FIRST WEIGHTING

Before longwall mining begins in a panel, a setup room of approximately 7.3–9.8m wide is
driven across the face at the starting end of the panel. The face equipment, including shields,
shearer, and chain conveyor, is installed in the setup room (Fig. A). In the initial period, as the
mining proceeds, the roof remains intact and the gob is left open (Fig. B). As the width of the
gob widens, the immediate roof begins to bend and sag. Eventually, it separates from the
main roof along its bedding plane of contact when the gob span increases further. At this
time, the immediate roof behaves like a fixed ended beam ; cracks begin to form on the upper
surface at both ends of the beam (Fig. C). The cracks rapidly propagate through the thickness
of the beam. As this happens, the beam becomes a simple-ended one. The location of the
maximum axial tensile stress immediately switches to the lower surface at the mid-span
where the crack initiates and propagates through the thickness. After this, the immediate roof
splits into two sections, both of which lose supports and fall. In the falling process, they
rotate and break into different sizes and shapes upon landing on the floor (Fig. D). The
duration of this period depends on the stability of the roof immediately over the coal seam
top, being from 0.0–6.1 m for the unstable roof to more than 90 m for the stable roof.
As the face moves farther toward the first weighting interval, L0, the lower stratum in
the main roof also separates from the upper one. Cracks form at both ends and the
beam sags further until the mid-span touches the top of the rock piles resulting from
the caving of the immediate roof (Fig. E). The roof pressure reaches the maximum
right before this happens. This is the first weighting. As the face moves beyond L0, the
cracks in the front section of the main roof beam cut through the thickness causing
the beam to break away. As this happens, the roof pressure drops suddenly and the
overburden movements enter into the second phase.
PERIODIC WEIGHTING

After the first roof weighting, the longwall face enters into the second phase of the
overburden movement. In this phase, the immediate roof, depending on rock types,
caves immediately or with a little delay behind the shields. The lower stratum of the
main roof breaks periodically causing periodic high roof pressure at the face area. The
breaking length or interval such as LP1, LP2, and so on, varies with the strength,
thickness, and joint conditions of the strata and the gap between the caved rock piles
and the un-caved immediate or main roof, while the intensity of the periodic roof
weighting depends on the breaking interval. On top of this, the upper stratum also
breaks periodically, if sufficient gaps between broken and immediately overlying
unbroken strata exist.
The sequences of overburden movements illustrated in Figures are idealized based on
certain Stratigraphic sequence. Actual movement sequence varies depending on the
Stratigraphic sequence.
As stated earlier, underground operational experience indicates that periodic
weighting seems to become less intense or disappear as the faces advance faster and
shield capacity becomes larger in high-production faces.
Methods of identifying or predicting periodic roof weighting:

Significant increase of time-weighted average resistance (TWAR): Both the final

resistance and TWAR of a support cycle rise greatly during periodic roof weighting.
Since the final support resistance or pressure occurs almost instantaneously only
when the neighboring support is being advanced, it is less desirable for identifying or
predicting the onset of periodic roof weighting. On the other hand, the variation
pattern for the time-weighted average resistance, which reflects resistance changes in
a mining cycle, is more representative. The variations of TWAR as measured for the
Pittsburgh seam (Peng et al., 1982) for a distance of 24 m face advance. The periodic
weighting interval LP1 = 4.5 m consists of two parts, that is:
High setting resistance or rapidly rising rate of resistance increase: The rate of
increase in support resistance after setting is one of the important markers in roof
behavior. During the non-periodic weighting period, the rate of resistance increase
generally increases gradually after setting but becomes much larger immediately
preceding support advance. Conversely, during periodic roof weighting, the rate of
resistance increase immediately before support advance is relatively low but
increases significantly faster right after setting. This feature indicates that the roof
moves vigorously during periodic weighting and that, immediately after setting, the
supports rapidly receive the continuously increasing roof pressure. Therefore, the
rate of resistance increase after support setting can be used to identify/predict the
periodic roof weighting.
Features of periodic roof weighting. Two terms are most useful in describing the
rules of changes in periodic roof weighting. One is the periodic weighting interval,
Lp, which is the distance of face advance between two consecutive periodic
weightings, and the other one is the time interval between them, the periodic
weighting period, Tp.

The common feature concerning the main roof caving is that for every two to four
smaller periodic roof weightings there is a larger periodic roof weighting. The
smaller periodic roof weightings can be attributed to the deformation and caving of
the lower portion of the main roof, and last for one or two mining cycles. On the
other hand, the severe movements from the upper portion of the main roof caused the
larger periodic roof weightings, which last for three to seven mining cycles. Since
there are differences in strata composition, and consequently strata behavior, the
magnitude and characteristics of the roof weighting induced by the main roof are
different from seam to seam or sometimes even from panel to panel in a coal seam.
Mean load density:
The capacity of the powered supports is conventionally designated by its
yield load. However, because the contact area between the canopy and the
roof varies from model to model due to differences in canopy length and
support spacing, the yield load cannot fully represent the actual loading
condition. Thus the load density, which is the load per unit area of the roof
supported, is commonly used. The setting load density (SLD) is the support
load per unit area at the time of setting the support. Similarly the yield load
density (YLD) is the support load per unit area of the supported roof at the
time of yielding. Since the load density varies with the location along the
face line and the time periods during which the mining operations are being
performed, Wilson introduced the concept of mean load density (MLD)
which is defined as:
Most underground measurements have borne out that the actual setting
pressures are in most cases less than the nominal setting pressure, that is, the
pump pressure. Among the 687 cycles, the nominal setting pressure was
obtained in 206 cycles, which is barely 30%.
ABUTMENT PRESSURE:
Conceptually a softer coal seam is sandwiched between the relatively
stronger roof and floor rocks which are loaded by the weight of the
overburden. Stress is uniformly distributed in the coal seam under such
conditions. When the panel entries are developed, the equilibrium conditions
are destroyed due to the presence of the openings. Stress distribution in the
area has to be readjusted in order that a new state of equilibrium can be
achieved. As a result, a destressed zone occurs in the roof of the entries and
the load is transferred into the neighboring solid coal both in the panel and
the pillars. The zones where the vertical pressure exceeds the average
overburden pressure are created in or near the edges of the panel and pillars.
These zones are called the abutments and the above-average pressures are
the abutment pressures.
Vertical abutment pressure distribution in coal
In various sections
UNDERGROUND COAL MINING (MN 402)
Cavability of roof strata
CMRI provides guidance on the support density required for a given
deposit to be worked by longwall.
1. Easily cavable: upto 1000
2. Moderately cavable: 1000-2500
3. Cavable with difficulty: 2500-6000
4. Cavable with considerable difficulty: 6000-10000
5. Cavable with extreme difficulty: >10000

Empirical formula to determine cavability index:

I=(SLnt0.5)/5
Where,
I=Cavability index.
S=Compressive strength in kg/ cm2 of strongest bed.
L=Average length of core in cm.
t=Thickness of strongest bed in mm.
n=A constant, value of which is 1 for most rocks and 1.2 for those rocks
whose RQD (Rock Quality Designation) is more than 80.

The purpose of determining cavability index is to determine the type and

capacity of supports needed at the longwall face which will give required
resistance to roof strata and make it safely cave in goaf. For the purpose, the
empirical formula developed by CMRI is:

Cm =[ + 9.6h ] + [ -23]

Where,
Cm =Maximum Convergence, mm/m
I=Maximum cavability index of any bed within active caving zone, i.e.,
within 6 times the seam thickness.
P=Support resistance, t/ m2.
K=Factor depending on thickness of cavable roof and extraction height. This
value, usually, is 0.025.
h=Height of extraction, m.
K’=2 for T/h less than 2
3 for T/h 2 to 4
5 for T/h>4
Where, T is thickness of cavable roof in m(below strongest bed). It has been
found by observation that satisfactory results, the value of Cm should not be
more than 60mm/m.
#1. Calculate support resistance for a coal seam to be worked by longwall
with caving system. Details of the seam is given below:
•Average length of core in cm=11cm,
•Compressive strength of strongest bed=897kg/ cm2
•Thickness of strongest bed=9.7m,
•Value of n=1,
•Height of extraction=3m,
•Value of K factor=0.025, and
•Value of K’ factor=3.

#2. Calculate required support resistance for a coal seam which is to be

worked by longwall caving system. Average length of core=18cm,
compressive strength of strongest bed=948kg/ cm2, thickness of the
strongest bed=8.2m, height of extraction=2.6m, value of n factor=1.0, value
of K factor=0.025, value of K’ factor=3, maximum convergence=60mm/m