
Los Angeles. The plane, Bel Air flight __________ with __________ passengers
on board, left Peru at ______________ in the morning local time. It had
completed __________________ of the _________________ - mile trip when
radio contact was lost.

 Postal workers are on strike. Their demand for a________________ pay rise has
been rejected. Management say they can only afford to offer
_________________________ spread over the next ______________ months.

 A man armed with a shotgun held up a bank in central Birmingham yesterday. He

escaped with _______________ in cash. Police are appealing for witnesses. The
number to ring is __________________.

 Unemployment figures were released today. Last month there were

_________________ registered unemployed. This is an increase of
_______________ on the previous month.

 Finally, the weather. It will be cold and windy today, with gales up to
_______________ miles an hour and temperatures dropping to _____________
degrees Celsius in the north.

19
 COUNTABLE UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
NOUNS
Affirmative many / a lot of a lot of
some some
a few / few / very few a little / little / very little
Negative not many / not a lot of not much / not a lot of

not any / no not any / no

Interrogative – any any
Asking for information
Requests / offers some some

EXERCISE 3.
Which of these nouns are COUNTABLE and which are UNCOUNTABLE?

water student bottle urine experiment

research information sample test tube

EXERCISE 4.
Complete the following sentences with SOME / ANY / A / NO.

1. The patient is allowed ____________ tea but not_____________ coffee.

2. He doesn’t need __________ help.
3. Do we have ____________ time for a break?
4. There is ____________ disinfectant left so please by some
5. Can I have ______________ water?
6. Can you provide___________ urine sample?
7. _______________ bacteria are particularly virulent.
8. The patient needs ____________ blood transfusion.
9. I’m sorry, I have _____________ time to deal with this at the moment. Ask Dr.
Duguid.
10. Please bring _________ hot water.
11. We had ____________ cases of pneumonia last week but there have been
__________ cases this week, so far.
12. Are there ___________ empty beds in the ward?

20
EXERCISE 5.
Complete the following with A LOT OF / MUCH / MANY / (A) FEW /
(A) LITTLE.

1. He isn’t very popular. He has ________friends.

2. I’m not very busy today. I haven’t got __________ to do.
3. The patient was very tired. He received too _________ visitors in one day.
4. There is ____________ unemployment in southern Italy.
5. Since the government reduced the budget there is ___________ money to spend
on new equipment.
6. There are not enough blood donors because ___________ people understand the
need for frequent donation and there is ___________ publicity given to it.
7. Most medical students graduate in five years – __________ take longer.
8. With ______________luck and ______________ study you will pass the exam.
9. An acupuncturist uses __________ needles.
10. There are ________________ good surgeons in that great hospital.

21
 LESSON 6 GRAPHS AND TRENDS

EXERCISE 1. Put the following words into 4 categories

rise go up remain stable sharp(ly) slight(ly)

dramatic(ally) increase decrease fluctuate consistent(ly)

fall drop fluctuation

verbs nouns adjectives adverbs

EXERCISE 2. Read the description of the graph ‘Mortality in USA from selected
diseases’. A) Match the names of diseases in the text with the trends in the graph.

Trends for deaths from certain diseases in the over 60 age group have varied in recent years in
the USA. Between 1960 and 2000 deaths from diabetes increased slightly from 200 to 300 per
100,000 population but since 2000 they have decreased to 200 again. Deaths from heart disease
went up from 600 to 900 between 1960 and 1980, fell slightly until 2000 and since then have
increased to 1000. Deaths from cancer rose from 400 in 1960 to 700 in 1980, fell between 1980
and 2000 and have remained stable ever since at about 500 per 100,000.

B) What verb tenses are used in this text and why?

22
EXERCISE 3. The following sentences describe sales of different pharmaceutical drugs in past
years. Look at the sentences and identify the verb tenses.

1. Sales rose dramatically between 2015 and 2016 and have remained stable ever since at about 1.2
million.
________________ ______________

2. Sales fell sharply 6 years ago, remained stable for 5 years and are increasing slightly now.
__________ ____________ ______________

3. Sales have risen sharply over the last six years from 0.1 to 1.3 million.
________________

4. Sales have fallen sharply and consistently over the past six years.
________________

5. Sales have been decreasing slowly for the past six years.
________________

6. Sales went up sharply six years ago; they dropped immediately, remained stable at about 0.5
million from 2017 to 2020 and are now increasing again.
____________ _____________ ____________ ________________

7. Sales fluctuated between 0.4 and 0.45 million until 1 year ago when they dropped dramatically.
________________ ______________

Language analysis: prepositions and time expressions

Between 1960 and 1980...

From 1960 to 1980....
Sales rose from 0.1 to 1.3 million
Sales went up 6 years ago (past simple + definite past time)
Sales remained stable at 1 million
Sales have remained stable ever since / Since 2015 sales have remained stable (present
perfect simple + since = moment the action began in the past)

23
NOW MATCH THE DESCRIPTIONS 1 - 7 WITH THE GRAPHS A – F
BELOW.
(N.B. THERE IS ONE EXTRA DESCRIPTION)

A B

C D

E FF F

24
EXERCISE 4. COMPLETE THE DESCRIPTION OF THE FOLLOWING
GRAPHS WITH APPROPRIATE VERB FORMS AND PREPOSITIONS

Sales ________________ slightly six years ago

and are still going up.

In the last six years sales __________________

_________0.1 _______ 0.25 million.

Sales ________________six years ago but

________________________ever since.

Sales rose _______0.2_______ 0.3 million

__________ 2015 _________ 2016.
_________ 2016 they have fallen ______
________ million.

Sales fell _______________ 6 years ago and

_____________________ ever since.

Between 2015 and 2016 sales _______ ________

________ ________ _______million. Since 2016
they _________ ____________ ____________
_______ about 0.2 million.

25
EXERCISE 5. SPEAKING. WORK IN PAIRS – STUDENT A AND STUDENT B.
DESCRIBE YOUR GRAPHS TO YOUR PARTNER. YOUR PARTNER MUST
DRAW THE GRAPHS.
STUDENT A – DESCRIBE THESE GRAPHS TO YOUR PARTNER

NOW LISTEN TO YOUR PARTNER’S DESCRIPTION AND DRAW THE

GRAPHS

26
NOW WRITE A DESCRIPTION OF EACH GRAPH WITH YOUR PARTNER
1._____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2._____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

3._____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

4._____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

STUDENT B - LISTEN TO YOUR PARTNER’S DESCRIPTION AND DRAW

THE GRAPHS

27
NOW DESCRIBE THESE GRAPHS TO YOUR PARTNER

NOW WRITE A DESCRIPTION OF EACH GRAPH WITH YOUR PARTNER

1._____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

2._____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

3._____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

4._____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

28
Lesson 7 Medical Terminology
Exercise 1. What part of the body do the following terms refer to?

prefix Body part Example of use

1. gastro stomach gastritis, gastrointestinal
2. hepato
3. nephro
4. cephal
5. myo, tendo
6. mast
7. neuro
8. derm
9. rhino, naso
10. ocul, opt, opthal
11. aur, ot
12. pulmo, pneum
13. cardio
14. hemo

breast muscle head nerve liver kidney stomach

heart blood skin ear nose eye lung

29
Exercise 2
Look at the medical terms, and choose a word from the list to complete the definition
growth/tumour side small flow high
many badly pain hardening
infection/inflammation fast difficulty both
not slow few
tachycardia A _____________ heartbeat
malnourished ________ nourished or fed
microfracture A ___________ break in a bone
inactive _____ active
hypocaloric With _____ calories
hypertension _____ blood pressure
dyslexia _____________ in reading
multicellular Made of ______ cells
ambidextrous Using _____ hands, or sides
hemiplegia Paralysis in one ___ of the body
neuralgia ______ in the head (headache)
tonsillitis An ___________ of the tonsils
melanoma A dark _____________
arteriosclerosis The _______ of the artery walls
haemorrhage Abnormal __________ of blood
bradycardia ___________ pulse

Exercise 3

Look at the procedure, and complete the definition.

Example of use suffix procedure

Rhinoplasty -plasty The _________________ of the nose.
Appendectomy -ectomy The _____________ of the appendix.
Colostomy -ostomy The ____________ of part of the colon.
Colposcopy -oscopy To ___________ inside with a lighted
instrument.

Look at the example:

Optic myalgia
Opt = eye
Myo = muscle
Algia = it hurts

So, in ordinary spoken language, optic myalgia basically means that your eye hurts, and
it is the eye muscle that’s causing the pain.

30
Other common prefixes are: other common suffixes are
anti- -pathy
contra- -ical
pseudo- -graphy
intra- -spasm
endo- -emia
extra- -plasia
Exercise 4
Match the word with its definition:

1. ARTERIOSCLEROSIS a) Low blood pressure

2. ARTHRALGIA b) Inflammation of the heart

3. PNEUMORRAGIA c) Tumour of the muscle
4. CARDITIS d) Bleeding of the lungs

5. GASTRALGIA e) Ear ache

6. HYPERACTIVE f) Lack of appetite

7. HYPERTROPHY g) Hardening of the arteries

8. HYPOTENSION h) Stomach ache
9. ANOREXIA i) Excessive growth of organ

10. MYOMA j) Pain in the joints

11. OTITIS k) Excessively active

Exercise 5
Now give a definition of the following:

1. Bradykinesia: __________________________________

2. Intracranial: ____________________________________

3. Pancreatitis: ___________________________________

4. Cardiopulmonary: _______________________________

5. Subcutaneous: __________________________________

6. Nephrologist: __________________________________

7. Hyperglycemia:________________________________

8. Appendicitis : _________________________________

9. Polymyalgia: ____________________________________

10. Arythmia: ______________________________________

11. Hypoplasia: _____________________________________

12. Contraceptive ___________________________________

31
Exercise 6. What would you call……………….?

1. The hardening of a nerve? _______________________

2. Low blood sugar? _____________________________

3. A swelling containing blood? ____________________

4. Tumour in a kidney? ___________________________

5. An irritation of the skin? ________________________

6. Diseases affecting the muscles? ___________________

7. Resection of the colon? ____________________________

8. A recording of the electrical activity of the heart?

_______________________________________________

9. An injection into the muscle ?________________________

10. Slightly allergenic? ______________________________

11. Surgery specialising on the face, jaw and neck?

_______________________________________________

12. Thickening of the bone, appearing as a false fracture?

_____________________________________________

There are lots of practice activities on this website:

http://users.utu.fi/micnel/medical/lesson%205.htm

32
LESSON 8 MEDICAL ABBREVIATIONS AND MEDICAL RECORDS

Many abbreviations are used by doctors and medical professionals.

Look at the following doctors description of a patient:

67 y/o male c/o chest pain and SOB x 2 h. Pain is severe (8 out of
10), centered under sternum, and radiates to the L arm and jaw.
Pain woke patient from sleep, and is w/o D with movement or
breathing. Pt. has a h/o ASHD, MI 1/15/01, HTN, and DM. Meds
include ASA, insulin, lasix, and lisinopril. Allergic to PCN.

67 y/o male c/o chest pain and SOB x 2 h. Pain is severe (8 out of 10), centered under

sternum,and radiates to the L arm and jaw. Pain woke patient from sleep, and is w/o D

with movement or breathing. Pt. has a h/o ASHD, MI 1/15/01, HTN, and DM. Meds

include ASA, insulin, lasix,and lisinopril. Allergic to PCN.

Exercise 1
Find the meaning of the abbreviations, and write them on top of the underlined
words

penicillin patient shortness of breath

year-old history of left
arteriosclerotic heart disease complains of without difficulty
mental illness aspirin hypertension diabetes mellitis
for two hours

33
TAKING NOTES
These notes show a doctor’s findings when he examined Mr Hall. The abbreviations
underlined are defined in the left column.
Exercise 2. What do the abbreviations in bold stand for?

SURNAME: HALL FIRST NAMES: JAMES

AGE: 48 SEX: M MARITAL STATUS: D
OCCUPATION: ENGINEER
PRESENT COMPLAINT: palpitations
O/E
GENERAL CONDITION: obese, 1.65m tall, 85 kg
Ear nose throat ENT wax ++ both sides

No abnormality RS NAD
detected
Regular CVS P 80/min reg. BP 180/120
Heart sound HS normal
GIS

Genito-urinary GUS
system
CNS Fundi normal
IMMEDIATE PAST HISTORY
POINTS OF NOTE
INVESTIGATIONS
Urine –ve for sugar
DIAGNOSIS
? hypertension
MANAGEMENT
See 1/52
Exercise 3.
Study this letter from a GP to a consultant.
Write the questions (1-9) which the GP asked the patient to obtain the information
underlined. N.B. you may need more than one question for certain information.

CLINICAL DETAILS
22nd April 20....
Dear Dr Scott,
I would be very grateful for your opinion and advice with regard to:
Green Peter
A brief outline of history, symptoms and signs and present therapy is
given below:

This (1) 42 year old (2)salesman had a severe attack of (3) central chest
pain (4) six months ago which (5) lasted 10 mins and was (6) relieved by
rest. This has recurred several times (7) after exertion. His father died (8)
aged 56 of a (9) coronary thrombosis. Physical examination was normal
and I refer him to you in view of his age.
Thank you for seeing him.
Yours sincerely

Mary Chapman GP

34
 1._______________________________________________________________

2. ______________________________________________________________

3. ______________________________________________________________

4._______________________________________________________________

5._______________________________________________________________

6._______________________________________________________________

7._______________________________________________________________

8._______________________________________________________________

9. ______________________________________________________________

INFORMATION TRANSFER
The hospital consultant Dr Scott made these notes of his interview with Mr Green.
Exercise 4. Complete the gaps (1 – 10) using information from the letter from the GP
on the previous page and the consultant’s interview with the patient below.

SURNAME: Green FIRST NAMES: Peter

AGE: ________(1.) SEX: M MARITAL STATUS: M

OCCUPATION: _____________________ (2)

PRESENT COMPLAINT: ______________ (3) chest pain radiating to L arm.

Started with attack of dyspnoea. Pain lasted _________________ (4). Relieved by rest.
Has occurred since on exertion.
O/E GENERAL CONDITION:

ENT

RS ___________________ (5)

CVS _________(6)70/min ____________(7)130/80

___________ (8 ) normal

GIS

GUS

CNS

IMMEDIATE PAST HISTORY

POINTS OF NOTE

INVESTIGATIONS______________________ (9)

DIAGNOSIS_______________________ (10)

MANAGEMENT

35
C = CONSULTANT P = PATIENT

C: Come in Mr Green and sit down here. I’ve had a letter from your doctor and she tells me
you’ve been having pain in your chest.
P: Yes, and in my left arm and also tingling in my fingers...
C: Yes, now when did you first notice this pain?
P: Well, I suppose about seven months ago.
C: And can you remember when it first came on?
P: Er..yes, I got a bad pain when I was lifting some boxes at work. It was so bad I couldn’t
breathe and ...
C: And where, in which part of your chest did you feel the pain?
P: Well, right across the chest.
C: And how long did it last?
P: Oh, about 10 minutes.
C: And what did you do when it happened?
P: Well, I had to stop and wait for it to go away.
C: So have you had this pain again, since then?
P: Yes, I often get it when I overdo things, and when..
C: Well Mr Green, at this stage I’d like to examine you, your chest. Could you strip to your
waist, please?
P: Right, okay.
C: Now, I’ll just check your pulse first. That’s fine. It’s quite normal, seventy per minute.
P: Er, right.
C: Now your blood pressure. Fine, that’s normal too. One hundred and thirty over eighty.
P: Oh, I’m pleased to hear that.
C: Now I’m going to listen to your heart, so I want you to breathe normally..mm that sounds
perfectly normal.
P: Well that’s a relief.
C: Well now I want you to take deep breaths in and out while I check your lungs. In..
out..in..out... they’re completely clear. Well Mr Green, the pain you’ve been having sounds
like the pain of what we call angina. This occurs when there’s not enough oxygen getting to the
heart. I’m going to ask you to do an ESG test.. that’s an electrocardiogram.. which records the
heart’s electrical activity.....

ROLEPLAY
Exercise 5. Work with a partner. One student is the GP, the other a patient. Act out a
dialogue for the following situations. Change roles for the second situation.
PATIENT A - YOU HAVE A BAD HEADACHE ABOVE YOUR RIGHT EYE
PATIENT B - YOU HAVE BEEN FEELING NAUSEOUS FOR THE LAST WEEK

36
LESSON 9 - THE SKIN AND SKIN CANCER

A. MATCH THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE SKIN WITH THE NUMBERS

ON THE DIAGRAM

hair ____ epidermis ___ subcutaneous fat ___

nerve fibre___ sebaceous gland___ arrector muscle ___
dermis ___ pore__ blood capillaries__
hair bulb__ sweat gland ___ duct ___
hypodermis ___ hair follicle __

B MATCH THE MECHANISMS A-K WITH THE FUNCTIONS 1-10.

(ONE FUNCTION HAS THREE MECHANISMS.)

MECHANISM
A collagen and elastin in the dermis
B conversion of subcutaneous fat
C erection of hairs
D greasy horny layer
E nerve endings in the dermis
F epidermal melanin
G sweat production
H evaporation of sweat
I increased cell division and replacement
J synthesis from 7-dehydrocholesterol
K compounds from sweat and sebaceous
glands
L control of dermal blood flow
FUNCTION
1. protection against water loss
2. protection against micro-organisms
3. screen from UV rays
4. shield against mechanical abrasion
5. monitoring of the environment
6. formation of vitamin D
7. temperature regulation
8. energy storage
9. excretion of mainly salt and water
A 10. protection against stretching

37
C. READING AND NOTE-TAKING. READ THE TEXT ON THE FOLLOWING
PAGE AND COMPLETE THE CHART BELOW WITH THE KEY
INFORMATION.

TYPES OF SKIN CANCER

RISK FACTORS FOR

MELANOMA

CAUSES OF MELANOMA

PEOPLE MOST AT RISK

RADIATION DAMAGE Ultraviolet A

Ultraviolet B

Ultraviolet C

EFFECTS OF SUN LAMPS

PREVENTION/

TREATMENT FOR
MELANOMA

38
Skin cancers are common in many parts of the world and the number is increasing.
There are three main types of cancer. The most frequently occurring types are basal cell
carcinoma, also known as rodent ulcer and squamous cell carcinoma, both of which
tend to occur in older people. Over 95%of these types are curable. The third type is
malignant melanoma, which is comparatively rare (11% of all skin cancers) .This occurs
most frequently on the leg in women (particularly between the knee and ankle) and on
the trunk (especially the back) in men.

Several factors affect an individual's risk of melanoma: They are; excessive exposure to
the sun; skin type; changes in an existing mole; the presence of a large number of
naevi and a previous melanoma The presence of naevi (simple or dysplastic) are the
strongest indicators of melanoma risk.

Up to 10% of melanomas are thought to be associated with inherited characteristics.

However, there is strong evidence that all types of skin cancer are linked to excessive
exposure of fair skins to ultraviolet radiation but the evidence linking sunburn and
melanoma is complex.

Six skin types have been identified according to the ability of the skin to tan. People
with skin types 1 and 2 (light skins) are more sensitive and at greater risk of developing
melanoma whereas people with brown or black skin have lower risk as their skin
provides natural protection. If a person’s skin has large numbers of naevi, and a
tendency to freckle, then he or she is at a higher risk of developing melanoma.

Ultraviolet radiation is the part of the sun's electromagnetic spectrum that can damage
the skin, although it is not known whether it acts as an initiator, by increasing the
number of naevi, or a promotor. The main component is ultraviolet A, which causes a
pigment to darken, does not burn the skin, but can do damage at a deeper level within
the skin. Ultraviolet B rays are very damaging and cause redness and burning..
Prolonged exposure to such rays may cause blistering and even second degree burns.
Ultraviolet C rays, which are at present removed by the ozone layer, are extremely
damaging to the skin.

Older types of sunlamps emit some ultraviolet B and C radiation, can cause severe
burning, and are probably associated with skin cancers in humans. Less is known about
modern ultraviolet A lamps. Ultraviolet A radiation increases ageing of the skin and can
cause severe ocular damage.

As yet, there is no clear evidence that early detection reduces mortality from melanoma.
As a consequence, emphasis should be on the primary prevention of skin cancer.
General practitioners and practice nurses need to give advice and information on
sensible exposure to the sun.

D. DISCUSS THE ANSWERS TO THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS WITH A

PARTNER.

• How many different types of skin cancer are there?

• What factors affect an individual’s risk of contracting skin cancers?
• How does exposure to ultraviolet radiation affect the skin?
• What information and advice would you give to the public to reduce the
incidence of skin cancer? List some ideas below.

39
 LESSON 10 REVISION
For this lesson you will work with a partner
One student is A, and the other is Student B. Each student only needs to look at his/her
material only

STUDENT A

1. Dictate the following numbers to B to write.

25 / 12 / 08 33.56 23,452,020 5,500 PTC 437 KME 690

2. Ask B to describe one of this year’s courses (Anatomy, Biochemistry etc). Describe
the coursework using: a lot / much / many / (a) few / (a) little

3. Ask B questions in order to fill in the incomplete graphs. B will then ask you to
describe your last three graphs

a) teenagers b) students enrolled c) money spent

smoking in medical studies on research
(millions US$)

12 000

300 000
20 000

289
2000 now 1980 now 2000 now

d) obesity in children e) deaths from f) sales of

(Europe) skin cancers in magazines
Perth, Australia

4. Ask B to define the following terms:

cephalalgia tendonitis haemorrhage hypotension

Student A
40
5. Role-play
Imagine you are the following patients. Student B (your doctor) will ask you
questions.

JOHN SIMPSON: You are a 60-year-old electrician.

You have coughed up blood several times over the last few weeks.
You have noticed that you’re losing weight. Your clothes don’t fit you properly.
You smoke 30 cigarettes a day.

MARIE DECHALLE: You are a student of 19 (female)

You have a headache at the front of you head, along the brow.
Your nose keeps running.
Your headache is worse in the morning when you get up.
It also gets worse when you bend down.

Now you are the doctor and B is the patient. Ask him/her more about themselves
to come to a diagnosis.

JANEY YORK: Patient is a middle-aged woman. She gets pain in her stomach after
meals.

SARA DENCH: Patient is a young woman. She has pain when urinating.

6. Infectious diseases
Ask your partner B to describe the disease CHOLERA

What type of disease is cholera?

What are the signs and symptoms?
How is it spread?
What treatment exists?.
(Check his / her answers by reading the description of cholera on page 2 of the
photocopy pack).

7. Word formation
Group the following words into 3 categories:

cure, anti-malarial, first–aid treatment, medication, medical kit, developing country,

need, medicine, last minute booking, vaccination, vaccinate, vaccine

a) base words + b) compound words c) same word for verb

prefix/suffix and noun

41
Student A

8. Body systems
Ask B to describe the muscular system and the excretory system (functions, main
organs involved)

9. Name 10 organs in English connected to the digestive system

10. Link words

Complete the text on CALCIUM with appropriate link words. Ask your partner B
to check the text.

Calcium, one of the body’s major nutrients, is essential for the development of healthy
teeth and bones. Calcium is principally found are in dairy products,
_____________milk and cheese. It is __________found in fish. ______________,
calcium is only absorbed in the presence of vitamin D, _________it is essential to drink
water and get lots of sunshine. In the elderly, calcium deficiency can result in
osteoporosis, __________in children it may result in rickets.

When B has completed the text on a healthy diet, check his/her answers.
The first principle of a healthy diet is to eat a wide variety of food. The majority of
calories you consume should come from foods rich in complex carbohydrates, for
example, fruits, vegetables, grains and legumes. Vitamin C helps maintain appetite and
energy, whereas folic acid can prevent anaemia. Avoid too much sugar as it is a source
of empty calories and can lead to diabetes as well. Excessive fat intake is related to both
obesity and heart disease. Therefore, you should reduce your consumption of oil and
butter.

42
STUDENT B

1. Dictate the following numbers to A to write.

01 / 01 / 09 96.07 7,300 2,456,320 LIA 990 CEK 411

2. Ask A to describe (another) one of this year’s courses (Anatomy, Biochemistry

etc). Describe the coursework using: a lot / much / many / (a) few / (a) little

A will ask you to describe your graphs. Then ask A questions in order to fill in the
graphs

50 000 12 000 95

289
2000 2008 1980 now 2000 now

a) teenagers b) students enrolled c) money spent

smoking in medical studies on research
(millions US$)

d) obesity in children e) deaths from f) sales of

(Europe) skin cancers in magazines
Perth, Australia

4. Ask A to define the following terms:

bronchitis tonsillectomy hypertension myalgia

43
Student B

5. Role-play
You are the doctor and A is your patient. Ask him/her more about themselves to
come to a diagnosis.

JOHN SIMPSON: Patient is a man in late middle age. He has coughed up blood several
times over the last few weeks.

MARIE DECHALLE: Patient is a young woman. She has a frontal headache.

Now imagine you are the following patients. Student A (your doctor) will ask you
questions.

JANEY YORK: You are 45. You are a housewife. You have 3 children.
You get a pain in your stomach after meals.
Sometimes you feel nauseous.
Fried and oily foods seem to be the worst.

SARA DENCH: You are a 24-year-old nurse.

You have pain when passing water (urinating). There is blood in your urine.
You have to pass water more frequently than usual.

6. Infectious diseases
Ask your partner A to describe the disease MALARIA
What type of disease is malaria?
What are the signs and symptoms?
How is it transmitted?
What treatment exists?
(Check his / her answers by reading the description of malaria on page 3 of the
photocopy pack).

7. Word formation
Group the following words into 3 categories:

cure, anti-malarial, first–aid treatment, medication, medical kit, developing country,

need, medicine, last minute booking, vaccination, vaccinate, vaccine

a) base words + b) compound words c) same word for verb

prefix/suffix and noun

44
Student B

8. Body systems
Ask A to describe the endocrine system and circulatory system (functions, main
organs involved)

9. Name 10 bones in English which are part of the skeletal system

10. Link words

Complete the text on A Healthy Diet with appropriate link words. Ask your
partner B to check the text.

The first principle of a healthy diet is to eat a wide variety of food. The majority of
calories you consume should come from foods rich in complex carbohydrates,
___________, fruits, vegetables, grains and legumes. Vitamin C helps maintain appetite
and energy, _________folic acid can prevent anaemia. Avoid too much sugar as it is a
source of empty calories and can lead to diabetes_________. Excessive fat intake is
related to _________obesity and heart disease. ____________, you should reduce your
consumption of oil and butter.

When B has completed the text on Calcium, check his/her answers.

Calcium, one of the body’s major nutrients, is essential for the development of healthy
teeth and bones. Calcium is principally found are in dairy products, for instance milk
and cheese. It is also found in fish. However, calcium is only absorbed in the presence
of vitamin D, so it is essential to drink water and get lots of sunshine. In the elderly,
calcium deficiency can result in osteoporosis, while in children it may result in rickets.

45
 ONLINE LEARNING RESOURCES

GENERAL ENGLISH

INTERACTIVE GRAMMAR TUTORIALS AND EXERCISES:

http://www.englishgrammarsecrets.com/index.html
http://www.better-english.com/grammar.htm
http://www.englishpage.com/
http://perso.wanadoo.es/autoenglish/freeexercises.htm

DICTIONARIES:
www.wordreference.com – bilingual dictionary
http://dictionary.cambridge.org – monolingual dictionary with GB and US pronunciation

PODCASTS, LISTENING, READING, VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR: ELEMENTARY AND

INTERMEDIATE LEVEL ENGLISH
http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/
Listen or watch on your computer, or download audio and video files to your mp3
player. All audio and video materials are accompanied by language practice activities
that you can do on your computer while you listen or watch, or print out and do when
you want.

GRAMMAR, VOCABULARY, LISTENING AND PRONUNCIATION

http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/

BBC ENGLISH COURSE – LOWER INTERMEDIATE, INTERMEDIATE AND UPEER

INTERMEDIATE LEVELS
http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/courses
A new multimedia online course with lots of practice activities for independent learning.

MEDICAL ENGLISH

VOCABULARY – medical dictionaries and encyclopedias:

www.mondofacto.com/dictionary/medical.html
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/mplusdictionary.html
click on the problem and see lists of symptoms

Medical terminology - prefixes and suffixes

http://users.utu.fi/micnel/medical/lesson%205.htm

Audio pronunciation of medical terms (US English):

http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/resources/pronunciations/index/a.html
http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?

Audio pronunciation of medical terms and general English (UK English):

http://www.howjsay.com/index.php?

LISTENING AND VIDEO

1. http://www.bbc.com/news/health/
Short videos, 1-4 minutes, on recent health topics in the news:
2. http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p002vsyw
Health issues on a global scale, discoveries and solutions in healthcare:
3. http://www.nhs.uk/Video/Pages/speaking-with-patients-about-fgm.aspx
46
 Short videos (approx. 2-4 mins) on a variety of health topics from the National Health
Service programme “Choices” UK. All videos have transcripts and some have sub-titles:
4. http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/videos/default.html
Short videos on a wide variety of health topics:
5. http://health.howstuffworks.com/
http://health.howstuffworks.com/medicine/modern
http://health.howstuffworks.com/diseases-conditions
http://health.howstuffworks.com/medicine/tests-treatment
http://health.howstuffworks.com/medicine/surgeries-procedures
Short videos and reading on modern medicine, diseases and conditions, tests and
treatment and surgeries and procedures from the Medicine Channel:
www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/videosandcooltools.html
Anatomy and surgery videos with transcripts – US English:
6. www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/tutorial.html
Reading and listening interactive tutorials with comprehension questions on diseases
and medical conditions, diagnostic tests, surgery and treatment, prevention and
wellness – US English:

PODCASTS:
http://student.bmj.com/student/static-pages.html?pageId=15

READING
1. BBC Health News - up to date reading:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/default.stm

2. BBC Medical Notes - common diseases:

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/medical_notes/default.stm

3.Patient education - consumer health:

http://www.nhs.uk//Pages/HomePage.aspx
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/health-topics/article_em.htm
http://www.bupa.co.uk/health_information/asp/your health/factsheets

47
SECOND YEAR MEDICAL ENGLISH SKILLS – KEY
LESSON 1
1. Lower Respiratory Infections 2. Diarrheal diseases 3. Tuberculosis
4. Malaria 5. Measles
Disease: lower Diarrheal disease Tuberculosis malaria measles
respiratory
diseases
Who/where? -Young children in developing -people in sub-Saharan mostly
children (with countries where developing Africa children in
weak immune hygiene is lacking countries inhabitants, developing
systems) -via consumption of -individuals with especially countries
-Developing contaminated water compromised children
countries and food immune systems
Signs and death -diarrhea and vomiting chronic cough, fever, chills, fever, cough,
symptoms lead to dehydration, weight loss, lung pain, weakness, rash. Can
even death destruction nausea and cause
anemia complications
treatment antibiotics sanitary conditions. widely available prophylactic ?
-oral rehydration drugs medicine and Avoid
solution antimalarial drugs contact with
infected
persons

LESSON 2
WORD FORMATION WORD + PART OF SPEECH
Adding prefixes + suffixes relationship (n) Sub-Saharan (adj)
nutrition (n) research (n )
nutrient (n) researchers (n)
nutritionist (n)
nutritional (adj)
developed (adj)
development (n)
developing (adj) international (adj)
Compound words lifestyle (n)
well-being (adj)
diet-related (adj)
internet forum (n)
food scientists (n)
Words with same form debate (n / vb)
research (n / adj)
In other parts of the text:
HIV-positive (compound adj) breast-feeding (compound n)
overcome (vb compound) intra-uterine (prefix +adj) micronutrient (prefix + n)
supplementation (n+ suffix) food-based (compound adj) combat (n/vb)
malnutrition (prefix+n) under-nutrition (compound n) over-nutrition (compound n)

TRANSLATION (corrections underlined)

Molti altri stili di vita e fattori ambientali, oltre alla nutrizione, influiscono sulla salute e sul benessere, ma
la nutrizione è la maggiore, fattore modificabile e potente nel favorire la salute, nel prevenire e nel trattare
le malattie e nel migliorare la qualità della vita. La relazione tra l’alimentazione, la nutrizione e la salute è
dunque una delle sfide globali che stiamo affrontando oggi. Nel mondo sviluppato, la nutrizione è ora
considerata un importante fattore determinante nello sviluppo di malattie croniche come le malattie di
arterie coronarie ed il cancro. Nel mondo in via di sviluppo, specialmente i paesi in rapidi transizione e
sviluppo economico, c'è un doppio peso di malattia: da una parte, l’insorgenza delle carenze nutrizionali e
d'altra parte il carico emergente di malattie croniche collegate all’alimentazione.
Questo forum di Internet chiede a scienziati che si occupano di alimentazione, nutrizionisti, i manager, gli
operatori del campo della salute e ricercatori di sviluppo di tutto il mondo di dibattere sulle sfide dei paesi
africani sub-sahariani. I loro obiettivi sono di rivedere la ricerca ed i piani di sviluppo in corso che
influiscono sull’alimentazione e sulla situazione nutrizionale in Africa, di identificare le carenze nelle
strategie di ricerca per l’alimentazione, la nutrizione e la salute, di consigliare le strategie per la ricerca

48
futura e di migliorare i contatti tra ricercatori vari che lavorano in questo campo. Il forum si augura di
contribuire ad un’agenda internazionale per il futuro del mondo africano.

LESSON 3

System Main function Major organs Field of medicine

Skeletal Protects organs, Bones, cartilage, ligaments Orthopaedics

Gives us shape
Muscular Moves the bones of the skeleton, Skeletal muscles, cardiac muscle, Orthopaedics
performs involuntary act ivies smooth muscle (e.g. stomach), Myology
tendons
Nervous Control system of the body Brain, spinal cord, nerves Neurology

Endocrine Produces and distributes hormones Hypothalamus, pituitary gland, Endocrinology

thyroid
Digestive Food broken down and distributed Oesophagus, stomach, intestines, Gastro-enterology
as fuel
Respiratory Enables oxygen to be mixed into Mouth and nose. Trachea. Lungs, Pneumology
bloodstream Bronchi
Circulatory Circulates blood to and from the Heart, veins, arteries, capilliaries Cardiology
heart, around the body
Excretory Excretes waste Kidneys, urethra, bladder Urology
Nephrology
Reproductive Provides sperm, enables female to Penis, testes, prostrate gland Andrology
give birth Ovaries, uterus, vagina, fallopian Gynaecology
tubes

The skeletal system: The muscular system The digestive system

1. skull 1. deltoid 1. mouth
2. clavicle 2. chest muscles 2. salivary glands
3. sternum (pectorals) 3. oesophagus
4. ribs 3. biceps 4. liver
5. ulna 4. triceps 5. stomach
6. pelvis 5. back muscles 6. gall bladder
7. phalanges 6. abdominal muscles 7. pancreas
8. femur 7. gluteus maximus 8. small intestine
9. patella 8. hamstring muscles 9. large intestine
10. tibia 9. groin muscles 10. appendix
10. quadriceps 11. rectum
11. calf muscles 12. anus

Crossword answers:
1 humerus 2 radius
4 coccyx 3.synovial
7 hyoid 5.orbit
9 clavicle 6 collagen
11 incus 8 backbone
12 mandible 10 ribs
13 skull 14 cartilage
17 phalanges 15 vertebra
20 skeleton 16 ligaments
21 elbow 18 sternum
22 patella 19 fovea
23 head 25 shaft
24 limbs
26 articulate
27 tibia
28 foot

49
LESSON 4
EXERCISE 2.
FUNCTION LINKING GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION ON THE
EXPRESSIONS USE OF THE EXPRESSIONS
Adding information as well X and Y as well (end of sentence)
too X. Y too. (end of sentence)
also X. Y also (after aux. verbs, before main verb)
In addition, X. In addition, Y
and X and Y
Giving an example for example X. For example/For instance, Y.
for instance
an example of An example of X is
Expressing both Both X and Y are / X and Y are both (after aux.
similarities similar verb, before main verb)
X and Y are similar
Expressing contrasts/ On the other hand X. On the other hand, Y/ after subject of 2 nd sentence
concession while /whereas/whilst
While /Whereas/Whilst X, Y.
However X, while/whereas Y.
Nevertheless X. However/Nevertheless/In contrast, Y. / after
In contrast subject of 2nd sentence
but
Despite
X but Y
Although Despite + X (noun), Y.
Despite + X ( gerund + noun clause), Y.
Although X (sub + verb clause),
Showing an Therefore X. Therefore, Y.
effect/result so X so Y.
As a result X. As a result, Y.
Consequently X. Consequently, Y
Summarising ideas In conclusion X. In conclusion Y.
Consequently X. Consequently, Y

EXERCISE 3.
THE FOLLOWING PAIRS OF TEXTS CAN BE LINKED IN DIFFERENT WAYS. INSERT
SUITABLE LINKING WORD(S)/EXPRESSION(S).
1.A. The cerebrum is the largest and best developed section of the brain. It performs the function of
directing muscular activity. It is also the centre of intelligence and enables human beings to reason and
remember.
B. The cerebrum is the largest and best developed section of the brain. It performs the function of
directing muscular activity. In addition, it is the centre of intelligence and enables human beings to
reason and remember.
2 A. Although we are making steady progress towards improving cancer treatment, the real hope for
combating the disease lies in prevention and early detection.
B. Despite making steady progress towards improving cancer treatment, the real hope for combating the
disease lies in prevention and early detection.
3. A. Both men and women are affected by lung cancer. While / Whereas / Whilst deaths of men from
lung cancer increased after World War I, deaths of women increased following World War II.
B. Men and women are both affected by lung cancer. Deaths of men from lung cancer increased after
World War I. In contrast / However /, deaths of women increased after World War II.
4 A. The medicine in Tylenol goes into your bloodstream and works immediately to relieve pain.
Therefore / As a result / Consequently you feel better quickly. However, Tylenol contains aspirin so
people who suffer from severe allergic reactions to aspirin should not take it.
B. The medicine in Tylenol goes into your bloodstream and works immediately to relieve pain so you feel
better quickly. Tylenol contains aspirin. Consequently / Therefore / As a result people who suffer from
severe allergic reactions to aspirin should not take it.
5. A. Plants are stationary. Animals, on the other hand can usually move about. Consequently / As a
result / Therefore, plants appear to be less sensitive than animals although they respond in some ways to
light, heat, physical contact and other stimuli.
B. Plants are stationary but animals can usually move about. Plants appear to be less sensitive than
animals despite responding in some ways to light, heat, physical contact and other stimuli.

50
EXERCISE 4 – TRUE OR FALSE?
1. Lupus is caused when the body’s immune system malfunctions. TRUE
2. Inflammation of the tissues is a common symptom. TRUE
3. Lupus can be treated with cortisol. FALSE – Cortisol is a hormone
4. Drugs are available only in the form of pills. FALSE – pills and injections
5. The treatment has very limited side effects. FALSE – there are many serious side effects.
6. Treatment can take a long time. TRUE

LINKING EXPRESSIONS – LUPUS

1. As a result / consequently / therefore, 5. although
2. as well 6. however / nevertheless
3. for example, for instance, 7. for example / for instance
4. also 8 + 9. therefore / as a result / consequently,
(NB avoid repeating the same linking expression)

LESSON 5 NUMBERS AND QUANTITIES

Exercise 4
1. some, any
2. any
3. some (any)
4. no (some)
5. some
6. a
7. some
8. a
9. no
10. some
11. some, no
12. any

Exercise 5
1. few
2. much/a lot
3. many
4. a lot of
5. little (not a lot of)
6. few, little
7. a few
8. a little, a lot of
9. a lot of/many
10. a lot of/many/some/no

News broadcast
Here is the news.
There are fears for the safety of a Boeing 747 on its flight from Lima to Los Angeles. The plane, Bel Air
flight 409 with 280 passengers on board, left Peru at 10.40 in the morning local time. It had completed
3/4 (three quarters) of the 4000 (four thousand) - mile trip when radio contact was lost.

Postal workers are on strike. Their demand for a 5 ½ % (five and a half percent ) pay rise has been
rejected. Management say they can only afford to offer 3.2 % (three point two percent) spread over the
next 16 (sixteen) months.

A man armed with a shotgun held up a bank in central Birmingham yesterday. He escaped with £55, 000
in cash. Police are appealing for witnesses. The number to ring is 0151 324408.

Unemployment figures were released today. Last month there were 2,876,000 registered unemployed.
This is an increase of 32,000 on the previous month.

Finally, the weather. It will be cold and windy today, with gales up to 70 (seventy) miles an hour and
temperatures dropping to - 7° (minus 7) degrees Celsius in the north.

51
LESSON 6 GRAPHS AND TRENDS

EXERCISE 1. Put the following words into 4 categories

verbs nouns adjectives adverbs

rise rise sharp sharply
go up increase * slight slightly
increase * decrease * dramatic dramatically
remain fluctuation stable consistently
decrease * fall consistent
fluctuate drop
fall
drop
NB *pronunciation of
stressed syllable

Exercise 2. Read the description of the graph ‘Mortality in USA from selected diseases’.

A) Match the names of the diseases in the text with the trends in the graph .

Trends for deaths from certain diseases in the over 60 age group have varied in recent years in the USA.
Between 1950 and 1990 deaths from diabetes increased slightly from 200 to 300 per 100,000 population
but since 1990 they have decreased to 200 again. Deaths from heart disease went up from 600 to 900
between 1950 and 1970, fell slightly until 1990 and since then have increased to 1000. Deaths from
cancer rose from 400 in 1950 to 700 in 1970, fell between 1970 and 1990 and have remained stable ever
since at about 500 per 100,000.

B) What verb tenses are used in this text and why?

EXERCISE 3. The following sentences describe sales of different pharmaceutical drugs in past
years. Look at the sentences and identify the verb tense.

52
1. Sales rose dramatically between 2015 and 2016 and have remained stable ever since at about 1.2 million.

PAST SIMPLE PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

2. Sales fell sharply 6 years ago, remained stable for 5 years and are increasing slightly now.

PAST SIMPLE PAST SIMPLE PRESENT CONTINUOUS

3. Sales have risen sharply over the last six years from 0.1 to 1.3 million.

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

4. Sales have fallen sharply and consistently over the past six years.

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

5. Sales have been decreasing slowly for the past six years.

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

6. Sales went up sharply six years ago; they dropped immediately, remained stable at about 0.5 million
from 2017 to 2020 and are now increasing again.

PAST SIMPLE PAST SIMPLE PAST SIMPLE PRESENT CONTINUOUS

7. Sales fluctuated between 0.4 and 0.45 million until 1 year ago when they dropped dramatically.

NOW MATCH THE DESCRIPTIONS 1-7 WITH THE GRAPHS A-F BELOW.
A3 B 4 C 7 D 5 E 1 F 6

COMPLETE THE DESCRIPTION OF THE FOLLOWING GRAPHS WITH APPROPRIATE

VERB FORMS AND PREPOSITIONS

1. Sales increased slightly six years ago and are still going up. In the last six years sales have increased
from 0.1 to 0.25 million.

2.Sales rose sharply six years ago but have been decreasing / have decreased slightly ever since. Sales
rose from 0.2 to 0.3 million between 2015 and 2016. Since 2016 they have fallen to 0.2 million

3.Sales fell dramatically 6 years ago and have remained stable ever since. Between 2015 and 2016 sales
fell from 1.5 to 0.2 million. Since 2016 they have remained stable at about 0.2 million.

NOW WRITE A DESCRIPTION OF EACH GRAPH

Between 1950 and 1980 deaths due to lung cancer remained stable at about 10,000. Since 1980 they
have risen to about 19,000.
Road accidents increased slightly between 1950 and 1970 from 10,000 to 15,000. Then from 1970 to
1990 they rose sharply to 30,000. Since 1990 they have fallen dramatically to about 12,000.
Deaths due to tuberculosis fell sharply between 1950 and 2000 from over 400 to 150. In the last ten
years they have decreased slightly to about 100.
Deaths caused by heart attacks rose sharply from 40,000 in 1950 to 100,000 in 1970. Since then they
have remained stable at 100,000.

Lesson 7 medical Terminology

Ex 1
prefix Body part Example of use
gastro stomach Gastritis, gastrointestinal
hepato liver hepatitis
nephro kidney nephrology
cephal head cephalic
myo, tendo muscle tendonitis
53
mast breast mastectomy
neuro nerve neurological
derm skin dermatology
rhino, naso nose rhinitis
ocul, opt, opthal eye Oculist, optician
aur, ot ear aural, otitis
pulmo, pneum lung pulmonary, pneumonia
cardio heart cardiac, cardiology
hemo blood hematology

Ex 2
tachycardia A fast heartbeat
malnourished badly nourished or fed
microfracture A small break in a bone
inactive Not active
hypocaloric With few calories
hypertension high blood pressure
dyslexia difficulty in reading
multicellular Made of many cells
ambidextrous Using both hands, or sides
hemiplegia Paralysis in one side of the body
neuralgia Pain in the head (headache)
tonsillitis An infection/inflammation of the tonsils
melanoma A dark growth/tumour
arteriosclerosis The hardening of the artery walls
haemorrhage Abnormal loss of blood
bradycardia Slow pulse
Ex3
Reconstruction removal cutting/opening look
Ex 4
ARTERIOSCLEROSIS HARDENING OF THE ARTERIES
ARTHRALGIA PAIN IN THE JOINTS
PNEUMORRAGIA BLEEDING OF THE LUNGS
CARDITIS INFLAMMATION OF THE HEART
GASTRALGIA PAIN IN THE STOMACH
HYPERACTIVE EXCESSIVELY ACTIVE
HYPERTROPHY EXCESSIVE GROWTH OF ORGAN
HYPOTENSION LOW BLOOD PRESSURE
ANOREXIA LACK OF APPETITE
MYOMA TUMOUR OF THE MUSCLE
OTITIS EAR ACHE
Ex5
1. bradykinesia: slow movement
2. intracranial: inside the skull
3. pancreatitis: an infection of the pancreas
4. cardiopulmonary: related to the heart and lungs
5. subcutaneous: under the skin
6. nephrologist: a specialist of the kidneys
7. hyperglycemia: high blood sugar
8. appendicitis: inflammation of the appendix
9. polymyalgia: pain in many muscles
10. arythmia: irregular heartbeat
11. hypoplasia: insufficient growth
12. contraceptive :device to prevent conception
Ex6
1.The hardening of a nerve? neurosclerosis
2. Low blood sugar? hypoglycemia
3. A swelling containing blood? hematoma
4. Tumour in a kidney? nephroma
5. An irritation of the skin? dermatitis
6. Diseases affecting the muscles? myopathies
7. Resection of the colon? colectomy
8. A recording of the electrical activity of the heart?electrocardiogram
54
9. An injection into the muscle ? intra-muscular
10. Slightly allergenic?hypoallergenic
11. Surgery specialising on the face, jaw and neck? maxillofacial surgery
12.Thickening of the bone, appearing as a false fracture? pseudofracture

LESSON 8 MEDICAL ABBREVIATIONS

Exercise 1
y/o year-old
c/o complains of
SOB shortness of breath
x 2 h. for two hours
L left
w/o D without difficulty
Pt. patient
h/o history of
ASHD, arteriosclerotic heart disease
MI mental illness
HTN hypertension
DM. diabetes mellitis
ASA aspirin
PCN. penicillin

Exercise 2
O/E on examination
RS respiratory system
CVS cardiovascular system
P pulse
BP blood pressure
GIS gastro-intestinal system
CNS central nervous system
-ve negative
? possible/probable
1/52 in one week

Exercise 3
1. How old are you?
2. What’s your job?/ What do you do?
3. What’s the matter? / What’s the problem?
4. When did it first occur?
5. How long did the pain last?
6. What did you do (to relieve it)?
7. Has it happened again?/ What brought it on?
8. Are your parents alive ?/ Is your father alive?
How old was he when he died?
9. What did he die of?
Exercise 4

SURNAME: Green FIRST NAMES: Peter

AGE: 42 SEX: M MARITAL STATUS: M
OCCUPATION: SALESMAN
PRESENT COMPLAINT: CENTRAL chest pain radiating to L arm. Started with attack
of dyspnoea. Pain lasted 10 MINS. Relieved by rest. Has occurred since on exertion.
O/E GENERAL CONDITION:
ENT
RS NORMAL / NAD / LUNGS CLEAR
CVS PULSE 70/min BLOOD PRESSURE 130/80
HEART SOUNDS normal
GIS
GUS
CNS
IMMEDIATE PAST HISTORY
POINTS OF NOTE
INVESTIGATIONS : ECG
DIAGNOSIS: ? ANGINA
MANAGEMENT
55
LESSON 9 THE SKIN AND SKIN CANCER

hair ____1____ epidermis ____2______ subcutaneous fat _____14_____ nerve fibre_____11____

sebaceous gland___3_____ arrector muscle _____5_____ dermis ____4______ pore_____9____
blood capilliaries___12_____ hair bulb_____7______ sweat gland ____13____ duct
____10______hypodermis ____8_______ hair follicle ____6______

MECHANISM
A collagen and elastin in the dermis
B conversion of subcutaneous fat
C erection of hairs
D greasy horny layer
E nerve endings in the dermis
F epidermal melanin
G sweat production
H evaporation of sweat
I increased cell division and replacement
J synthesis from 7-dehydrocholesterol
K compounds from sweat and sebaceous
glands
L control of dermal blood flow
FUNCTION
D 1. protection against water loss
K 2. protection against micro-organisms
F 3. screen from UV rays
I 4. shield against mechanical abrasion
E 5. monitoring of the environment
J 6. formation of vitamin D
C H L 7. temperature regulation
B 8. energy storage
G 9. excretion of mainly salt and water
A 10. protection against stretching

Types of skin cancer 1. Basal cell carcinoma (rodent ulcer)

2. Squamous cell carcinoma
Most frequent and 95 % curable, occur in older people
3. Malignant melanoma
Rare. Occurs on the leg in women and on the trunk in men
Risk factors for Excessive exposure to the sun, fair skin type, changes in an existing mole,
melanoma prescence of naevi (strongest risk),
previous melanoma
Causes of melanoma Excessive exposure of fair skins to ultraviolet radiation
Inherited characteristics (10%)
People most at risk With light skin types (1+2)
With skin which freckles + has large numbers of naevi
Radiation damage of A - causes pigment to darken - damage at a deep level
ultraviolet rays B - redness, burning (2° degree), blistering - very damaging
C - extremely damaging (at present removed by ozone layer)
Effects of sun lamps Older lamps with B + C rays cause severe burning, probably associated with
cancer
Modern lamps with A rays- increase ageing of skin + can cause ocular damage
Prevention and Emphasis on primary prevention by sensible exposure to the sun.
treatment for Unsure if early detection reduces mortality from melanoma
melanoma

What advice would you give to the public to reduce the incidence of skin cancer? List some ideas below:

• Wear protective clothing when out in the sun especially hats and sunglasses
• Do not sunbathe in the middle of the day
• Sunbathe only for a short time and gradually increase exposure
• You should wear protective suncreams or sunblocks especially if you have fair skin. Use
sunblocks on children
• Avoid using sunlamps, or use only for brief periods of time
• Consult your doctor if you notice any changes in existing moles or naevi or an increase in their
number

56