Endocrine System I

Hypothalamus and Hypophysis

 Describe the relationship of the hypothalamus and pituitary

Learning gland.
Enumerate the hormones of the anterior and posterior pituitary

Objectives
gland.
Describe the function of the hormones of the anterior and
posterior pituitary gland.
 Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology 13th
Edition, 2015

References Board Review Series, Physiology, 6th Edition 2015

Hypothalamus and Pituitary Physiology
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VkWmbeO8gqY
What is the • The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland is linked to the
hypothalamus by the hypothalamic– hypophysial portal system.

relationship of the • Blood from the hypothalamus that contains high concentrations of
hypothalamic hormones is delivered directly to the anterior

hypothalamus with •
pituitary.
Hypothalamic hormones then stimulate or inhibit the release of

the pituitary gland? anterior pituitary hormones

What is the • The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland is derived from neural

relationship of the •
tissue.
The nerve cell bodies are located in hypothalamic nuclei. Posterior

hypothalamus with
pituitary hormones are synthesized in the nerve cell bodies,
packaged in secretory granules, and transported down the axons

the pituitary gland?

to the posterior pituitary for release into the circulation.
What are the
hormones of the
Growth hormone, prolactin, thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH), LH, follicle-stimulating

anterior lobe of hormone (FSH), and adrenocorticotropic

hormone (ACTH).

the pituitary?
What are the TSH, LH, and FSH

hormones of the •
•
 Belong to the same glycoprotein family.
Each has an α subunit and a β subunit.

anterior lobe of •
•
The α subunits are identical.
The β subunits are different and are responsible for the

the pituitary?
unique biologic activity of each hormone.
What are the
hormones of the
• ACTH, melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), b-
lipotropin, and b-endorphin   are derived from a single
precursor, proopiomelanocortin (POMC).

anterior lobe of • α-MSH and β-MSH are produced in the intermediary

lobe, which is rudimentary in adult humans.

the pituitary?
What is growth • Most important hormone for normal
growth to adult size.

hormone • A single-chain polypeptide that is

(somatotropin)?
homologous with prolactin and human
placental lactogen.
How is growth •
•
 Growth hormone is released in pulsatile fashion.
Secretion is increased by sleep, stress, hormones related

hormone secretion to puberty, starvation, exercise, and hypoglycemia.

Secretion is decreased by somatostatin, somatomedins,
regulated?
•
obesity, hyperglycemia, and pregnancy.
How is growth
hormone
Hypothalamic control—GHRH and somatostatin
•  GHRH stimulates the synthesis and secretion of growth
hormone.

secretion • Somatostatin inhibits secretion of growth hormone by

blocking the response of the anterior pituitary to GHRH.

regulated?
How is growth
hormone
Negative feedback control by somatomedins
•   Somatomedins are produced when growth hormone acts on target tissues.
• Somatomedins inhibit the secretion of growth hormone by acting directly on

secretion
the
• anterior pituitary and by stimulating the secretion of somatostatin from the
• hypothalamus.

regulated?
How is growth
hormone
Negative feedback control by GHRH and growth hormone
•   GHRH inhibits its own secretion from the hypothalamus.

secretion
•   Growth hormone also inhibits its own secretion by
stimulating the secretion of somatostatin from the
hypothalamus

regulated?
What are the •   In the liver, growth hormone generates the production of
somatomedins (insulin-like growth factors, which serve as

actions of growth •
the intermediaries of several physiologic actions.
 The IGF receptor has tyrosine kinase activity, similar to the

hormone? insulin receptor.

What are the Direct actions of growth hormone

actions of •
•
↓ glucose uptake into cells (diabetogenic)
↑ lipolysis

growth •
•
↑ protein synthesis in muscle and ↑ lean body mass
↑ production of IGF

hormone?
What are the Actions of growth hormone via IGF
• ↑ protein synthesis in chondrocytes and ↑ linear growth

actions of growth •
(pubertal growth spurt)
↑ protein synthesis in muscle and ↑ lean body mass
hormone? • ↑ protein synthesis in most organs and ↑ organ size
What is the Growth hormone deficiency

pathophysiology of
  in children causes failure to grow, short stature, mild obesity, and delayed puberty.
  Can be caused by:
• Lack of anterior pituitary growth hormone

growth hormone •
•
Hypothalamic dysfunction (↓ GHRH)
Failure to generate IGF in the liver

deficiency? • Growth hormone receptor deficiency

What is the Growth hormone excess
Can be treated with somatostatin analogs which inhibit growth hormone

pathophysiology of
•
secretion.
•  Hypersecretion of growth hormone causes acromegaly.

growth hormone
• Before puberty, excess growth hormone causes increased linear growth
(gigantism).

excess?
• After puberty, excess growth hormone causes increased periosteal bone
growth, increased organ size, and glucose intolerance (acromegaly).
What is
• Major hormone responsible for lactogenesis.
• Participates, with estrogen, in breast

prolactin?
development.
• Structurally homologous to growth hormone.
How is prolactin Hypothalamic control by dopamine and thyrotropin-releasing hormone
(TRH)

secretion
•   Prolactin secretion is tonically inhibited by dopamine (prolactin-
inhibiting factor [PIF]) secreted by the hypothalamus.
• Thus, interruption of the hypothalamic– pituitary tract causes

regulated?
increased secretion of prolactin and sustained lactation.
•   TRH increases prolactin secretion.
How is prolactin Negative feedback control

secretion •   Prolactin inhibits its own secretion

by stimulating the hypothalamic
regulated? release of dopamine.
What are the • Stimulates milk production in the breast (casein, lactalbumin)

actions of
• Stimulates breast development (in a supportive role with estrogen)
• Inhibits ovulation by decreasing synthesis and release of
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

prolactin? • Inhibits spermatogenesis (by decreasing GnRH)

What is the
pathophysiology of
prolactin deficiency • Results in the failure to lactate.
(destruction of anterior
pituitary)?
What is the •   Results from hypothalamic destruction (due to loss of the tonic “inhibitory”
control by dopamine) or from prolactin-secreting tumors (prolactinomas).

pathophysiology of
• Causes galactorrhea and decreased libido.
• Causes failure to ovulate and amenorrhea because it inhibits GnRH secretion.

prolactin excess?
• Can be treated with bromocriptine, which reduces prolactin secretion by acting
as a dopamine agonist.
What are the • Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin.

hormones of the
• Are homologous nonapeptides.
• Are synthesized in hypothalamic nuclei and are packaged

posterior lobe of the •

in secretory granules with their respective neurophysins.
Travel down the nerve axons for secretion by the
pituitary? posterior pituitary.
What is • Originates primarily in the supraoptic nuclei
of the hypothalamus.

antidiuretic • Regulates serum osmolarity by increasing

the H2O permeability of the late distal
hormone (ADH) tubules and collecting ducts.
How is ADH Factors that increase ADH secretion
Serum osmolarity

secretion
Volume contraction
Pain
Nausea

regulated?
Hypoglycemia
Nicotine, opiates, antineoplastic drugs
How is ADH Factors that decrease ADH secretion
Low serum osmolarity

secretion Ethanol

regulated?
α – Agonists
Atrial natriuretic peptide
What are the
• ↑ H2O permeability (aquaporin 2, AQP2) of the principal
cells of the late distal tubule and collecting duct (via a V2
receptor and an adenylate cyclase–cAMP mechanism)

actions of ADH? • Constriction of vascular smooth muscle (via a V1 receptor

and an IP3/Ca2+ mechanism)
What is
• Originates primarily in the paraventricular
nuclei of the hypothalamus.

oxytocin? • Causes ejection of milk from the breast

when stimulated by suckling.
How is oxytocin Suckling
•   Major stimulus for oxytocin secretion.

secretion
•   Afferent fibers carry impulses from the nipple to the spinal cord.
• Relays in the hypothalamus trigger the release of oxytocin from the posterior
pituitary.

regulated?
•  The sight or sound of the infant may stimulate the hypothalamic neurons to
secrete oxytocin, even in the absence of suckling.
Dilation of the cervix and orgasm
  Increases the secretion of oxytocin.
What are the Contraction of myoepithelial cells in the breast
•   Milk is forced from the mammary alveoli into the ducts and ejected.

actions of
Contraction of the uterus
•   During pregnancy, oxytocin receptors in the uterus are up-regulated as
parturition approaches, although the role of oxytocin in normal labor is

oxytocin?
uncertain.
• Oxytocin can be used to induce labor and reduce postpartum bleeding.