J Fusion Energ (2016) 35:529–537
DOI 10.1007/s10894-015-0052-z
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Initial Plasma Formation in the GLAST-II Spherical Tokamak
S. Hussain1 • A. Qayyum1 • Z. Ahmad1 • S. Ahmad1 • R. Khan1 • F. Deeba1
M. A. Naveed1 • Rafaqat Ali1 • Mehboob Sadiq1 • Najam us Saqib1 •
A. Ahmed1 • M. Nazir1 • H. A. Majeed1 • S. Batool1 • M. A. Javed1 •
N. Ahmed1 • G. M. Vorobyov2
Published online: 21 January 2016
Ó Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016
Abstract This paper reports the initial plasma formation
in glass spherical tokamak (GLAST-II) with electron
cyclotron resonance pre-ionization assisted startup. Ini-
tially, a plasma current of 3 kA has been produced for
duration of about 0.5 ms after establishing optimum con-
ditions for microwave absorption at 2.45 GHz. Plasma
current is then enhanced up to 5 kA by applying a small
vertical magnetic field that provides additional plasma
heating and shaping. Applied vertical field is optimized
experimentally and optimal value is found to be 40 Gauss
for this experiment. Plasma current and loop voltage are
monitored by using Rogowski coil and toroidal loop of
wire. A fast framing camera (5000 fps) is used for temporal
investigation of plasma during the discharge scenario. A
fast photodiode (BPX-65) and USB4000 spectrometer are
used to record the signature of plasma current and the
impurity content (O2, H etc.). Cross-sectional average
electron temperature is also estimated from plasma resis-
tivity and found to be 6.1 eV for maximum plasma current
of 5 kA.
Keywords Glass spherical tokamak (GLAST)  ECR pre-
ionization assisted start-up  First plasma formation 
Plasma diagnostics  Optical spectrum
& A. Qayyum
abdul.qaui@yahoo.com; abdul.qaui@gmail.com
1
National Tokamak Fusion Program, Islamabad 3329,
Pakistan
2
Saint-Petersburg State University, Saint-Petersburg,
Russia 198504
•
Introduction
Spherical tokamaks (STs) have received considerable
attention due to their encouraging experimental results and
promising theoretical modeling regarding stability and
magnetic confinement [1–4]. The long-standing subject of
ST research is the development of steady-state configura-
tions with high b plasma and a high fraction of bootstrap
current. Therefore, immediate research in the STs demands
to generate target plasmas suitable for strong auxiliary
heating to test the stability and confinement characteristics
of the ST configuration.
GLAST-II is a spherical tokamak having vacuum vessel
of Pyrex glass and thus provides the best possible visibility
for the discharge dynamics. The nominal parameters of
device are: major plasma radius R = 15 cm, minor plasma
radius a = 9 cm, plasma current Ip = 50 kA, pulse length
s = 10 ms and magnetic field BT = 0.4 T. The design
mainly focuses on simplicity of construction, supplemen-
tary heating, easy accessibility to plasma for optical mea-
surements and convenience for maintenance. The spherical
tokamak, because of its slender central column, has very
limited volt-second capability relative to a standard aspect
ratio tokamak of similar plasma cross-section. However,
electrical field requirement for breakdown can be reduced
significantly by adopting various pre-ionization schemes
during startup [5–8].
ECR pre-ionization assisted current startup is a
scheme for generating toroidal plasma currents in toko-
maks [5–7]. In this scheme, a microwave beam at the
electron cyclotron resonance frequency is launched prior to
the application of toroidal electrical field (E/) produced by
OH solenoid or in its presence for inducing plasma current
under appropriate conditions. According to Townsend’s
theory the breakdown may be facilitated by the
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optimization of the gas pressure and the maximum con-
nection length of the magnetic field lines to the vacuum
vessel. Additionally, E/ drives an ohmic current in the
initial plasma. ECR pre-ionization assisted startup
scheme has been demonstrated on a number of tokamaks to
generate reproducible and performance-enhancing start-up
[6, 7]. In particular, it showed a substantial reduction in the
requirement of loop voltage for the ohmic current and thus
lowers the transformer flux consumption in the initial phase
of startup. This fact can be attributed to either generation of
microwave plasma by ECR pre-ionization prior to the
application of a loop voltage or in the presence of a loop
voltage that instigate breakdown avalanche process.
This paper reports the successful formation of plasma
current in GLAST-II with the help of 2.45 GHz microwave
serving as a pre-ionization source for main discharge.
Effective pre-ionization is achieved through ECR in the
presence of resonant magnetic field and consequently build
up of plasma current by applying loop voltage through OH
solenoid. An attempt is made to estimate electron tem-
perature using plasma resistivity method (Spitzer’ formu-
lation). The diagnostics installed on the device are the
differential loops, magnetic probes, flux loops, Rogowski
coil, photodiode, Ocean optics USB4000 spectrometer,
high speed camera and mass spectrometer. These diag-
nostics are used to estimate the magnetic fields, plasma
current, plasma lighting, impurity contents and discharge
dynamics. In initial experiments, plasma is produced using
neon gas because such plasma is rich in radiation and emit
intense light owing to multistage excitation and subsequent
de-excitation of plasma species. Moreover, the color of
neon plasma is reddish that makes it attractive for visual-
ization and imaging in glass chamber. However, for future
fusion research and applications, plasma using hydrogen or
helium will be generated and characterized in GLAST-II.
Initial Experimentation
GLAST-II is modified version of GLAST-I wherein central
cylinder of steel is replaced by glass to obviate currents
induced in the metallic cylinder. Moreover, diameter of
central bore has been increased from 10 cm to 12 cm and
this configuration provides more space for OH solenoid. A
photographic image of GLAST-II is shown in Fig. 1. Three
set of coil systems have been used on GLAST-II. (1) The
plasma magnetizing coil system that consists of OH sole-
noid with single layer (0.43 mH, 0.19 X) having 210 turns
and 70 cm length together with two pair of compensation
coils (five turns and one turn). (2) The toroidal field (TF)
coils system (56 lH, 39 mX) comprises 16 copper strips
connected in series, with inner leg titled slightly at an
angle. The outer curved leg has width 25 mm and thickness
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J Fusion Energ (2016) 35:529–537
Fig. 1 A photographic image of the GLAST-II spherical tokamak
that provides an overview of coil systems and microwave injection
system
1.5 mm whereas inner straight leg has width 12.5 mm and
thickness 3 mm to equalize the cross-sectional area of the
strip. The tilt in the inner leg at an angle produces addi-
tional vertical field component that helps to stabilize the
plasma. (3) A vertical field (VF) coils system (7.05 mH,
2.07 X) comprising three pair of coils with 30-turn each
that provide additional plasma heating and shaping and
thus enhancing the plasma current. Three capacitor banks
are used to energize each of these coil systems through
sequential firing using thyristor based switching circuitry.
The relative delays between different coil systems are
applied with the help of a small 12-channel trigger control
unit.
Ohmic heating (OH) solenoid is operated at a peak
current of 2.5 kA by discharging a capacitor bank (2.2 mF,
2.5 kV) that produces loop voltage of about 10 V for
driving plasma current during ECR pre-ionization assisted
microwave plasma formation phase. For effective pre-
ionization the corresponding magnetic field (*875 Gauss)
is produced by using sixteen TF magnetic coils energized
by power supply consisting of fast capacitor bank (3 mF,
400 V) and slow capacitor bank (275 mF, 120 V). An
additional vertical field of 40 Gauss is applied to explore its
effect on plasma shaping and enhancement of current. The
GLAST chamber is evacuated by using pumping station
(Turbo-V 301-AG) of Agilent Technologies comprising of
turbo molecular pomp and rotary vane pump with pumping
speed 250 lit/min coupled through vacuum port having
diameter of 10 cm to achieve base pressure up to
8 9 10-7 mbar. A manually operated valve is used for
supplying neon gas puff into the vacuum vessel to maintain
it at a working pressure of 5 9 10-4 mbar during the
microwave power injection. The neon gas pressure in the
chamber during experiment is monitored by using full
J Fusion Energ (2016) 35:529–537 531

-3
A 1.5 -3 B 0.3 P=15x10 mbar
P=15x10 mbar
1.0
0.2
0.5
0.0 0.1

1.5 -3
P=7x10 mbar 0.0
-3
1.0 0.3 P=7x10 mbar
0.5
0.2

Light emission (arb.u)

Mirowave signal(arb.u)

0.0
1.5 -3 0.1
P=3x10 mbar
1.0
0.0
-3
0.5 0.3 P=3x10 mbar
0.0
2.0 0.2
-3
1.5 P=1.5x10 mbar
1.0 0.1
0.5
0.0
0.0 -3
0.3 P=1.5x10 mbar
-0.5
2 no absorption
0.2
1
0.1
0
0.0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (ms) Time (ms)

Fig. 2 a Microwave absorption spectra measured by microwave detector for different neon fills pressures. b Temporal profiles of plasma
induced light emission measured by BPX65 photodiode for different neon fill pressure

range gauge (PN-FRG 700). Thus, plasma current is pro-
duced successfully in GLAST-II with neon gas and evi-
denced by Rogowski coil and photodiode signals.
ECR-Assisted Pre-ionization
A commercially available magnetron operating at a fre-
quency of 2.45 GHz and output power of 800 W is mod-
ified by winding copper wire between two magnets of
magnetron tube in order to enhance the magnetic field
strength and then tuned by synchronizing the energy of the
capacitors. The modified system is now capable of pro-
ducing 2.45 GHz electromagnetic waves for startup with
an enhanced output power of 1.6 kW and pulse length of
about 4 ms. In the preliminary experiment, a rectangular
E-plane sectoral horn antenna in TE10 mode is used to
inject waves in the perpendicular direction with the plasma
torus for the benefit of pre-ionization. Microwave plasma
generation by ECR pre-ionization prior to the application
of a loop voltage instigates the breakdown avalanche and
thus substantial reduction in loop voltage requirement for
the initial phase of startup. Firstly, microwave absorption
in the presence of resonant field (*875 Gauss) is opti-
mized by changing the gas fill pressure, orientation of the
waveguide and relative delay between TF and the micro-
wave pulse. A microwave detector diode is used to monitor
the relative absorbance spectra of the microwave pulse
whereas an optical photodiode is used to record the cor-
responding light emission. The temporal profile of both
diodes in term of width and intensity of microwave and
corresponding light emission at different gas fill pressures
is shown in Fig. 2.
Field Null Generation
The generation of field null region is extremely important
for the plasma startup, especially in spherical tokamaks. For
successful plasma startup and to avoid interference with the
plasma position and shape during the discharge, the residual
magnetic fields must be reduced to a minimum level in the

123
532
region where the plasma to be formed and sustained. The
presence of unwanted magnetic field (sometimes called
error field) due to the OH solenoid and the other magnetic
coil systems decrease the connection length of the field lines
and consequently increase the requirements for induced
toroidal electric field during the startup phase. A simple
technique has been applied to minimize the net vertical
magnetic field inside the vacuum vessel produced by the
OH solenoid. Two pairs of compensation coils in series with
the OH solenoid are used to generate field null region inside
the vessel. Optimization of the compensation coils and the
consequent minimum net flux at a particular instant is
achieved by varying the number of turns and also the
position of the compensation coils. A differential loop (one
part encircling the OH solenoid while other encircling the
vessel) is used to observe net vertical magnetic flux passing
through the vessel. Figure 3a, b shows configuration of the
compensation coils with equivalent circuit and differential
loop signals respectively. The tuning of vertical field coil
system i.e. to minimize the induced effect of OH solenoid
on the vertical coils system is also necessary for the suc-
cessful tokamak startup. This is done by firing the OH
solenoid at small voltage (*100 V) and measuring the
induced voltage across the vertical system. The induced
voltage is reduced to the minimum possible value by
adjusting the number of turns and the direction of current in
each of the coils.
Electrical Measurements
Electrical characterization [9–13] of different subsystem of
the device along with plasma is essential to correlate dif-
ferent quantities and optimization of the mechanism.
Herein plasma current and loop voltage has been measured
using Rogowski coil encircling the cross section of plasma
column and toroidal loop of wire at equatorial plane.
Plasma current, loop voltage and BPX65 photodiode sig-
nals without application of VF and with application of VF
are shown in Figs. 4a, b respectively. Corresponding tem-
poral profiles of currents flowing through TF and VF coil
systems are presented in Fig. 5. Whereas Fig. 6 shows
oscillograms of plasma current, loop voltage, plasma
induced light emission in (350–1100 nm) and
(653–660 nm) recorded using Rogowski coil, flux loop,
PBX65 photodiode and PMT coupled with monochroma-
tor, respectively.
To characterize the GLAST discharge and consequent
electron temperature Spitzer’s formulation is used for
plasma resistivity measurements [14].
ln A
gSpitzer ½ohm  m ¼ 0:53  104
k
T3=2
e ½eV
123
J Fusion Energ (2016) 35:529–537
 
U
Plasma resistance Rp ¼ Iloop is calculated using the
p
value of plasma current and corresponding loop voltage
measured independently for different shots with VF and


without VF. As Rp ¼ glA ; where g depends on electron
temperature, therefore Te can be estimated readily from the
above Spitzer’s formulation. Temporal profile of electron
temperature for both shots with VF and without VF, esti-
mated from plasma resistivity is shown in Fig. 7. This
enhancement of the electron temperature with the appli-
cation of VF may be ascribed to efficient electron impact
ionization and consequential reduction in plasma resistivity
and accordingly loop voltage.
Optical Measurements
Optical spectrum in the wavelength range from 348 to
1034 nm is recoded to investigate the intensity distribution
of selected spectral lines and impurity contents [15]. A
typical spectrum of the discharge is presented in Fig. 8.
Emission lines in the spectrum are indentified and labeled
by using NIST data. Intense neon lines with different
intensity distribution can be easily recognized in the
spectrum. Moreover, some impurity atomic and molecular
lines belonging to oxygen and hydrogen are also observed
in the spectrum suggesting wall conditioning and
improvement in the vacuum conditions.
Sequential imaging of fusion plasmas is well-established
technique to get information about temporal progression of
the discharge [16]. Owing to recent advancements in the
fast-framing camera technology, visible imaging has pro-
ven to be extremely powerful diagnostic tool. Fast plasma
imaging provides information about plasma shape and
temporal evolution of discharge during operation. In fast-
framing ([1 kHz) cameras, often fast imaging comes with
enhanced temporal resolution. The number of useable
pixels depends on the camera frame rate. A high speed
camera with a frame rate of 5000 fps is used to record the
discharge dynamics. It can be seen from the plasma images
that color visibility and brightness is different for shots
with VF and without VF. The plasma discharge with VF
seems to be brighter compared to the shot without VF and
also appears to occupy the whole volume of the spherical
vessel. This fact may be ascribed to enhancement of
plasma current and consequent optical emission owing to
electron impact excitation and ionization process. The
spreading of the discharge over whole volume may be
attributed to field helicity provided by VF and conse-
quently radial force apart from toroidal electron drift.
Temporal evolution of the ECR pre-ionization assisted
GLAST-II discharge along with images at maximum
plasma current is presented in Fig. 9.
J Fusion Energ (2016) 35:529–537 533

Fig. 3 a Illustration of A
compensation coils system with
equivalent circuit for GLAST-
II. b Differential loop signals Coil Radius Posion Turns
with single pair and two pairs of pairs (cm) (cm) of
compensation coils coil

CC1 14 Z=±32 5

CC2 26 Z=±24 1

B 500

400 OH solenoid
OH solenoid + CC1
300 OH solenoid + CC1+ CC2

200
Differential Loop (mV)

100

-100

-200

-300

-400

-500
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time (ms)

Results and Discussion apply OH solenoid. Microwave absorption and consequent

Figure 2a, b shows the microwave absorption in the presence
of resonant toroidal magnetic field and the consequent
plasma induced light emission respectively, measured by
BPX65 photodiode for different neon fill pressures prior to
light emission increases with increasing neon gas fill pres-
sure up to 7 9 10-3 mbar and then decreases for higher
values. Thus, effective absorption of microwave radiation
and subsequent light emission suggests the value of
7 9 10-3 mbar gas fill pressure as optimum condition. Light

123
534 J Fusion Energ (2016) 35:529–537

A B

Light emission (arb.u)

Light emission (arb.u)
0.5
0.4 BPX 65 photodiode 0.5 BPX65 photodiode
0.3
0.0
0.2
0.1 -0.5
0.0 6
10 Rogowski coil 4
Rogowski coil
Ip(kA)

Ip(kA)
2
5
0

0 -2
Loop Voltage (V)

Loop voltage (V)

10 -4
Flux loop 20 Flux loop
0
10
-10 0

-20 -10

Microwave (arb.u)
Microwave (arb.u)

2 Microwave detector 2 Microwave detector

1
1
0
0
-1
-1
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time(ms) Time(ms)

Fig. 4 a Temporal evolution of ECRH-assisted plasma current in assisted plasma current in GLAST-II with VF. The signals from top to
GLAST-II without VF. The signals from top to bottom illustrate the bottom illustrate the plasma induced light emission, plasma current,
plasma induced light emission, plasma current, loop voltage and loop voltage and microwave absorption respectively
microwave absorption respectively. b Temporal evolution of ECRH-

120 minimum vertical field and thus best selected configuration

VF for plasma startup phase. A flexible Rogowski coil encir-
VF current (A)

80 cling the cross section of plasma column is used to record

the signatures of plasma current formation. Results pre-
40 sented in Fig. 4a show that plasma current of about 3 kA is
produced for 0.5 ms with the help of ECR pre-ionization
0
assisted startup without vertical field. A small vertical field
3
TF is then added by energizing the vertical field coil system
TF current (kA)

and optimized for maximum current by maintaining cor-

2
1
0 tical field is found to be 40 Gauss for this experiment. The
0 1
Fig. 5 Temporal profile of currents flowing through TF and VF coils
emission is observed to be closely depending on the
absorption of microwave during the pre-ionization phase.
Differential loop signals presented in Fig. 3 suggest that
OH solenoid with two pair of compensation coils produce
responding parameters fixed. As a result, an enhancement
of plasma current up to 5 kA is achieved for optimum
value of the vertical field. The optimum value of the ver-
results are presented in Fig. 4b. Furthermore, with appli-
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
cation of VF, a fast rise in plasma current is observed that
Time (ms)
may be attributed to additional electric drift and plasma
shaping. A reduction in the plasma current is observed with
changing the direction of vertical field that confirmed the
enhancement of plasma current is due to the vertical field
drift effect. Microwave absorption in the presence of tor-
oidal field (*875 Gauss) is optimized by varying the gas
fill pressure, orientation of the waveguide and relative

123
J Fusion Energ (2016) 35:529–537
Fig. 6 Oscillograms of plasma
current, loop voltage and
plasma induced light emission
delay between TF and the microwave injection. Figure 6
shows the oscillograms of plasma current, loop voltage and
plasma induced optical emission. A sudden dip in the loop
voltage corresponding to plasma current indicates charged
particle generation and consequently reduction in plasma
resistivity.
The cross-sectional average electron temperature of
plasma is estimated from the plasma resistivity using loop
voltage and plasma current, and is presented in Fig. 7.
Temporal profile shows fluctuating behavior of electron
temperature for both cases with change in magnitude and
rise-time. A significant enhancement in the electron tem-
perature is observed with the application of VF. This fact
may be attributed to additional drift and shaping increasing
plasma current and consequent reduction of loop voltage
and plasma resistivity by application of VF.
Optical emission spectrum (Fig. 8) shows that promi-
nent spectral lines belong to working gas, except tiny lines
coming from impurities such as O2, H etc. It must be noted
that optical measurements are time integrated and line of
sight averaged, and for the whole discharge including
microwave plasma and plasma current region. A high
speed camera with a frame rate of 5000 fps is used to
record the temporal behavior of resonance layer and also
the whole discharge scenario. The first visible layer appears
at time 1.2 ms after the firing of microwave at t = 0. The
emission intensity and the size of resonant layer increase
with time (see Fig. 9a) up to about t = 2.2 ms. The plasma
current formation starts at about t = 2.4 ms, maximum is
535
at t = 2.6 ms and then starts to decay and terminates at
t = 3 ms while the visible glow ends at t = 4 ms. Fig-
ure 9b shows the comparison between the central frames
recoded at the peak value of plasma current. It is obvious
from the figure that discharge fills the whole volume of the
vessel when VF is applied and consequently increases the
overall emission intensity.
Conclusion
In conclusion, plasma current is successfully generated in
GLAST-II spherical tokamak. Besides the toroidal field
(TF), a vertical field (VF) is also applied during the
microwave injection to produce magnetic helicity and
additional toroidal electron drift. The prominent spectral
lines in the spectrum are identified to find out the impurity
content as well as excited state population of the emitting
species in the plasma discharge. The temporal evolution of
plasma current and loop voltage is examined to investigate
the effect of vertical field on discharge dynamics. Plasma
electron temperature is estimated using Spitzer’s resistivity
method. Plasma imaging shows that the discharge with VF
seems to be brighter than the discharge without VF and also
appears to occupy the whole volume of the vessel. The
plasma current formation during a short period (2.3–2.7 ms)
may be explained by field null formation at that time.
Additionally, abrupt fall of the plasma current may be
attributed to energy loss and consequent cooling due to
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536 J Fusion Energ (2016) 35:529–537

10 A
With VF

5 1.2ms 1.4 ms 1.6 ms 1.8 ms 2.0 ms

kTe(eV)

0
2.2 ms 2.4 ms 2.6 ms 2.8 ms 3.0 ms

10
-5
Without VF
3.2 ms 3.4 ms 3.6 ms 3.8 ms 4.0 ms

5
B
kTe(eV)

0
With vertical field Without vertical field

Fig. 9 a Development and subsequent decay of plasma discharge,

b images at maximum plasma current with and without vertical field
-5
2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
t(ms)
loop voltage by reducing error fields. We feel that there is
Fig. 7 Temporal profile of cross-sectional average electron temper- still room for improvement in the existing diagnostics.
ature inferred from plasma resistivity (Spitzer’s formulation) with VF Moreover, development and installation of some new
and without VF diagnostic systems like triple Langmuir probe system for
12 plasma measurement in the edge region, optical diagnostics
Ne-I(585.24 nm)

Ne-I(640.22 nm)

for impurity analysis, flux loops for MHD analysis and

interferometry for measuring electron density in core region
10
are also planned in the future. As the vacuum vessel is of
Ne-I(614.30 nm)

H-I(656.27 nm)

dielectric material so the research aspect of the adiabatic

Intensity (arb.unit)

8 compression and consequent heating will be an aim of the

Ne-I(650.65 nm)

experimental activities in the near future. Hopefully, this

endeavor will contribute significantly to joint venture of
Ne-I(703.24 nm)

6
magnetic fusion research community.
Ne-I(667.82 nm)
Ne-I(633.44 nm)
H2 (609.82 nm)

Ne-I(692.94 nm)
Ne-I(626.64 nm)

Ne-I(671.70 nm)
Ne-I(594.48 nm)
Ne-I(558.93 nm)

Ne-I(724.51 nm)

4 Acknowledgments The authors would like to express their gratitude

H2 (568.91 nm)
H2 (508.48 nm)
H-I (486.12 nm)

O2(777.9 nm)

to Dr. Badar Suleman (Ex. Member Science), Dr. S.M. Javed Akhter
(Member Science) and Mr. Maqbool Ahmed Ch., Director General,
2 TNO for providing guidance throughout the experiment and faithful
discussions. The authors also wish to thank the staff of the NILOP and
O-Lab Mechanical Workshops for providing technical assistance
500 550 600 650 700 750 800
during fabrication of GLAST. Support from IAEA through CRP No
Wavelength (nm)
166997 ‘‘on utilization of a network of small magnetic confinement
fusion devices of main stream fusion research’’ is also acknowledged.
Fig. 8 Typical spectrum of the neon plasma integrated over the entire
discharge duration

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