Hypothalamus

By ; Katerina Namaal Bel-Nono

introduction

 The hypothalamus The hypothalamus is the most important interface between

the nervous system and the endocrine system. It secretes various releasing
hormones and inhibitors which, as their names suggest, have antagonistic
effects on release of hormones from the pituitary gland. Secretion of these
releasing hormones and inhibitors from the hypothalamus is triggered by
nervous impulses initiated in the brain and released through the hypothalamic
pituitary portal circulation . It also produces neuropeptide hormones in the
supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus
 The hypothalamus synthesizes at least 9 different hormones
 The hypothalamic hormones are peptides that bind to the receptors on the
anterior pituitary cells
Name Chemical natire biological function
TRH;; thyrotropin Tripeptide (pyro-Glu-His- Induces secretion of TSH
releasing hormone Pro-NH2) and PRL; neuromodulator
GnRH;; gonadotropin Biologically active portion Releases LH and FSH
releasing hormone is a decapeptide induces spermatogenesis,
and ovulation
GHRH;; growth hormone 37-44 amino acid, amino Stimulates growth
releasing hormone terminal end is tyrosine hormone secretion
CRF; corticotropin Amidated peptide with 41 Release of ACTH Inhibited
releasing factor acids amino by cortisol
Somatostatin;. Growth Cyclic peptide with 14 Inhibits secretion of GH
hormone inhibitory factor amino acids and TSH
Inhibits gut hormones,
pancreatic and gastric
secretion
PIF; prolactin inhibitory Dopamine ( a Inhibits PRL release
factor neurotransmitter that
Hypothalamic hormones
Regulation of hypothalamic hormones

 The synthesis and metabolism of the hypothalamic hormones are regulated by

negative feedback except the oxytocin enzyme that uses positive feedback
Biological role of the hypothalamic hormones
 To maintain homeostasis, the hypothalamus is responsible for creating or controlling many hormones in the
body. The hypothalamus works with the pituitary gland, which makes and sends other important hormones
around the body.
 Together, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland control many of the glands that produce hormones of the body,
called the endocrine system. This includes the adrenal cortex, gonads, and thyroid.
 Hormones secreted by the hypothalamus include:
• antidiuretic hormone, which increases how much water is absorbed into the blood by the kidneys
• corticotropin-releasing hormone, which helps regulate metabolism and immune response by working with the
pituitary gland and adrenal gland to release certain steroids
• gonadotropin-releasing hormone, which instructs the pituitary gland to release more hormones that keep the
sexual organs working
• oxytocin, a hormone involved in several processes, including the release of a mother’s breast milk, moderating
body temperature, and regulating sleep cycles
• prolactin-controlling hormones, which tell the pituitary gland to either start or stop breast milk production in
lactating mothers
• thyrotropin-releasing hormone activates the thyroid, which releases the hormones that regulate metabolism,
energy levels, and developmental growth
 The hypothalamus also directly influences growth hormones. It commands the pituitary gland to either increase
or decrease their presence in the body, which is essential for both growing children and fully developed adults.
Pathology of the hypothalamus
 The most common causes of hypothalamic diseases are injuries to the head that impact the
hypothalamus. Surgeries, radiation, and tumors can also cause disease in the hypothalamus.
 Symptoms of hypothalamus disorders vary depending on what hormones are in short supply.
 Some hypothalamic diseases have a genetic link to hypothalamic disease. For instance,
Kallman syndrome causes hypothalamic problems in children, most noticeably delayed or
absent puberty, accompanied by an impaired sense of smell.
 Hypothalamus problems also appear to have a genetic link in Prader-Willi Syndrome. This is
a condition in which a missing chromosome leads to short stature and hypothalamic
dysfunction.
 Additional causes of hypothalamic disease can include:
• eating disorders, such as bulimia or anorexia
• genetic disorders that cause excess iron buildup in the body
• malnutrition
• infections
• excessive bleeding
Antidiuretic hormone
 A. Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH) i. It is also called vasopressin. If arginine is
replaced by lysine, it is called lysine vasopressin (LVP).
 ii. Its main action is to prevent diuresis. So it reduces the urine output. ADH
acts on the distal convoluted tubules of the kidney, producing reabsorption of
water.
 iii. ADH binds to membrane receptor and activates adenylate cyclase. The
cyclic AMP thus produced will activate the protein kinase. This, in turn,
phosphorylates proteins of the microtubules and microfilaments. The net
effect is the reabsorption of water.
 The regulation of ADH secretion is through the osmolality of blood. Lowering
of the osmolality (hemodilution) suppresses ADH secretion. Conversely, an
increase in osmolality (hemoconcentration or dehydration) leads to
stimulation of the secretion of ADH.
.

 Deficiency of ADH results in diabetes insipidus. It is characterized by

excretion of large volumes of dilute urine. Hypernatremia and hypertonic
contraction of extracellular fluid volume are also seen. It is a very rare
condition.
 vi. Excess secretion of ADH often results from ectopic production of ADH by
malignant tumors elsewhere, referred to as the syndrome of inappropriate
secretion of ADH or SIADH. Here ADH is continuously secreted and is not
subjected to any control mechanisms. There is hypotonic expansion of
extracellular volume, with hyponatremia.
 Slow onset is mostly asymptomatic and goes unnoticed but those with acute
onset will manifest the symptomatology of water intoxication (headache,
confusion, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, coma and convulsions). Hyponatremia
and impaired urinary dilution are seen.
ocytocin

 Oxytocin is a neurohypophysial hormone that consists of nine amino acids which are
synthesized in the paraventricular, supraoptic, and accessory nuclei of the
hypothalamus. Oxytocin is released in systemic blood circulation through the posterior
pituitary gland, where it acts as hormone, regulating a range of physiological functions
  Oxytocin binds to oxytocin receptors in the uterine myometrium, which triggers the G-
protein coupled receptor signal transduction cascade that causes increased intracellular 
calcium concentrations. Increased calcium concentration levels activate myosin light
chain kinase which, in turn, induces the formation of the contractile protein
actomyosin. This stimulates uterine smooth muscle contractions. This agent also
stimulates smooth muscles in the mammary glands, thereby causing lactation.
 H-Cys(1)-Tyr-Ile-Gln-Asn-Cys(1)-Pro-Leu-Gly-NH2
Biological role of oxytocin
.