Journal of Affective Disorders 294 (2021) 322–328

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Affective Disorders

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jad

Research paper

Association between bullying victimization and depressive symptoms in

children: The mediating role of self-esteem
Mengting Zhong a, b, c, d, Xuechao Huang a, E. Scott Huebner e, Lili Tian a, b, c, d, *
a
School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, PR China
b
Center for Studies of Psychological Application, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, PR China
c
Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, PR China
d
Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, South China Normal University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510631, PR China
e
Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Background: Bullying victimization is becoming an increasing problem among children. This longitudinal study
Bullying victimization examined the relation of bullying victimization (both traditional and cyberbullying victimization) to subsequent
Depressive symptoms depressive symptoms and the possible mediating role of self-esteem among children.
Self-esteem
Methods: A total of 4043 Chinese elementary school children in Grades 3 and 4 comprised the sample. As­
Latent growth curve modeling
sessments were conducted every six months on five occasions. Latent growth curve modeling was applied to
examine the longitudinal relations among the variables.
Results: Results showed that (a) bullying victimization was positively and significantly associated with subse­
quent depressive symptoms; (b) self-esteem played an important mediating role in the relation between bullying
victimization and depressive symptoms.
Limitations: The study only considered self-esteem as a mediator. The generalizability of the results should be
made cautiously.
Conclusions: The results highlight the relation between bullying victimization and depressive symptoms among
children, suggesting that intervention programs target bullying victimization and self-esteem to reduce the
likelihood of depressive symptoms among children.

1. Introduction mediation model is shown in Figure 1.

Bullying victimization is a common and serious problem among

school-aged students. Previous research has demonstrated that bullying
victimization is a major risk factor for depressive symptoms in children
(Gini et al., 2018). The existing literature addressing the relation be­
tween bullying victimization and depressive symptoms among children
is limited due to its reliance on cross-sectional studies among adults and
adolescents and by its neglect of examinations of potential mediators
associated with bullying victimization and depressive symptoms in
longitudinal studies. Therefore, this study aimed to address the gaps in
the research by (a) studying the longitudinal relations between bullying
victimization (both traditional and cyberbullying victimization) and
depressive symptoms among children and (b) exploring the mediating
role of self-esteem in the longitudinal relations between bullying
victimization and depressive symptoms among children. The specific
1.1. Bullying victimization and depressive symptoms
Bullying victimization takes two forms: traditional and cyberbully­
ing victimization. Traditional bullying victimization is defined as harm
that occurs to students caused by exposure to aggressive behavior from
peers. Cyberbullying victimization involves an intentional act to inflict
harm on another using electronic media (Cole et al., 2016). Previous
literature has shown that children are vulnerable to bullying victimi­
zation (Navarro et al., 2018). Some existing cross-sectional studies have
identified statistically significant, positive associations between bullying
victimization and depressive symptoms (e.g., Holbrook et al., 2020;
Trompeter et al., 2018). For example, studying a sample of 4829 Italian
youth of ages 13 to 21, Holbrook et al. (2020) found that bullying was
significantly associated with depressive symptoms in adolescents. Some

* Corresponding author at: School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, PR China.
E-mail address: paipaishu@163.com (L. Tian).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.07.016
Received 25 December 2020; Received in revised form 9 June 2021; Accepted 10 July 2021
Available online 16 July 2021
0165-0327/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M. Zhong et al.
longitudinal studies have also investigated the relations between
bullying victimization and depressive symptoms. For example,
following a sample 661 Chinese adolescents in grade 7 and 8 for a year
and a half period, Chu et al. (2019) found bullying victimization did not
predict adolescents’ depression. Although some limited research has
explored the longitudinal relation between bullying victimization and
depression (e.g., Choi et al., 2021), the existing research has mostly
focused on adolescents and adults (Trompeter et al., 2018; World Health
Organization, 2018). The longitudinal relations between bullying
victimization and depressive symptomatology among children remain
unclear. Knowledge about the relations between bullying victimization
and depressive symptoms among children can help develop effective
prevention strategies at early ages to prevent or ameliorate the epidemic
of depressive symptoms in adolescence. Therefore, more longitudinal
research is needed to explore the relations between bullying victimiza­
tion and depressive symptoms among children. In addition, levels of
bullying victimization and levels of depressive symptoms may change
with time; thus, studying the relations between changes in bullying
victimization and changes in depressive symptoms may help develop a
more comprehensive understanding of the longitudinal relations be­
tween bullying victimization and depressive symptoms among children.
1.2. The mediating role of self-esteem
Self-esteem is defined as an individual’s positive or negative evalu­
ation of the self (Rosenberg, 1965). High self-esteem indicates that one
respects and considers himself or herself to be worthy, whereas low
self-esteem implies self-rejection, self-dissatisfaction, and self-contempt
(Rosenberg, 1965). Some studies indicated that self-esteem was signif­
icantly and negatively related to both bullying victimization and
depressive symptoms among children and adolescents (Xu et al., 2020;
Zhou et al., 2020). For example, Cole et al. (2016) found that bullying
victimization significantly predicted changes in negative self-referential
cognitions (i.e., victimization-related cognitive reactions) in a sample of
children and adolescents. For another example, Orth et al. (2014) found
that low self-esteem was a prospective risk factor for depression in a
sample of 674 youth (ages 10-12).
Beck’s cognitive theory (Beck, 1967; 1983), a diathesis-stress theory,
proposes that when an individual is confronted with a stressful situation,
the schema most relevant to the situation is activated. Schema activation
subsequently influences how the person perceives, encodes, and re­
trieves information regarding the situation. Certain individuals possess
depressogenic schema that confer vulnerability to depression. Once an
individual develops negative inferences about the self, he or she will
develop depressive symptoms. Therefore, self-esteem may be important
for understanding the link between bullying victimization and depres­
sive symptoms among children.
Some empirical studies have indicated the mediating role of self-
esteem in the link between bullying victimization and mental health
Self-Esteem
Bullying
Victimization
Fig. 1. Mediation model for bullying victimization, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms.
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Journal of Affective Disorders 294 (2021) 322–328
(Pan et al., 2019). Pan et al. (2019) found that self-esteem mediated the
association between traditional bullying victimization and internalizing
problems in a sample of 466 Chinese adolescents. However, similar
research in the cyber bullying victimization context among children is
limited. Although there are similarities between traditional bullying
victimization and cyberbullying victimization, the latter has unique
features, such as anonymity, occurrence in the public domain, ease of
access, and persistence of victimization. Furthermore, cyberbullying
victimization usually results in stronger negative psychosocial effects
than traditional bullying victimization (Sticca & Perren, 2013). There­
fore, empirical research examining both traditional and cyberbullying
victimization is needed. Such research can help better understand the
role of self-esteem in the link between bullying victimization and
depressive symptoms and thus help inform effective intervention stra­
tegies to reduce risk for depressive symptoms among children experi­
encing bullying victimization.
1.3. The present study
The current study aimed to examine (a) the association between
bullying victimization and subsequent depressive symptoms among
children and (b) whether self-esteem would mediate the relation be­
tween bullying victimization and depressive symptoms among children.
Based on the existing literature, it was hypothesized that (a) traditional
and cyberbullying victimization would be positively associated with
depressive symptoms among children (both the initial levels and
changes); and (b) self-esteem would mediate the association between
traditional and cyberbullying victimization and depressive symptoms
among children (both the initial levels and changes).
This study employed a longitudinal design and latent growth curve
analysis in a sample of Chinese children, allowing for tests of the relation
between trajectories of bullying victimization (both traditional and
cyberbullying victimization) and depressive symptoms, and the medi­
ating role of the trajectory of self-esteem. In addition, because previous
research has indicated that gender and age likely affect the study vari­
ables (e.g., Pan et al., 20h19), these variables were controlled in this
study.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
Participants were recruited using a convenience sample from 13
elementary schools located in a southern city in China. All the schools
were coeducational, ordinary elementary schools. According to the in­
formation provided from the local education authorities, these schools
were comparable because there were no significant differences among
these schools in terms of the levels of the schools’ characteristics (e.g.,
the quality of students, school size, and class size) and they were
Depressive
Symptoms
M. Zhong et al.
reasonably representative of such institutions in China. All students in
grades 3 and 4 of the schools were invited to take part in the study. The
initial students’ response rate was about 95%. Participants were
assessed on five occasions with six-month intervals over two years. At
each measurement point, invalid data (e.g., more than half of the items
were not completed) (< 1% at each time point) were excluded. A total of
4043 students participated at Time 1 (T1), and participants were of ages
9-12 years (55.0% boys, Mage = 9.93 years, SD = 0.71). The percentages
of participants retained from Time (T2) to Time (T5) were 95.28%,
92.98%, 91.76%, 90.28%, respectively. Attrition occurred because the
students moved out of the school district or were absent from school at
one time point.
The Little’s test of Missing Completely at Random (MCAR) was
conducted on all of the relevant variables. The result (χ2 = 6247.360, df
= 4555, p < 0.001) of MACR indicated that the data for our sample were
not missing completely at a random, which is common for longitudinal
studies (Ibrahim & Molenberghs, 2009). Following Goodman and Blum
(1996), we regressed a dichotomous variable (0=those who participated
in all waves; 1=those who dropped-out) on all research variables. The
analyses showed that bullying victimization (both traditional and
cyberbullying victimization), self-esteem, and depressive symptoms
were significantly related to participants’ missingness. Participants who
dropped out reported higher levels of bullying victimization and
depressive symptoms, and reported lower self-esteem compared to those
in all waves. Full information maximum likelihood (FIML) was used to
address missingness in the data in this study.
2.2. Procedure
This study was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee
of *** University in China and the relevant school boards, principals,
and teachers. Informed consent was obtained from all parents, and
student assent was obtained from all children in the study. The tracking
of the participants was made possible by a specific code assigned to each
student to protect their identity. At each time point, a questionnaire was
administered in the same manner to students in a regular classroom by
two trained graduate assistants, with the participants receiving identical
verbal and written instructions. Students were informed that their re­
sponses were confidential. Participants were allowed to take as much
time as needed to complete the questionnaires and allowed to drop out
of the study at any time if they felt uncomfortable. When the students
completed the questionaires, they were compensated with a notebook.
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Traditional bullying victimization
The Chinese version of the Multidimensional Peer Victimization
Scale (Zhang et al., 2009) was used to measure traditional bullying
victimization across T1 to T4. This scale is a 10-item self-report scale (e.
g., “Other kids hurt me physically in some way.”). Each item was rated
on a 4-point scale ranging from 0 (never) to 3 (a lot). Average scores were
analyzed with higher scores indicating more frequent victimization. This
scale has shown evidence of reliability and validity when used with
Chinese children (Zhang et al., 2009). The Cronbach’s alphas for tradi­
tional bullying victimization in this study were 0.90, 0.91, 0.93, 0.93 for
T1, T2, T3, and T4, respectively.
2.3.2. Cyberbullying victimization
The Cyber victimization subscale of the brief adaptation of the
Electronic Bullying Questionnaire (EBQ; Moore et al., 2012) was used to
measure cyberbullying victimization across T1 to T4. The EBQ consists
of two subscales, including both the Cyber Perpetration subscale and the
Cyber victimization subscale. The Cyber victimization subscale is a
4-item self-report scale (e.g., “Has anyone told lies or spread rumors
about you on the Internet?”). Each item was rated on a 5-point scale,
ranging from 1 (it hasn’t happened in the past six months) to 5 (several times
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Journal of Affective Disorders 294 (2021) 322–328
a week). Average scores were analyzed with higher scores indicating
higher frequencies of cyberbullying victimization. This Cyber victimi­
zation subscale has garnered support as a reliable and valid measure
with Chinese children (Zhang et al., 2020). The Cronbach’s alphas for
cyberbullying victimization in this study were 0.92, 0.93, 0.93, 0.93 for
T1, T2, T3, and T4, respectively.
2.3.3. Self-esteem
The Chinese version of the Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (Rosen­
berg, 1965; Wang et al., 1999) was used to measure self-esteem across
T2 to T5. The scale is a 10-item self-report scale (e.g., “I feel that I’m a
person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others.”). Each item was
rated on a 4-point scale ranging from 1(strongly disagree) to 2 (strongly
agree). Average scores were analyzed with higher scores indicating
higher levels of self-esteem. This scale has support as reliable and valid
measure when used with Chinese children (Tian, 2006; Yang et al.,
2019). The Cronbach’s alphas for self-esteem in this study were 0.81,
0.84, 0.84, and 0.84 for T2, T3, T4, and T5, respectively.
2.3.4. Depressive symptoms
The Depression subscale of Youth Self Report Form (YSR; Achen­
bach, 1991) was used to measure depressive symptoms across T2 to T5.
The YSR is a self-report questionnaire, which is designed for children
and adolescents, consisting of eight individual syndrome subscales. The
Depression subscale is a 17-item self-report scale (e.g., “I am unhappy,
sad, or depressed.”). Each item was rated on a 3-point scale ranging from
0 (not true) to 2 (often true). Average scores were analyzed with higher
scores indicating a stronger disposition toward experiencing depressive
symptoms. The Depression subscale has garnered support as a reliable
and valid measure with Chinese children (Su et al., 1998). The Cron­
bach’s alphas for depressive symptoms in this study were 0.88, 0.89,
0.89, and 0.91 for T2, T3, T4, and T5, respectively.
Information about the measurement invariance of traditional
bullying victimization, cyberbullying victimization, self-esteem,
depressive symptoms is shown in supplementary materials.
2.4. Statistical analyses
Descriptive analyses were conducted with SPSS version 22.0. All
other analyses were performed with Mplus version 8. First, a series of
univariate latent growth curve models (LGCM) were used to explore the
developmental trajectories of the key variables. Second, parallel process
models, as illustrated in Fig. 2, were run to examine the direct relation
between bullying victimization and depressive symptoms over time,
with the students’ gender and age controlled. Prior to examine the
mediating role of change in self-esteem, parallel process models were
run first to examine the relation between bullying victimization and self-
esteem over time, and relation between self-esteem and depressive
symptoms over time, acting as a precursor. Then, the latent growth
curve mediation model, as illustrated in Fig. 3, was run to examine the
potential mediating role of self-esteem in the relation between bullying
victimization and depressive symptoms over time. The directionality of
the effect of low self-esteem on depression was hypothesized in this
study because existing evidence demonstrates that the effect of self-
esteem on depression is significantly stronger than the effect of
depression on self-esteem (Sowislo & Orth, 2013). Besides, alternate
models which addressed issues of reverse causality were also tested in
this study; the results are presented in the section Fit Indices for
Competing Models of the Supplemental Materials. Several criteria were
employed to evaluate model fit: The comparative fit index (CFI)
compared the fit of the model under consideration with that of the
baseline model; the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA)
and the standard root mean-square residual (SRMR) assessed closeness
of fit. Model fit for the growth models was deemed adequate if CFI >
0.90, RMSEA < 0.06, and SRMR < 0.08 (Marsh et al., 2004).
M. Zhong et al. Journal of Affective Disorders 294 (2021) 322–328

Fig. 2. Parallel-process latent growth curve model for bullying victimization and depressive symptoms.

Fig. 3. Parallel-process latent growth curve mediation model for bullying victimization, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms.

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3. Results Table 2
Direct effect coefficients for respective parallel process latent growth models.
3.1. Preliminary analysis Model Model fit Intercept → Slope
CFI RMSEA SRMR Intercept B →Slope B
Table 1 provides descriptive data and scale reliabilities for the [95%CI] [95%CI]
measures of traditional bullying victimization, cyberbullying victimi­ Traditional bullying 0.951 0.062 0.036 0.74[0.68, 0.60[0.52,
zation, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms. Correlations among these victimization → 0.79] 0.69]
variables were statistically significant. Depressive
symptoms
Cyberbullying 0.950 0.054 0.035 0.67[-0.55, 0.60
3.2. Univariate growth models victimization → -0.76] [-0.43,
Depressive -1.12]
The univariate model estimates of the growth trajectories for all symptoms
Traditional bullying 0.975 0.966 0.035 -0.46[-0.50, -0.40
LGCM provided good fit to the data. Detailed information about the victimization -0.41] [-0.48,
results for the univariate growth models are presented in supplementary →Self-esteem -0.32]
materials. Cyberbullying 0.984 0.029 0.028 -0.46[-0.53, -0.32
victimization → -0.35] [-0.58,
Self-esteem -0.21]
3.3. Parallel process models Self-esteem → 0.974 0.049 0.033 -0.66[-0.70, -0.64
Depressive -0.62] [-0.72,
Results for all parallel process models are presented in Table 2. Each symptoms -0.57]
model showed good model fit. Note. CFI = Comparative fit index; RMSEA = Root mean square error of
approximation; SRMR = Standard root mean-square residual; 95% CI = 95%
3.3.1. Traditional bullying victimization and depressive symptoms Confidence interval.
The associations between traditional bullying victimization and
depressive symptoms were determined controlling for children’s gender reported an increase over time in cyberbullying victimization reported a
and age. Children with high initial levels of traditional victimization subsequent decrease in self-esteem.
tended to have high initial levels of subsequent depressive symptoms;
children who reported an increase over time in traditional bullying 3.3.5. Self-esteem and depressive symptoms
victimization reported a subsequent increase in depressive symptoms. The associations between self-esteem and depressive symptoms were
determined controlling for students’ gender and age. Children with high
3.3.2. Cyberbullying victimization and depressive symptoms initial levels of self-esteem tended to have lower initial levels of
The associations between cyberbullying victimization and depres­ depressive symptoms; children who reported an increase over time in
sive symptoms were determined controlling for children’s gender and self-esteem reported a decrease in depressive symptoms.
age. Children with high initial levels of cyberbullying victimization
tended to have high initial levels of subsequent depressive symptoms;
children who reported an increase over time in cyber bullying victimi­ 3.4. Latent growth curve mediation models
zation reported a subsequent increase in depressive symptoms.
Latent growth curve mediation models were estimated to determine
3.3.3. Traditional bullying victimization and self-esteem if the effect of traditional and cyberbullying victimization on subsequent
The associations between traditional bullying victimization and self- depressive symptoms was due to levels and changes in self-esteem while
esteem were determined controlling for children’s gender and age. controlling for gender and age. The indirect and direct effects for the
Children with high initial levels of traditional bullying victimization mediation models along with model fit indices are presented in Table 3.
tended to report lower initial levels of subsequent self-esteem; children According to the model fit indices, the mediation models yielded good
who reported an increase over time in traditional bullying victimization model fit. Results showed that initial high levels of bullying victimiza­
reported a subsequent decrease in self-esteem. tion were associated with lower levels of self-esteem, which in turn were
associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms; the indirect effect
3.3.4. Cyberbullying victimization and self-esteem estimates were 0.17 for Model 1 (Traditional bullying victimization →
The associations between cyberbullying victimization and self- Self-esteem → Depressive symptoms) and 0.18 for Model 2 (Cyberbul­
esteem were determined controlling for children’s gender and age. lying victimization → Self-esteem → Depressive symptoms). The in­
Children with high initial levels of cyberbullying victimization tended to crease in bullying victimization was associated with a subsequent
report lower initial levels of subsequent self-esteem; children who decrease in self-esteem, which in turn was associated with an increase in
depressive symptoms; the indirect effect estimates were 0.18 for Model 1
(Traditional bullying victimization → Self-esteem → Depressive symp­
Table 1
Means, standard deviations, and scale reliabilities of studied variables. toms) and 0.15 for Model 2 (Cyberbullying victimization → Self-esteem
→ Depressive symptoms).
Time Range α Range
1 2 3 4 5
4. Discussion
Traditional bullying victimization
M 0.63 0.58 0.48 0.45 0-3 .90-.93
SD 0.64 0.65 0.63 0.63 The present study explored the associations between bullying
Cyberbullying victimization victimization and depressive symptoms in a sample of Chinese children.
M 1.23 1.18 1.17 1.17 1-5 .92-.93 Consistent with expectations based on Beck’s diathesis-stress theory of
SD 0.61 0.52 0.48 0.49
depression (1983) and prior research, the findings demonstrated that
Self-esteem
M 3.16 3.20 3.20 3.22 1-4 .81-.84 levels and changes in both traditional and cyberbullying victimization
SD 0.54 0.55 0.55 0.55 were positively associated with subsequent levels and changes in
Depressive symptoms depressive symptoms among children. This study further investigated
M 0.29 0.27 0.26 0.26 0-2 .91-.93 the mediating role of self-esteem in the relation between bullying
SD 0.35 0.35 0.37 0.27
victimization and depressive symptoms. Again, consistent with

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M. Zhong et al.
Table 3
Model fit and mediation effect estimates for latent growth curve mediation model.
Model Model fit
CFI RMSEA
Traditional bullying victimization → Self-esteem → Depressive 0.955 0.057
symptoms
Cyberbullying victimization → Self-esteem → Depressive 0.958 0.049
symptoms
Note. CFI = Comparative fit index; RMSEA = Root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = Standard root mean-square residual; 95% CI = 95% Confidence
interval.
expectations, the findings indicated that self-esteem significantly
mediated the relation between the bullying victimization and depressive
symptoms among children. This study thus provided important insights
into a key psychological pathway through which bullying victimization
can lead to subsequent depressive symptoms among children based on a
multi-wave longitudinal design.
4.1. Bullying victimization and depressive symptoms
This study revealed that bullying victimization was significantly and
positively associated with subsequent depressive symptoms. Levels and
changes of bullying victimization were positively associated with sub­
sequent levels and changes of depressive symptoms, respectively. These
findings were in line with existing findings on the relation between
bullying victimization and depressive symptoms, which have indicated
that bullying victimization is an important risk factor for depressive
symptoms in children and adolescents (Chu et al., 2018; Kwong et al.,
2019; Trompeter et al., 2018).
4.2. The mediating role of self-esteem
The latent growth curve mediation model revealed that self-esteem
operated as a pathway linking bullying victimization to subsequent
depressive symptoms. The existing literature suggests that changes in
children’s negative thoughts about themselves are predicted by negative
evaluations from others and that these negative self-evaluations mediate
the link between negative evaluations and the development of depres­
sive symptoms (Cole et al., 1997; Pan et al., 2019). According to the
diathesis-stress model, bullying victimization would be considered a
stressful life event that can activate cognitive vulnerabilities (the
diathesis, specifically self-esteem) and then lead to significant, negative
outcomes (i.e., depressive symptoms). The hopelessness theory of
depression, a cognitive diathesis-stress model of depression, proposes
that negative life events might foster negative inferences about the self,
which in turn, may serve as a proximal contributor to
hopelessness-based depression (Abramson et al., 1989).
4.3. Strengths and limitations
Our study displayed major strengths. First, this longitudinal study
identified a statistically significant relation between both traditional and
cyberbullying victimization and depressive symptoms among children.
Knowledge about the relation between bullying victimization and
depressive symptoms among children is particularly important because
it shows that that this harmful relation could occur as early as middle
childhood. Such knowledge can facilitate the development of prevention
strategies that can be implemented at a relatively early age to address
the high levels of depressive symptoms that typically emerge during
adolescence (Harter, 2012). Second, given that previous research has
focused on the direct effects of bullying, this study extended beyond the
previous literature by identifying a key indirect effect, specifically an
important psychological mechanism through which bullying victimiza­
tion can become associated with depressive symptoms in elementary age
school children. On a theoretical level, the findings of this study, which
Journal of Affective Disorders 294 (2021) 322–328
Test of indirect effects Test of direct effects
SRMR Intercept B[95% Slope B[95%CI] Intercept B[95% Slope B[95%CI]
CI] CI]
0.038 0.17 [0.15,0.20] 0.18 0.55 [0.49,0.61] 0.41
[0.13,0.24] [0.30,0.53]
0.036 0.18 [0.15, 0.22] 0.15 [0.06, 0.49 [0.39, 0.58] 0.50 [0.27,
0.23] 0.81]
support self-esteem as a mediator, should deepen our understanding of
the relations between bullying victimization and the development of
psychopathology. From a practical perspective, the findings suggest that
along with efforts to modify children’s bullying behaviors, simultaneous
efforts to support victimized children’s positive self-esteem may help
prevent depressive symptoms, given that bullying victimization among
children is difficult for teachers or parents to monitor and restrict.
Finally, parallel-process latent growth curve analysis was applied in this
study. The parallel-process latent growth curve models revealed the
associations of both levels and changes in the studied variables. This
approach further clarified the longitudinal associations between cyber­
bullying victimization, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms.
Despite these strengths, study limitations need to be acknowledged
when interpreting the results. First, participants in our study were not
missing completely at a random, and participants who dropped-out
experienced higher bullying victimization and depressive symptoms,
along with lower self-esteem. Therefore, children’s bullying victimiza­
tion and depressive symptoms may be underestimated, and children’s
self-esteem may be overestimated. Second, participants in this study
were all from China, which may limit the cross-cultural generalizability
of the findings. Replication of these results in different cultural contexts
in future studies is essential. Third, considering the main aim of this
study and the simplicity of the models, this study did not explore the
individual differences in the trajectories of these variables. However, it
is an important consideration for our future research. Finally, the rela­
tion between bullying victimization and depressive symptoms reflected
complementary mediation. This result suggested that while self-esteem
is an important psychological mechanism linking bullying victimiza­
tion to depressive symptoms in children, other factors are also in play.
Future research is needed to explore other possible mediating factors to
develop a more comprehensive understanding of the psychological
mechanisms linking bullying victimization to depressive symptoms.
5. Conclusion
Our findings indicated that bullying victimization is an important
risk factor for subsequent depressive symptoms in children. Further­
more, victimized children’s self-esteem played an important mediating
role in this relation. Parents and teachers should thus focus on this
victimization-depressive symptoms link by addressing bullying behavior
and victim’s self-esteem. School professionals may reduce bullying by
monitoring, restricting or otherwise modifying children’s bullying be­
haviors. School professionals should also consider delivery of instruc­
tional programs that provide children with appropriate coping skills,
specifically designed to prevent or effectively deal with bullying
victimization (Navarro et al., 2018). Several types of coping strategies
have been investigated in relation to experiences of bullying victimi­
zation, such as supportive strategies (e.g., seeking social support from
adults, teachers, friends or external institutions), reactions towards
bullies (e.g., retaliation, confrontation), and avoiding and
emotion-focused strategies (e.g., doing nothing, ignoring, helplessness)
(Machmutow et al., 2012). Moreover, because self-esteem was identified
as an important mechanism underlying the relation between change in
bullying victimization and in depressive symptoms, knowledge of the
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results of our study may help alert practitioners to “red flags” in children
(e.g., feelings of low self-esteem), which may help identify potential
victims of bullying and/or already victimized children and to intervene
to improve their self-esteem before it influences adjustment outcomes.
For example, psychological health education courses in Chinese schools
may be used to monitor and support students’ self-esteem and directly
teach students how to improve self-esteem. Teachers and parents also
need to provide increased social support for children with low
self-esteem before they may become the potential targets of bullying.
For a thoughtful discussion of additional efforts to enhance low
self-esteem in children, see Harter (2012).
Author contributors
Mengting Zhong: Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal analysis;
Investigation; Visualization; Writing-original draft.
Xuechao Huang: Conceptualization; Writing-review & editing.
E. Scott Huebner: Conceptualization; Writing-review & editing.
Lili Tian: Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal analysis; Vali­
dation; Writing-original draft; Writing-review & editing.
Role of the funding source
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (No. 31971005), Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research
Foundation (No. 2021A1515012515), and the Major Program of the
National Social Science Foundation of China (No. 19ZDA360).
Declaration of Competing Interest
None.
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank for the assistance of schools and students who
participated in this study. We also thank the many members of our
research team involved in the longitudinal data collection.
Supplementary materials
Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.07.016.
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