In a network running STP, multiple topology change informations are sent when the network topology

changes. How many kinds of topology change informations are defined in the RSTP network?
A. One kind
B. Two kinds
C. Three kinds
D. Four kinds
Answer: A

What are the major parts of the SNAP address used by the IS-IS protocol? (Multiple Choice)
A. AREA ID
B. DSCP
C. SYSTEM ID
D. SEL
Answer: ACD

In which of the following states do BGP peers refuse to initiate or accept connection requests?
A. Established
B. Idle
C. Active
D. OpenConfirm
Answer: B

Which statements about OSPF packets are true? (Select 2 answers)

A. Hello packets can be sent immediately after the interface joined OSPF area.
B. After received LS Update packets, the router must send LSAck for confirming.
C. LS Update messages synchronize the link state database by sending detailed LSAs.
D. LS Update packets are sent only after an adjacency is established.
Answer: AC

In the RSTP protocol, the uplink port of the non-root switch has the parameter of the port identifier. The
port identifier consists of two parts, they are:
A. One-byte port priority and one-byte port number
B. One-byte port priority and two-byte port number
C. Two-byte port priority and one-byte port number
D. Two-byte port priority and two-byte port number
Answer: A

Since the AS-PATH attribute cannot be function within the AS, it is specified that the BGP router will not
advertise any updates from the IBGP peer to its IBGP peers.
A. True
B. False
Answer: A

1. (True or False) Each DD packet has a DD sequence number, which is used for DD packet
acknowledgement. DD contains complete link state information. ( )

2. (Single Response) Which of the following statements regarding stub area configuration notes
is true? ( )
A. The backbone area can be configured as a stub area.
B. If an area is configured as a stub area, all the routers within this area must have stub area
attributes configured.
C. An ASBR can belong to a stub area.
D. A virtual link can pass through a stub area.

3. (Single Response) What is the Origin attribute of the routes injected into BGP using the net-
work command? ( )
A. IGP
B. EGP
C. Incomplete
D. Unknown

4. (Single Response) Which of the following statements regarding Local-Preference is true? ( )

A. Local-Preference is a well-known mandatory attribute.
B. Local-Preference affects traffic that enters an AS.
C. Local-Preference can be transmitted between ASs.
D. The default Local-Preference value is 100.

5. (True or False) The AS_Path attribute cannot take effect within an AS. Therefore, a BGP
router will not advertise any Update message received from an IBGP peer to other IBGP peers.
( )

6. (True or False) The first four bits of a multicast IP address are fixed as 1110 and are mapped
to the high 25 bits of a multicast MAC address. Among the last 28 bits of a multicast IP address,
only 23 bits are mapped to a multicast MAC address, and information about the other 5 bits is
lost. As a result, 32 multicast IP addresses are mapped to the same MAC address. ( )

7. (True or False) IGMPv1 defines a mechanism to select a querier when there are multiple
routers on a shared network. ( )

8. (Multiple Response) What services and functions can ACLs be applied to the router
AR3200? ( )
A. Routing policy
B. Traffic classifier
C. Firewall
D. Policy-based routing

9. (Multiple Response) Which of the following statements regarding routing policy and policy-
based routing are true? ( )
A. Policy-based routing is used to control packet forwarding without following routes in the rout-
ing table.
B. A routing policy is used to control import, advertisement, and receiving of routing information.
C. A routing policy is used to control packet forwarding without following routes in the routing
table.
D. Policy-based routing is used to control import, advertisement, and receiving of routing infor-
mation.

10. (Single Response) Port isolation provides secure and flexible networking solutions for us-
ers. Which of the following statements regarding port isolation is false? ( )
A. Port isolation can be used for configuring Layer 2 isolation.
B. By default, interfaces are isolated at Layer 2 but can communicate at Layer 3.
C. Before the port isolation function takes effect on an interface, the port isolation function must
be enabled.
D. The port-isolate enable command can run in the system view. (not bu in interface)

11. (Single Response) On a network running RSTP, some devices use STP. When RSTP-ena-
bled switches detect a topology change, which method is used by the RSTP-enabled switches
to notify STP-enabled switches of the topology change? ( )
A. RSTP BPDUs with the TC are used.
B. STP BPDUs with the TC are used.
C. RSTP BPDUs with the TCA are used.
D. STP BPDUs with the TCA are used.

12. (Multiple Response) RSTP defines different ports compared with STP. Which of the follow-
ing ports cannot work in forwarding state? ( )
A. Root port
B. Designated port
C. Backup port
D. Alternate port

13. (Single Response) Which of the following statements regarding MUX VLAN is true? ( )
A. You do not need to configure the principal VLAN and subordinate VLAN in sequence.
B. The MUX VLAN function must be enabled on an interface so that it can take effect.
C. The principal VLAN and the subordinate VLAN of the MUX VLAN can be the same VLAN.
D. The MUX VLAN can contain only one subordinate group VLAN.

14. (Single Response) Which of the following statements regarding an SPT switchover after
RPT setup is false? ( )
A. An RPT cannot provide multicast forwarding for a long time.
B. Because all multicast traffic passes through an RP router, the RP router may become the
data forwarding bottleneck.
C. An SPT has the shortest path and provides higher forwarding performance than an RPT.
D. A RPT cannot be used to forward high volumes of traffic.

15. (Single Response) Which of the following statements regarding the summary automatic
command and BGP route summarization is false? ( )
A. This command enables automatic summarization for the locally imported routes.
B. After this command is configured, BGP summarizes routes based on natural network seg-
ments.
C. After this command is configured, BGP sends only the summarized routes to peers.
D. This command is used to implement automatic summarization. Automatic summarization
takes precedence over manual summarization.

16. (Single Response) What is the function of the detail-suppressed keyword in the aggregate
command? ( )
A. It suppresses the delivery of generated summarized routes to the IP routing table.
B. It suppresses the delivery of specific routes to the IP routing table.
C. It only advertises the summarized routes to other BGP peers.
D. It advertises both the summarized routes and specific routes to other BGP peers.

17. (Multiple Response) Which of the following statements regarding the MED value are true?
( )
A. According to BGP route selection rules, the MED value has a lower priority than AS_Path,
Preferred-Value, Local-Preference, and Origin.
B. The default MED value of BGP routes is 0.
C. By default, BGP can compare the MED values of routes from different ASs.
D. By default, if there is no MED value in routes, the value 0 is used. If the bestroute med-none-
as-maximum command is configured, the maximum MED value 4294967295 is used.

18. (Multiple Response) Which of the following statements regarding DR/BDR are false? ( )
A. All DR others establish neighbor relationships with DR and BDR only.
B. In a broadcast network, DR and BDR must be elected. A broadcast network without a DR or
BDR cannot operate normally.
C. DR others listen on the multicast address 224.0.0.5.
D. DR others listen on the network address 224.0.0.6.
 19. (Single Response) Which of the following statements regarding OSPF external route types
is false? ( )
A. OSPF includes Type 1 and Type 2 external routes.
B. The cost of a Type 1 external route is the addition of the AS external cost and the AS internal
cost (the cost from a router to an ASBR).
C. The cost of a Type 2 external route is the AS external cost.
D. A Type 2 external route is always preferred over a Type 1 external route when other condi-
tions are the same.

20. (Single Response) Which of the following statements regarding different LSA types is false?
( )
A. DD packets contain only LSA summary information, including LS Type, LS ID, Advertising
Router, and LS Sequence Number.
B. LS Request packets contain only LS Type, LS ID, and Advertising Router.
C. LS Update packets contain complete LSA information.
D. LS Ack packets contain complete LSA information.

Answer:
1.F 2.B 3.A 4.D 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.ABCD 9.AB 10.D 11.B 12.CD 13.B 14.A 15.D 16.C 17.
ABD 18.ABD 19.D 20.D

1. Which of the following statements are true? (Select 3 answers)

 The neighbor state can transition from "Down" to "Exchange".
 The neighbor state can transition from "Down" to "Init".
 The neighbor state can transition from "Init" to "Exstart".
 The neighbor state can transition from "Init" to "2-Way".
2. In a route-policy, which BGP attributes can be used to define apply clauses? (Select
3 answers)
 Local-Preference
 Tag
 Origin
 AS-Path
3. Which of the following problems can be solved by IGMP Snooping?
 Receiver hosts support only IGNPv2, but only the SSM model is used on the network.
 A router receives large quantities of IGMP Report messages due to the existence of large number
of hosts on the network.
 Broadcasting of multicast data on Layer 2 devices.
 Validity of IGMP Report messages.
4. The ABR in a Totally Stubby area will not advertise Type-3, Type-4, and Type-5 LSAs
into the Totally Stubby area. Instead, the ABR will advertise a default route to the To-
tally Stubby area enabling packet forwarding to other destinations.
 TRUE
 FALSE
5. What does the IP-prefix-filter "ip ip-prefix test index 10 deny 0.0.0.0 0 less-equal 32"
mean?
 Matching only default routes
 Matching all routes
 Denying only default routes
 Denying all routes
6. When a routing protocol import routes discovered by other routing protocols, it must
import only the routes that meet the conditions and set attributes for the imported
routes. In such a case, a route-policy can be created.
 TRUE
 FALSE
7. Which of the following protocols support the multicast ASM service model? (Select 2
answers)
 PIM-SM and IGMFV2
 PIM-SSM and IGMPv3
 BGPandOSPF
 PIM-DM and IGMPv2
8. Which of the following statements is false?
 An ABR maintains a separate LSDB for each area it is attached to. ABRs have multiple LSBDs.
 Metric, an ASE LSA parameter, can be specified when an external route is imported with 1 as
its default value.
 The externally-derived routing information carries a tag for transmitting additional infor-
mation of
the route which is commonly used in a routing policy. The default value of the Tag label is
0.
 The Link State ID is the Router ID of the ASBR for type 4 LSAs.
9. Which parameters are carried in a BGP Open message? (Select 3 answers)
 Local AS number
 BGPID
 Keepalive timer
 Holder timer
 Current peer status
10. Whenever changes occur in the BGP routing table, a BGP Speaker advertises all the
optimal routes in the BGP routing table to its peers.
 TRUE
 FALSE
11. The Origin attribute of the BGP routes injected with the network command are con-
sidered IGP.
 TRUE
 FALSE
12. How many Class C networks does the summarized route 192.168.134.0/22 cover?
 2
 4
 8
 16
13. Which of the following messages needs to be sent out by a downstream interface
when recovering from the pruned state to the forwarding state in PIM DM?
 Join
 Assert
 Prune
 Graft
14. In VRP, by default, a BGP router automatically retransmits an update packet to its
peers after the outbound routing policy for the BGP peers changes.
 TRUE
 FALSE
15. Which of the following statements is false?
 The Type-1 external metric is the sum of the external metric and the internal cost to reach
an
ASB
 The Type-2 external metric uses only the AS external metric.
 The metric of an external route is the sum of the AS external metric and the AS internal metric.
 The effects of setting Forwarding Address to a non-zero value is that the next hop of the
external route imported into OSPF is within the OSPF routing area.
16. If both the ospf cost and reference-bandwidth are configured on an interface, the
value set by the ospf cost command is used as the cost of the interface.
 TRUE
 FALSE
17. Which of the following routes match the ACL filter given below? (Select 2 answers)
"acl number 2001 rule 0 permit source 1.1.1.0 0.0.254.255"
 1.1.1.1/32
 1.1.2.1/32
 1.1.3.1/32
 1.1.4.1/32
18. Once a BGP connection is established, a BGP speaker advertises all the optimal
routes in the BGP routing table to its peers.
 TRUE
 FALSE
19. Which of these statements is true when configuring MD5 authentication between
BGP peers?
 All routers in the same AS must use the same MD5 password.
 A pair of BGP peers must use the same MD5 password.
 All BGP peers must use the same MD5 password.
 Every BGP peer of a router must use a unique MD5 password.
20. Which of the following are well-known communities attributes? (Select 3 answers)
 NO_EXPORT (OxFFFFFF0l)
 N0_ADVERT1SE (0xFFFFFF02)
 NO_EXPORT_SUBCONFED
 AS (2Byte): Number (2Byte)
21. Which of the following statements regarding DR in PIM protocol are true? (Select 3
answers)
 In DR election, the router with the lowest IP address is elected among the routers of the
same
DR priority..
 A source’s DR sends Register messages to an R
 A receiver’s DR is sends Join messages to a multicast source or an R
 An Assert winner on a shared network segment may not be a D
22. The defined route-policy set-cost configurations are: ip ip-prefix 1 permit 10.1.0.0 16
route-policy Set-cost permit node 10 if-match ip-prefix 1 apply cost 300 route-policy
Set-cost permit node 20 apply cost 200 Which of the following statements is true?
 The route 10.1.0.0/16 matches node 10 and its cost is set to 300.
 The route 10.1.0.0/16 matching node 10 also matches node 20 and its final cost is set to 200.
 Costs of all routes will be set to 200.
 All routes that fail to match node 10 will be denied.
23. Which statements regarding BGP route advertisement are true? (Select 2 answers)
 All BGP routes learned from BGP peers are advertised to other BGP peers,
 Only the routes learned from an IGP are advertised to other BGP peers.
 By default, the routes learned from IBGP peers are not advertised to other IBGP peers,
 Only the optimal routes are advertised to other BGP peers.
24. Which statement about OSPF is false?
 The router with a higher Router Priority has a higher DR election priority.
 When two routers have the same Router Priority, the one with a larger value for Router ID has
a higher DR election priority.
 If a DR fails, the BDR automatically takes over as the DR and a new BDR is elected.
 If a BDR fails, the DR will not take over as the BDR and waits for the fault recovery to han-
dle
the situation. No new BDR will be elected.
25. RTA is a source’s DR and RTB is an RP. A multicast source sends multicast data to
RTA but RTB cannot find any information about the multicast source (registered by us-
ing the PIM Register message). Why? (Select 3 answers)
 RTB has no unicast routes to RTA,
 RTA fails to learn RP information.
 RTA has no unicast routes to RT
 The RPlearned by RTA is not RT
26. Which statements about OSPF packets are true? (Select 3 answers)
 Hello packets can be sent after OSPF is enabled on an interface.
 LS Request packets are sent only after an adjacency is established.
 LS Update packets contain detailed LSA information for LSDB synchronization.
 LS Update packets are sent only after an adjacency is established.
27. Assume that the following commands are run to configure BGP timer keepalive 30
hold 90 peer 1.1.1.2 timer keepalive 10 hold 30 Which statements regarding the configu-
ration are true? (Select 2 answers)
 A global configuration is preferred. Therefore, the timer values for peer 1.1.1.2 are "keepalive
30 hold 90."
 A peer configuration is preferred. Therefore, the timer values for peer 1.1.1.2 are "keepalive
10
hold 30."
 The smaller value between the global and peer timer values is chosen. Therefore, the timer
values for peer 1.1.1.2 are "keepalive 10 hold 30".
 The default configuration is "timer keepalive 60 hold 180." Therefore, peer 1.1.1.2 can de-
tect
connection faults faster than the default configuration.
28. According to BGP route selection rules, a local route that is automatically summa-
rized takes precedence over a local route that is manually summarized.
 TRUE
 FALSE
29. Which of the following statements regarding multicast MAC addresses are true (Se-
lect 3 answers)
 The high-order 24 bits of a multicast MAC address are 0x01005e while the low-order 23 bits
of
a multicast MAC address are the low-order 23 bits of a multicast IP address.
 One multicast MAC address can map 32 different IP multicast addresses.
 Multicast MAC addresses are used in the link layer to identify receivers that are in the same
multicast group.
 One multicast MAC address can map only one IP multicast address.
30. Route filtering can filter not only routing information but also link-state information.
 TRUE
 FALSE
Which of the following description about ABR in OSPF is wrong?
A. There are multiple LSDBs on ABR and ABR maintains one LSDB for each area.
B. The ABR abstracts the link state information in the connected non-backbone areas into
routing information and advertises it to the backbone area.
C. ABR also abstracts the link state information of the backbone area into routing information
and publishes it to all non-backbone areas.
D. ABR can generate LSA3, LSA4, and LSA5 information.
Answer: D

The source tree uses the shortest path from the multicast source to the receiver, so it is called
the shortest path tree SPT.
A. TRUE
B. FALSE
Answer: A

The first 4 bits of the IP multicast address are fixed 1110 and correspond to the high 25 bits of
the multicast MAC address. In the last 28 bits of the IP multicast address, only 23 bits are
mapped to the MAC address, so 5 bits of address information are lost. As a direct result, 32 IP
multicast addresses are mapped to the same MAC address.
A. TRUE
B. FALSE
Answer: A

Which of the following BGP attributes are recognized as mandatory type attributes? (Multiple
choice)
A. Local_Pref
B. Next_hop
C. AS-Path
D. MED
Answer: BC

Which description about BGP state machine is wrong?

A. In the Idle state, BGP rejects any access connection request and is the BGP initial state.
B. In the Active state, BGP will attempt to establish the access TCP connection, which is the
intermediate state of BGP.
C. In the Established state, BGP peers can exchange Update messages, Route-refresh mes-
sages, Keepalive messages, and Notification messages.
D. The status of both BGP peers must be OpenConfirm before the BGP neighbor relationship
can be established. The two parties exchange routing information through Update messages.
Answer: D

Which of the following description about Network-Summary-LSA is correct? (Multiple choice)

A. The Link State ID in the Network-Summary-LSA is set as the IP address of the destination
network.
B. Network mask in Network-Summary-LSA is set as the network mask of the destination net-
work segment.
C. The metric in the Network-Summary-LSA is set to the cost value from the ABR to the desti-
nation network segment.
D. Network-Summary-LSA is generated by ASBR.
Answer: ABC Answer: A

What type of network does the ISIS protocol support except P2P?
A. P2MP
B. NBMA
C. SNAP
D. LAN (broadcast network)
Answer: D

Which of the following description about DR is correct?

A. In the network segment DR election, when the DR priority is the same, the bigger IP ad-
dress is elected.
B. The source DR is responsible for sending Register messages with multicasting to the RP.
C. The receiver DR is responsible for sending Join messages to the multicast source or RP.
D. Assert Winner on the shared network segment may not be the network segment DR.
Answer: ACD

Two level-1 routers in different areas can form a neighbor relationship.

A. TRUE
B. FALSE
Answer: B

1.Enabling MD5 authentication between BGP peers can prevent DoS attacks that target BGP peers. A.TRUE
B. FALSE

Answer: A

2.Which of the following statements are correct regarding OSPF intra-area route calculation? (Select 2 an-
swers)

A.Each OSPF router uses only one Router LSA to describe the local active link state for an area.

B. Each OSPF router uses more than one Router LSA to describe local active link state for an area.

C. One Router LSA describes only one link,

D. One Router LSA describes more than one link.

Answer: A, D 3.
Which of the following is the address range assigned by IANA for SSM service in IPv4?

A.232.0.0.0/24

B. 225.0.0.0/8

C. 232.0.0.0/8

D. 239.0.0.0/8

Answer: D

4.Which of the following are multicast routing protocols? (Select 3 answers)

A.DVMRP

B. PIM-DM

C. OSPF

D. PIM-SM

Answer: A, B, D

5.Which of the following route entries match the IP-Prefix defined below? ip ip-prefix test index 10 permit
192.168.0.0 16 greater-equal 24 less-equal 28 (Select 2 answers)

A.192.168.1.0/24

B. 192.10.2.0/24

C. 192.168.3.0/25

D. 192.168.4.0/30

Answer: A, C

In an OSPF routing domain, on a broadcast network and an NBMA network that contain at least two
routers, one router must be designated as a DR and the other as BDR.

A. TRUE
B. FALSE

Answer: B
According to RFC 2328, for a router running OSPF, from the initial process to the process of forming an
adjacency with a neighbor, which is correct?
A. Down，Init，2-way，Exchange，Exstart，Loading，Full
B. Down，Exstart，2-way，Init，Exchange，Loading，Full
C. Down，Init，Exstart，Exchange， Loading，Full
D. Down，Init，2-way，Exstart，Exchange，Loading，Full

Answer: D

Which of the following description about the OSPF protocol is wrong?

A.Each OSPF router uses only one Router-LSA to describe the status of local links in an area.
B. Link types described by a Router-LSA include 4 types: P2P/TransNet/StubNet/virtual link.

C. The Link State ID described in the third type of SA is the router-id of the ABR.
D. Routing information is only allowed to be advertised between backbone areas and non-backbone

areas, and routing information is not allowed to be directly advertised between non-backbone areas.
Answer: C

Each OSPF router has a router ID. The router ID must be advertised in the OSPF process view.
A. TRUE

B. FALSE
Answer: B

Which description about the BGP route advertisement principle is correct? (Multiple Choice)
A. Once the BGP connection is established, the BGP speaker will advertise all its own BGP routes to

the new peer.

B. The BGP speaker advertises all its BGP routes to its peers.

C. Generally, when there are multiple paths, the BGP speaker only selects the optimal route into its
own routing table.

D. The routes learned by the BGP Speaker from the EBGF are advertised to all its BGP peers (includ-
ing EBGP and IBGP).

Answer: ACD

A network scale is relatively large. Some switches run MSTP, and the other switches run RSTP. When

the MSTP-enabled switch detects that the neighboring switch is running in RSTP mode, what mode
does the MSTP switch work in?
A. STP mode
B. RSTP mode

C. MSTP mode
D. Unable to determine

Answer: C

What are the benefits of OSPF zoning? (Multiple Choice)

A. The size of the LSDB can be reduced to reduce the memory consumption of the router.
B. LSA can also be reduced with the division of the area, reducing the consumption of router CPU.

C. The proliferation of flooding LSAs is limited to a single area.

D. The routers in one area can understand the topology details outside their area.

Answer: ABC

When OSPF is running on a broadcast network, DR and BDR need to be elected.

Then in which of the following states will DR and BDR be elected?

A. Init status

B. Attempt status
C. 2-way state

D. Exchange status
Answer: C

After the RPT tree is established, which description about the SPT switch is incorrect?
A. The RPT tree cannot be forwarded for a long time.

B. All multicast traffic passes through RP routers. RP routers may become the bottleneck for data for-
warding.

C. The SPT path is the shortest and the forwarding performance is better.
D. The RPT tree cannot support large traffic forwarding.

Answer: A

What are the characteristics of IS-IS protocol? (Multiple Choice)

A. Support for rich regional features

B. Simple message structure

C. Suitable for large-capacity route transfer

D. Better scalability
Answer: BCD

Which of the following BGP attributes can prevent routing loops? (Select 3 answers)
Haut du formulaire

Originator_ID

Aggregator

Cluster_List

AS-Path

How many port state does RSTP define

A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
whiche port role does RSTP define:

root port, designated port, backup port, alternate port, edge port

ospf network type :

point-to-point

point-to-multipoint

broadcast network

NBMA network

What types of links can be described by a router-LSA:

Point-to-point

TransNet
StubNet

Vlink links

Can one Network-Summary-LSA describe multiple routes :

False

How does ospf prevent inter-area routing loops :

Partition area into backbone and non-backbone area, all non-backbone area must connectec to backbone
area, only one backbone area exist, routing information between non-backbone area must be forwarded
throught the backbone area, type 3 LSAs from the backbone area not be transmitted back to the backbone
area.

What type of routers is an AS-External-LSA originated by ? what are functions of an AS-External-LSA?

an AS-External-LSA originated by ASBR to advertise an external route to an OSPF network,

one an AS-External-LSA can advirtise only one external route

What type of routers is an ASBR-Summary-LSA originated by ? what are functions of an ASBR-Summary-

LSA?

ASBR-Summary-LSA is originated by ABR to instruct the rest of the OSPF domain how to get the ASBR.

What two types of external route does OSPF provide? Which type of route has a higher priority?

Tow type of OSPF external routes : type 1 and type 2

Type 1 have a higher priority than type2

What special areas does OSPF define :

Stub area, totally stub area, not-so-stubby area, totally NSSA.

What are the differences between stub area and totally stub area

A stub area does not allow transmission of type 4 or type 5 LSAs but allow transmission of type 3 LSAs. A
totally stub area does not allow transmission of type4, type5, or type 3 LSA

Only type 3 LSA describing default route can be transmitted in a totally stub area

What routers can have inter-area route summarization configured

inter-area route summarization can be configured on an ABR

how many IS-IS router types exist?

Level 1 router (level-1 router), level 2 router and lavel-1-2 router

What is the function of PSNPs in neighbor interaction?

PSNPs are used to request and acknowledge LSPs

What are the advantage of IS-IS compared with OSPF?

IS-IS has simple packet structure, strong route transmission capacity, well-designed routing algo and hight
scalability

Port number used by BGP?

Tcp 21

Tcp 179

Tcp 80

Which are BGP well-know mandatory attributes ?

Origin , AS_PATH and Next_Hop

What is the range of IPv4 multicast address?

Is class D address, first 4 bit are 1110, range from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255

In IGMP v1 when tha last member leaves a group, how long will the multicast router wait before deleting
the multicast forwarding entry of the group?

60 x 2 + 10 = 130s

Is 224.0.0.1 the destination IP address of IGMP v2 group-specific query message?

False, ( the destination ip address of a group-specific query message is the IP address of the group to be
queried)

How does IGMP snooping work?

IGMP snooping listens to IGMP messages exchanged between multicast routers and hosts to create and
maintain a layer 2 multicast forwarding table. Then multicast data frames can be forwarded at the data link
layer based on the layer 2 multicast forwarding table.

What is a multicast distribution tree? What type are multicast distribution treeclassified into?

A multicast distribution tree is a unidirectional loop-free data transmission path from a multicast source to
the receivers. There are two type multicast distribution tree : SPT and RPT.

What is the function of the assert mechanism?

Assert mechanism prevent duplicate packets from being transmitted on a shared network( expel Ethernet
network). The assert mechanism selects a unique forwarder on the shared network. The routers that lose
the election prune their interface to disable multicast data forwarding to these interface.

In the PIM-SM protocol, the DR connected to receivers send unicast register message to the RP?

False, (the DR connected to a multicast source is responsible for sending unicast register message to the
RP)

Can the IP prefix list be used to filter IP packets?

False , ( can oly filter routing information)

Which methods can be used to adjust traffic paths?

Routing policy and policy-based routing

What problems may be caused by route importing and what are the solution?

The problem such as sub-optimal path and route loop may occur. The solutions include route filtering and
priority adjustment

What are the Eth-Trunk link aggregation modes?

Manual load balancing mode

LACP mode

Manual LACP mode

Dynamic LACP mode

In LACP mode what is the default system priority ?

1
4096

32768 (Bridge ID = priority+MAC @)

65535

For the MUX VLAN in which VLAN can devices communicate with device in all VLANs?

Principal VLAN

Separate VLAN

Group VLAN

Subordinate VLAN

How many type of secure MAC addresse in port security?

Dynamic secure MAC add

Static secure MAC add

Sticky MAC add

Protected MAC add

Which of the following statements about MSTP is false?

One MST region can have only one MSTI

Each MSTI uses the RSTP algo independently

MSTP is compatible with STP

An MSTI can correspond to one or more VLANs

STP:
Limitation of Single Spanning tree (STP)?

 The duration from initialization to full convergence is at least 30 s ( 15 s listeninglearning and 15

s learning to forwarding)
 When the switch has the blocked port and the root port goes down: the blocked port switche to
the root port and enters the forwarding state, this process require at least 30s.
 When the switch has no blocked port and the root port does down: the blocked port of the other
switch switche to forwarding state this process require about 15 s.
 The time for the link between the switch and user terminal to enter the forwarding state is 30s.
 
 Processing of top ology changes: 

o After the ne twork topology cha nges, a d own stream device

con tinuously sends TCN BPDUs to an ups trea m device. 

o Af te r t h e u ps tr e a m d evi c e re c ei v es t h e TC N BP D Us fr o m t he d o w n -
str e a m d ev ic e, o nl y t h e d esi g n a te d p o rt p r oc es ses t h e TC N B PD U s.
Th e o t he r p o r ts m a y r ec ei v e TCN BPDUs but do no t p roce ss them. 

o The u pstre am device sets the TCA bit of the Flags field in
the con figuration BPDUs to 1 and returns the co nfiguration
BPDUs to instruct the downs tream device to stop sending
TCN BPDUs. 

o The u pstre am device sends a co py of the TCN BPDUs to th e roo t b ridge. 

o The p receding steps are repea ted until the r oot bridge re ceives the TCN
BPDU. 

o The r oo t bridge sets the TC bit of the Flags fi eld in the config-
uration BPDUs to 1 to instruct the down strea m device to de-
lete MAC add ress en tries. 



  Port R oles: 

For STP, the designated port can be rapidly selected. To prevent loops, a device must wait for at
least two intervals of Forward Delay so that all ports become stable. Then all ports can forward
traffic.
NB:

The election principal of STP and RSTP are similar: electing the root switch, root port of thr non-root
switch , designated port, (alternet port and backup port for RSTP):

Root bridge : with the lowest Bridge ID (BID = Priority + MAC address) avec priority 2 byte and MAC ad-
dress 6 byte. Priority = 32768 by default.

All switch sends BPDUs msg contient BID in order to elected the root bridge

Root port :

 Shortest path to the root bridge(least cost).

 Lowst forwarding switch ID (cad neighbor switch ID)
 Lowst forwarding physical port number ( cad : neighbor port number)

Designated port : the election is the same like root port.

Hello message send in STP evry :

2s
maxAge : 10 x Hello ( 20 seconds)

time between listening and learning state in STP : 15 s by default

forward delay : listening 15 s - learning 15 s  forwarding

in STP the duration from initialization to full convergence is at least 30 s

STP topologie change:

When topologie change, TCN PBDUs sent to the root bridge, the upstream bridge
that receive the TCN sends TCA BPDU, after the TCN reach the root bridge , the root
bridge sends TC BPDU to notify device of deleting MAC address -> complex

RSTP:
RSTP add two role port :

Alternate port : is a blocked port because it learns config BPDU from other network bridge, it function as
buckup of the root port and provide path from the designed root to the root bridge

Backup port : blocked because it learn config from BPDU sent from itself, acts as backup of the designated
port and provide path from the root node to the leaf node
RSTP port state :
Discarding ( disabled, blocking and listening in STP simple) : not forward and notS learn MAC address

Learning : not forward user traffic but learn MAC address

Forwarding : forward and learn MAC address

 RSTP Proposal/Agreement mechanism ( P/A) : enable a designated port to enter
the forwarding state as soon as possible ( requirement of this mechanism : the link be-
tween switch in P2P in full duplex mode, when mechanism fail the designated port need
to wait two interval of forward delay: The negotiation is similar to that of STP.)

Phase 1: The device is started; RSTP is enabled; each switch considers itself as the root
bridge, sends BPDUs with the Proposal bit of 1 to other switches, and changes the
port that sends the BPDUs with the Proposal bit to the designated port; the port is in
Discarding state.

NB: BPDUs can sent only from the designated port

Phase 2: SWA does not process BPDUs with the Proposal bit from SWB and SWC because
it has the highest bridge priority. After SWB and SWC receive BPDUs with the Proposal
 bit from SWA, they send BPDUs with the Agreement bit to SWA based on the Pro-
posal/Agreement negotiation process, and change the transmit ports to root ports. In
addition, the ports are in Forwarding state. This is because SWB and SWC consider
that SWA is the optimal root bridge.

Phase 3: The Proposal/Agreement negotiation between SWA and SWB and be-
tween SWA and SWC is complete. The Proposal/Agreement negotiation between
SWB and SWC is as follows:

 SWB and SWC will send BPDUs with the Proposal bit and SWA as the root bridge
to each other.

 Though SWC and SWB consider SWA as the root bridge, SWC stops sending
BPDUs with the Proposal bit after receiving BPDUs with the Proposal bit from
SWB. This is because SWC has a lower priority than SWB. 
SWC does not send the BPDUs with the Agreement bit because there is the root port.

 Though SWC and SWB consider SWA as the root bridge, SWB continuously
sends BPDUs with the Proposal bit after receiving BPDUs with the Proposal bit
from SWC. This is because SWB has a higher priority than SWC.

 After two intervals of Forward Delay, the port of SWB becomes the desig-
nated port in Forwarding state and the port of SWC becomes the alternate
port in Discarding state


RSTP topologie change:

When a to pology change is de tected, the p ro cedure is as follows: 

A TC flag While timer is s tarte d o n ea ch non - edge designated por t

of the switch. The value o f the timer is twice the value of the Hello
timer. Within this pe riod of time, MAC addre sses learned on the
port of which the s tatus changes are cleared . The por ts se nd R ST
BPDUs with the TC field of 1. Whe n the TC W hile Timer expires, the
ports stop sending R ST BPDU. 

After o ther switches re ceive the RS T BPDUs, they clears MAC ad-
dresses o f all p orts ex cept the p orts th at receive RST BP DUs . A TC
While timer is s tarte d o n e a c h n o n- e d ge de sig n a t e d p or t of t h e
sw it c h. T h e p re c e di n g pr o c ess is re p e a t e d. In this case , R ST BPDUs
are floode d. 


There is a acknowledgement mechanism during negotiation, so RSTP-enabled switch can forward BPDU
without depending on timers to ensure the loop-free network topology ( only need to consider the time for
sending BPDU and calculate the loop-free network topology (in a seconde)

RSTP edge port :

Edge port is port direct connected to a terminal (PC), if a port is configured as edge port so this port imme-
diately enter the forwarding state

RSTP : network topology change only when a non-edge port change to the forwarding state (true)

BPDU protection : prevent a switch from being attacked by RST BPDU. When th edge port receive bogus
RST BPDU, the edge port is automatically configured as a non-edge port and the spanning tree is recalcu-
lated , causing network flapping

When the edge port is configured with BPDU protection the edge port that receives the BPDUs is immedi-
ately shut down

Root protection : when a port enabled with root protection receive an RST BPDU with a high priority, the
port enters the discarding state and does not forward packts, if the port does not receive RST BPDU with a
higher priority for a certain period the port enter the forwarding state

Root protection can be configured on only designated port

TC protection : after enable TC protection , you can set the number of times TC BPDU are processed vy the
RSTP process within a given period of time( the default period is 2 s and the defult number of times is 3). If
the number of TC BPDU that the RSTP process receive within the given period of time exceeds the specified
threshold, the RSTP process processes TC BPDUs only for specified number of times. The RSTP process pro-
cesses excess TC BPDUs once after the timer expire. This function prevents the switch from frequently de-
leting its MAC address entries and ARP entries and protect the switch

RSTP config :

Stp enable

Stp mode rstp

(stp root primary ) // set as the root bridge

Stp bpdu-protection
Interface GE 0/0/0

Stp edged-port enable

RSTP verification config : display stp ( or brief)

MSTP provide fast convergence and multiple path to load balance VLAN traffic
Each spanning tree is called MSTI (multiple spanning tree Instance), each MSTI has an MSTI ID which is 2
byte integer , the VRP supports 16 MSTI, the MSTI ID range from 0 to 15, all vlan are mapped to MSTI 0 by
default

An MSTI can be mapped to one or more VLAN ( in vlan mapping table), but one VLAN can map to only
one MSTI

MSTI is compatible with STP, RSTP

Switch in one MST region share the following caracteristics : MSTP-enabled, Same region name, Same vlan-
MSTI mapping and Saame MSTP revision level

MSTP config :

Stp enable

Stp mode mstp

Stp region-configuration

Region-name RG1

Instance 1 vlan 1 to 10

Instance 2 vlan 11 to 20

Active region-config

Stp instance 1 root primary

Stp instance 2 root secondary

Interface ge 0/0/1 //// in other switch

Stp instance 2 cost 200000

MSTP config verification : display stp brief

MUX VLAN ( Multiplex VLAN) : mechanism to control network through VLAN, provide Layer 2 isolation to
allow entreprise employees to communicate and isolate visitor:

Three type of MUX VLAN :

Principal VLAN : device in principal VLAN can communicate with all VLAN

Separate VLAN : device in separate VLAN can communicate with principal VLAN only

Group VLAN : device in group VLAN can communicate with device in separate vlan, device in the same
Group VLAN can communicate but cannot communicate with other in another group device

Port isolation :

Users in the same port isolation groupe cannot communicate at layer 2, but users in different port isolation
group can communicate .

Users does not belong to any port isolation group can communicate with users in the port isolation group.

Port isolation mode :

Layer 2 isolation and layer 3 interworking : isolate broadcast frame in the same vlan but allow
users connecting to differents interface to communicate at layer 3

Layer 2 and layer 3 isolation : prevent interface in the same vlan from communicating at both
layer 2 and layer 3

Port isolation config :

Interface ge 0/0/1

Port link-type access

Port default vlan 10

Port-isolate enable // by default port added to port isolation group 1

If you want to crete port isolation group : port-isolate enable group …

Display port isolation : display port-isolate group all (ou group id)

Port security : when there are unauthorized users on a network, you can use port security to ensure net-
work security.( by default not enable)

The port security apply into :

 * The access device : the port security can defend against attacks initiated by an unauthorized
user using another interface : enable port security on each interface of access switch and bind user MAC
with VLAN id

*The aggregation device : port security can limit the number of access users: enable port se-
curity on aggregation switch and set the maximum number of MAC address that can be learned by each
interface , when the number of learned MAC address reaches the limit , the switch discards data packet
with other MAC address

Type of secure MAC address :

Dynamic secure MAC address : lost after device restart

Static secure MAC address :

Sticky MAC addess : no aged out, saved manualy are not lost when device restart

Action to take after number of secure MAC address exceeds the limit :

Restrict : discard packet with non existent source MAC and generate alarme , this action is recommended.

Protect: only discards and not generate alarm

Shutdown: set the interface state to error-down and generate alarm ( by default interface in error down
can be restored only by using retart command in the interface view

Port security config :

Interface ge 1/0/0

Port-security enable // by default disable

Port-security mac-address sticky // enable sticky MAC function

Port-security max-mac-num … // maximum number of sticky MAC , by default interface can learn only
one sticky MAC address

(optional) port-security protect-action {protect |restrict|shutdown}

Port-security mac-address sticky mac@ vlan vlan id // manualy config sticky mac address

Port security display :

Display mac-address sticky // check the bound mac address

Display mac-address security //check dynamically learned mac address

Eth-trunk : ( only Ethernet interface can join the Eth trunk)

 Bundles multiple eth interface into a logical interface :

Increase bandwidth

Implement load balancing

Provide failover

Improve network reliability

Prevent wasted of ip address

Can be used for layer 2 and layer 3 link aggregation ( by default work at layer 2 )

To config layer 2 eth-trunk run : porswitch command

To config layer 3 eth-trunk : undo portswitch

Eth-trunk modes : manual load balancing mode (used when at least one device of two device does not sup-
port LACP protocol) and LACP mode

LACP mode : alsso called M:N mode where M is the number of link active and N the number of link inactive
( backup)

The actual bandwidth used is the sum of M bandwidth , and the maximum bandwidth is M+N bandwidth.

When link of M fail , LACP select one link of N with high priority  actual bandwidth M and maximum
M+N-1

After interface added to the Eth-trunk in LACP mode, the interface send LACPDUs to notify the remote end
of : system priority, MAC addess, interface priorities and interface number

The end with the higher LACP system priority function as Actor ( if equal then the end with a smaller MAC
address is the Actor)

A smaller LACP system priority value indicate a higher priority : by default LACP system priority is 32768 ( if
interface with the same LACP priority then interface with smaller ID or interface number is selected as ac-
tive interface)

LACP preemption delay :

When active link fail, and if LACP preemption delay is enabled , then the backup link wait period of time
(LACP preemption delay ) to switch to active status  prevent instable data transmission due to frequent
status change

If LACP preemption delayis enabled and when port1 fail, it will replaced with port 2 , if port1 restored it be-
came active and port2 became buckup. ( if LACP preemption delay not enabled port1 still backup )

Eth-trunk load balancing :

2 Load balancing mode : Flow-based load balancing ( IP based load balancing) : when packet use the same
source and destination IP ( MAC) address , the packet transmitted over the same member link. IP-based
hash algorithm can ensure packet sequencing but cannot ensure bandwidth usage

Packet-based load balancing: when packet transmitted over diffirent link. Packet-
based algorithm can ensure bandwidth usage but cannot ensure packet sequencing

Configure load balancing mode :

System view

Interface eth-trunk trunk-id

Load-balance {ip | packet-all} // by default load balance ise based op IP address of packet

Configure the load balancing weight :

System-view

Interface interface type interface number

Distribute-weight weight-value // by default weight-value is set to 1

Eth-trunk configuration process: create Eth-Trunk  configure link aggregation mode (manual or LACP) 
Add member interfaces.

When adding interface to Eth-Trunk pay attention to :

 Member interface cannot have layer 3 config such as IP address nor services
 Member interface cannot be configured with static MAC address
 An Eth-Trunk cannot be nestled, that is a member interface cannot be an Eth-Trunk
 An interface can join only one Eth-Trunk
 The Eth-trunk working mode does not effected by adding interface

Mode-lacp-static // commande to config Eth-Trunk LACP mode

Trunkport interface type // add mber interface

Max active-linknumber

Lacp priority .. //lacp interface priority

Lacp preempt enable

Lacp preempt dealy …

Control traffic reachability :

Routing policy : when advertise , receiving and importing route, routing policy implement certain policies
in order to filter the route :

 Control route advertisement

 Control route sending and receiving
 Filter and control imported route
 Set route attribute

Filters provided for routing protocol :

Acl , address prefix list, as_path filter, community attribute filter, extended community attribute filter, rd
filter.

ACL classification :

 Basic ACL : number range 2000 to 2999

 Advanced ACL : 3000 to 3999
 Layer 2 ACL : 4000 to 4999
 User-defined ACL : 5000 to 5999

IP-Prefix List : cannot filter IP packet , but can filter only routing information

Which of the following are multicast routing protocols? (Select 3 answers)

A.DVMRP
B. PIM-DM
C. OSPF
D. PIM-SM
Answer: A, B, D

Which of the following statements are correct regarding OSPF intra-area route calculation?
(Select 2 answers)
A.Each OSPF router uses only one Router LSA to describe the local active link state for an
area.
B. Each OSPF router uses more than one Router LSA to describe local active link state for an
area.
C. One Router LSA describes only one link,
D. One Router LSA describes more than one link.
Answer: A, D

Enabling MD5 authentication between BGP peers can prevent DoS attacks that target BGP
peers.
A.TRUE
B. FALSE
Answer: A

Which of the following is the address range assigned by IANA for SSM service in IPv4?
A.232.0.0.0/24
B. 225.0.0.0/8
C. 232.0.0.0/8
D. 239.0.0.0/8
Answer: D

Which of the following is the multicast distribution tree maintained by PIM-DM?

A.SFT
B. CBT
C. RFT
D. STP
Answer: A

Which of the following route entries match the IP-Prefix defined below? ip ip-prefix test index
10 permit 192.168.0.0 16 greater-equal 24 less-equal 28 (Select 2 answers)
A.192.168.1.0/24
B. 192.10.2.0/24
C. 192.168.3.0/25
D. 192.168.4.0/30
Answer: A, C

IS-IS (Intermediate System-to- Intermediate System):

Link state based IGP.

Use SPF algo to calculate route.

Used by large ISP (internet service provider), specialy in backbone network because it is simple, including
IS-IS fast algo (enhanced PRC), simple packet structure (TLV), fast neighbor relationship, large-cpacity route
transmission have high scalability.

Work at the Data Link layer

Support CLNP and IP network (OSPF support only IP network).

IS-IS route calculation: establish a neighbor relationship  synchronize the LSDP  perform SPF route cal-
culation:

Neighbor relations hip es tablishment: 

B ef o re es t a bli s hi ng a n ei g h b o r r el a ti o ns hi p, d e vi ces o n t w o e n ds e xc h a n g e
He llo packet s a nd negotia te pa rameters , in cluding the cir cuit type (level -
1/level -2), h old time, network ty pe, sup por ted pro to col, area ID , sys tem
ID, PDU leng th, an d in terface IP ad dress. 

Link informa tion exch ange: 

Di ff er e n t fr o m O SP F, I S -I S e x c h a n ges li n k s t at e in f or m a ti o n usi n g li n k s t a t e
P D Us ( L SP s) i ns t e a d of li n k s t at e a d v er tis e m e n ts ( L SAs ). I n I S -I S, C SN Ps a n d
P SN Ps ar e use d to synch ronize the L SDB and request as well as
acknowledge link sta te inf ormation (link s tate informatio n s ummary ). 

Route cal culation : 

IS -I S SP F c al c ul at i o n is si mil ar t o O SP F SP F c al c ul a ti o n e x c e pt t h a t
t h e I S-I S algorithm se para tes the top ology an d IP ne two rk seg-
ment an d spee ds up network convergen ce. 
NSAP, IDP, DSP, SEL, HODS P, NET : voir cour s (IS -IS address st ructur e)

IS-IS router type : IS-IS clas sifi ed into 3 typ e

Level -1 r outer : 

A L ev el - 1 r o u t er es t a bli s he s ne ig h b o r r el a ti o ns hi ps w i t h o nl y L e v el - 1 a n d
Le v el- 1 - 2 r outer s in the same a rea. It mainta ins a Level -1 LSDB , w hich
con tains in tra - area rou ting info rmation and forwards pa ckets destine d
for o ther areas to the n e a re st L ev el - 1 - 2 r o u t e r. A L e v el - 1 r o u t er c a n es t a -
blis h o nl y L e v el - 1 a d j a ce n ci es. 

Level -2 r outer : 

A Level -2 r oute r manages inter - area r ou ting. It can esta blish neighbor re-
lationships wi th Level -2 rou ters in the same or differe nt areas and with
Level - 1- 2 r outer s in diffe ren t area s. It maintains a Level -2 LSDB , which
con tains in ter - ar e a r o u ti n g i nf o r m at i o n. A Le v el- 2 r o u te r c a n es t a bli s h o nl y
Le v el- 2 a dj a c e nci es . 

Level -1-2 rou ter: 

A route r, which belongs to b oth Level -1 area and Level -2 area , is

called a Level - 1 -2 rou ter. A Level -1-2 ro uter maintains two LS DBs ,
that is, a Level -1 LSD B an d a Level -2 L SDB. The Level -1 LS DB is used
 for in tra-area ro uting a nd the Level -2 LS DB i s used for inter -area
routing. 

A Level -1-2 ro uter ca n es tablish Level -1 neighbor relations hips with

Level -1 r outers in the same are a. It can also establish Level -2
neighbor rela tionships with Level -2 rou ters a nd Level - 1-2 rou ters in
other areas. 

IS-IS rou ters in differe nt areas can o nly esta blish Level -2 adja cencies : 

Hello p rotocol data unit (H ello PDU ): 

H ell o p a c k e ts ar e us e d t o dis c o ve r n eig h b o rs, n eg o ti a t e p ar a m e -

t ers, m ai n t ai n neighb or rela tionships , a nd fu nctio n as Keepalive
packets. 

Li ke O SP F, I S -I S es t a bli s he s ne ig h b o r r el a ti o ns hi ps b y e x c h a ng i ng
H ell o p a c k e ts. Hello pa ckets are classified in to three types based
on s cenarios. 

In a b r o a dc as t n e t w or k, L ev el - 1 I S -I S r o ut e rs u se Le ve l - 1 L A N I S -I S
He llo ( II H ) packets with the des tinatio n multi cast MAC ad dress
018 0-c200 -00 14. 

In a b r o a dc as t n e t w or k, Le ve l -2 I S -I S ro ute rs u se Le ve l - 2 L A N I I H
pa ck e ts w i t h the des tinatio n multi cast MAC a ddress 018 0 - c20 0-
001 5. 

P2 P I IH pack ets are used in a non -broa dcas t network and do no t

carry a ny field in dicating the DIS (also called pseud o n ode). 

IIH packets need to use the pa dding field for negotia ti ng the size of
packets sen t between devices on the tw o en ds. 

IS-IS supports the follow ing networ k types: 

P2P netw ork type. 

Broadcast multiple a ccess ne twork type. 

In special e nvironments su ch as f rame relay, sub -interf aces ca n be created to 




Nighbor r elationsh ip es tablishe ment :
On a P2P link, a neighbor relatio nship can be established through tw o-way hand-
shake 
and three -way handshake .

In two-way ha ndshake , upon re ceiving a Hello pa cket from its

neighbor, a rou ter consider s the neighbor U p and establishes a
neighbor rela tionship with the neighbor. Ho wever, there is a risk of
unidirectio nal communica tion. 

In t hr e e- w a y h a n ds h a k e, a ne ig h b o r r el a ti o ns h ip i s es t a bl is h e d af t er P 2P
II Hs ar e sen t three times, similar to neighbor relations hip es tablishment
on a bro adca st link. 

O n a br o a d c as t li n k, a n ei g h b or r el at i o ns hi p is es t a blis h e d usi n g L AN
II H p ac k e ts through three-way handsh ake . 

When a rou ter receives fr om its neighbo r a Hello PDU tha t does no t
con tain its sys tem ID , the s ta te ma chine en ters the initialized s ta te. 

The s tate machine en ters the Up s tate only when the r outer re ceives
from its neighbor a Hello P DU th at co ntains i ts sys tem ID , e liminating
the risk of unidirectional communi catio n. 

On a br oad cast ne twork , the DIS (also called pseudo node) will be
elected after the neighb or s tate be comes Up . The DIS f unctions similarly
to the Designate d Ro uter (DR) in OSPF. 

DIS and pseudo node: 

DIS is sh ort fo r the Designated IS. 

Pseudo n ode is a vir tual r oute r create d by th e DIS in a broad cas t network. 

DIS chara cteristi cs: 

The DIS need s to be elected on a b roadcast network . After a neigh-

bor rela tionship is es tablished, a rou ter par ticipates in DIS elec-
tion a fter waiting f or t wo He llo in tervals. A Hello packet contains
the Priori ty field. The devi ce with the largest priority value is
elected as the DIS of the broa dcas t net work. If the device s have the
same priority , the device with the larges t in terface MAC address is
elected as the DIS. In IS -IS, the in terval a t w hich the DIS se nds
Hello packets defa ults to 1 0/3 se co nds, whil e the interval at which
non-DIS ro uters send He llo pa ckets is 1 0s. 
 Comparisons be tween DIS a nd DR: 

In IS-IS, the ro uter with priority 0 also takes part in DIS electi on. In
OSPF, the r oute r with priori ty 0 d oes n ot tak e par t in DR ele ction. 

In O SP F, D R / B DR el e ct i o n r e q uir es 40s w ai ti n g ti m e a n d is c o m pl ic a t e d. I n
IS -I S, DIS election re quires two Hello interval s and is simple an d fas t. 

In IS-IS, only the DIS is electe d. In OSPF , both the DR an d B DR are elected, and 
 BDR f unctions as the backup of the DR.

After election is complete, if a new rou ter wi th a higher priority is

added, it ca n be come the new DIS in IS -IS b u t cann ot become the
new DR in OSPF. 

Af te r e le c ti o n is c o m pl e te, a ll r o u t ers o n a n I S - IS n e t w o r k e st a bl is h
a d j ac e n ci es. I n O SP F, D R o t he rs es t a blis h o nl y fu ll a dj a c e nc y rel a -
ti o ns hi p s wi t h t he D R / B D R. DR o thers establis h only 2 -way neigh-
bor rela tionships with each o ther. 

DIS and DR fu nctions: 

 Both the DIS and DR fun ction a s a virtual no de during SPF

calculatio n, simplifying MA ne twork to polog y.

 Both the DIS and DR are designed to redu ce f looding of LSPs/ LSAs.

 In IS-IS, the DIS sends CSNPs to sy nchr onize the LSDB (IS -IS extensio n).

IS -IS TL V: 
TLV indica tes the type , length, and value . It is a data structure and
con tains three fields. 
Using TLV to cons truct packe ts can ens ure fl exibility, scalability, and
stable p acke t s tru cture. If new chara cteristics a re added , only new
TLVs need to be adde d, removing the nee d to change the packe t s tru c-
ture. 
Using TLV to indica te network topology and r outing inf ormation can
improve packe t flexibility and s calability. 
Link S tate Protoco l PDU (LSP PDU): 
L SPs a r e si mil ar t o L SAs i n O SP F a n d us e d t o t r a ns mi t li n k s t a t e i nf o r-
m a ti o n, inclu ding the topology and netw ork I D. 
Le v el- 1 r o u t ers tr a n sm it L ev el - 1 L SPs . 
Le v el- 2 r o u t ers tr a n sm it L ev el - 2 L SPs . 
Level -1-2 rou ters can transmit bo th Level -1 a nd Level - 2 L SPs. 
L SPs c o n t ai n t w o i m p o rt a n t fi el ds : AT T fi el d a n d I S -T y p e fi el d . T h e AT T
fie l d indica tes tha t a Level -1- 2 rou ter transm its an LSP. The IS -Type
field indicates whe ther a Level - 1 o r Level - 2 r outer generates an L SP. 
The LSP up date in terval is 1 5 minute s and the LSP aging time is 20
minutes. The aging o f an L SP req uires the wa iting time of 2 0 minu tes a nd
the delay of 60 se cond s. The L SP re transmiss io n time is 5 seco nds . 
Sequence Numb er PDU (SNP PDU): 
Co m p le t e Se q u e nc e N u m b e r P D U (C SN P) c o n t ai ns t h e s u m m ar y o f all L SPs i n
a n L SDB a nd can be used to e nsure LSDB synchronization between
neighboring rou ters. 
P ar ti al Se q u e nc e N u m b e r P D U (P SN P ) c o n t ai ns t h e s u m m ar y of s o me L SPs i n
a n L SDB and ca n be use d to request and ack nowledge LS Ps . 


CSNPs are similar to D D pa ckets in OSPF and used to transmit the s ummary of all
lin k i n f or m a ti o n i n a n L SD B. P SN Ps ar e si mi l ar t o L SR o r L SA c k p a c ke ts i n O SP F and used to
request and ack nowledge s ome link informa tion .

IS-IS route calculation characteristics:

A route r in an area performs the full SPF alg orithm whe n it starts for
the firs t time. 

If the received LSPs are upda ted and par t of the top ology is changed , the
router perf orms in cremental SPF (ISPF) algor ithm. 

If only r outing informatio n is cha nged, the r outer perf orms pa rtial
route cal culation (PRC). 

Because the algorithm tha t separa tes the to pology and ne twork is
used, the ro ute convergence speed is improv ed. 

IS-IS interface cost calcu lation: 

Narrow mode : The default inter face cost is 1 0, and the manually con -
figured interf ace co st ranges from 1 to 63. 

Wide mode: The defa ult in terfa ce cos t is 10 , and the ma nually con-
figured interf ace co st ranges from 1 to 16 77 721 5. 

If the a uto -cost ena ble command is exe cu ted in an IS -IS pro cess , the in-
terface cost is calcula ted based on the in terf ace b andwidth in bo th nar-
row mo de and wide mode , and o nly the refe re nce rules vary slightly in
the two modes. 

IS-IS topo logy:

IS-IS uses a two-level hierar chy ( back bone ar ea and no n -ba ckbone area)
to s upp ort l ar g e-s c al e r o u ti n g n et w o r ks. G e n e ral ly , L e ve l - 1 r o ut e rs ar e d e-
pl o y e d i n n o n - b ac k b o n e a re a s, w h er e as Le v el - 2 a n d L ev el - 1- 2 r o u t ers a re
d e pl o y e d i n t h e b ac k b o n e ar e a. E ac h non- back bone a rea con nects to the
backbo ne are a thro ugh Level - 1-2 rou ters. 

The figure shows a netw ork tha t ru ns IS -IS. The netw ork is similar to an
OSPF network t y p ol o gy w i t h m ult i pl e ar e as. T h e b ac k b o n e a r e a c o n t ai ns al l
Le v el- 2 r o u t ers a n d L ev el - 1- 2 rou ters. 

Level -1-2 rou ters can belong to differe nt are as. In Level -1 area ,
Level -1-2 rou ters m a i nt a i n a L e ve l - 1 L SD B. I n Le v el - 2 ar e a, L e v el - 1 - 2
ro u t er s m a i nt a i n a L e ve l - 2 L SD B. 

differences between IS-IS and OSPF are a s follows: 

 In IS-IS, each link can belong to differen t a re as. In OSPF,

each link belongs to only one area. 

 In IS-IS, no area is defined as the ba ckbo ne a rea. In

OSPF, Area 0 is defined as the back bone area . 

 In I S -I S, Le v el - 1 a n d L e v el - 2 r o u t ers us e t h e SP F al g or it h m t o
ge n e r at e t h eir s h o r te st p a t h trees. In OSPF , the SPF algorithm
is used only in the same are a, and inter -area rou tes need to
be forwa rded thr ough the ba ckbone area. 
Network types and cos t style: 

IS-IS supp orts o nly two ne twork types an d d efines the same default cost
for all b andwidths. OSPF s uppo rts fou r ne tw ork types a nd defines the
cost base d on bandwid th. 

Area types : 

IS-IS areas are classified in to Level -1 and Lev el -2 areas. Level -2 area is
the b ackb one area a nd has a ll specific ro utes . There are only def ault
routes from L e v el- 1 t o L ev el - 2 ar e as. O SP F a r e as a re cl ass ifi e d i n t o t h e
b a c k b o n e ar e a, c o m m o n a re a, a n d s p eci al a r e a . D e vic es i n c o m m o n a n d
sp e ci al ar e as m us t communica te a cro ss the b ackbone area. 

Pa c k et t y pe s: 

IS-IS uses only LSPs to tra nsmit r ou ting infor mation a nd does no t differ -
entiate internal and exter nal ro uting inf orm ation, so IS -IS is simple and
efficient. OSPF uses a variety of LSAs to tran smit rou ting info rmation , in-
cluding Ty pes 1, 2 , 3, 4 , 5, and 7 , a nd applies to fine -grained scheduling
and calcula tion. 

Routing algori thm: 

In IS-IS, when cha nges o ccur on the netw ork segment where a n ode in
an area resides , PRC algorithm is triggered, e nsuring fas t r ou te conver-
gence an d low 
 route calculation cost. In OSPF, network address is used f or
building the network topology, and ISPF algorithm is trig-
gered when the network segment address in an area is
changed, which is complicated.

Scalability: 

In IS-IS, all rou ting inf ormation is transmitt e d using TLVs , ensuring
simple structure and pr oviding easy s calability. For example, to
suppor t IPv6 , only tw o TL Vs ar e a d d e d t o I S -I S. Ad dit i o n all y, I S -I S
als o s u p p or ts pr o t o c ols s uc h as I P X. O SP F is d e v el o p e d t o s u p p or t I P
a n d pr o v i de s t w o i n d e p e n de n t v ersi o n s O SP Fv 2 a nd OSPFv3 to s up-
port IPv4 an d IPv6. 

BGP:
BGP : Replace the EGP (BGP is beter then EGP) and used to control route and select optimal route be-
tween AS.

Compared with EGP, BGP has the following advantages:

Discovers neighbors and establishes neighbor relationships.

Selects optimal routes and advertises routes.

Prevents routing loops, efficiently transmits routes, and maintains a large amount of
routing information.
Provides various route control capabilities between ASs that are not fully trusted.


To ensure reliable data transmission between ASs, BGP uses TCP

with port 179 to establish connections. Th ere fo re, B GP ca n est ablish
a neig hb or rel ations hip ac ross multi ple rout ers, while IGP can only
establish a neighbor relationship hop by hop.

BGP uses T CP port 179 to establish neighbor relationships, and TCP

establishes connections in unicast mode . Theref ore, unlike RIP and
OSPF, BGP does not discover neighbors in multicast mode. Estab-
lishing connections in unicast mode requires n eighbors to be manu-
ally specif ied in BGP.

BGP Ne ighbor t ype : IBGP and EBGP

BGP config uration:

If no router ID is configured for a BGP router, it automatically selects a router ID according to the
following rules:
Router id …//  Selects the highest IP address among all loopback interfaces.
 Selects the highest IP address among all physical interfaces if it does not have loopback interfaces
Bgp as-number
If two routers have the same AS number, they establish an
Peer @neig hbor as- member AS-of -nei ghb or / / neighbor relationship. If they have different AS numbers, t
tablish an EBGP neighbor relationship.

Peer @neig hbor connect -interf ace loopbac k 0 / /

Directly connected interface IP addresses are often


used to establish EBGP neighbor relationships, and
loopback interface IP addresses are often used to es-
tablish IBGP neighbor relationships.

BG P r o u t er s e x c h a n g e B G P me ss ag es t o es t a bli sh n ei g h b or r el at i o ns hi ps
a n d u p d a t e rou ting inf ormation. BGP messag es are classified in to
Open , Upda te, Notifi cation , Keepalive, an d R oute -re fresh mess ages . 

Ope n me ss a ge : is t h e firs t m ess a ge se n t a ft e r a T CP c o n n ec ti o n is es t a b-

lish e d. It is us e d t o e st a bl is h a BG P c o n n ec ti o n b e t w ee n nei g h b o rs. Aft e r a
BG P n ei g h b or re ceives an Open message and negotiation su cceed s, the
neighbor sen ds a Keepalive message to co nfirm and retain the conne c-
tion. Then BGP neighbo rs can exch ange Upda te, Notifica tion , Keep alive,
and R oute- refresh messages. 

Update mes sage : is used to ex cha nge rou tin g information be tween
BGP neighbors. I t can adver tise multiple rea chable rou tes with the
same rou te a ttrib utes and withd raw multiple unrea chable rou tes. 

 An U p d a t e m ess a g e c a n a d v er tis e m ul ti pl e r e a c h a bl e r o u t es wi t h
t h e s a me rou te a ttributes. These ro utes ca n s hare a group of
route attribu tes. All the ro ute attribu tes car ried in a specifi c
Update message apply to all the des tination s (specified by IP
prefixes) of the Netw ork Layer Rea cha bility Informatio n (NLRI)
field in this Update message. 

 An Update message can withdraw multiple u nreacha ble

routes. Ea ch withdraw n r oute identified by a destina tion
address ( an IP prefix) is the rou te tha t wa s a dvertised be -
tween BGP rou ters. 
  You ca n use an Update message j ust to with d raw rou tes so
that this message d oes not need to con tain the pa th a ttribute
or NLRI. Altern atively, y ou can use an Up date message jus t to
advertise rea chable rou tes so tha t this mess age does no t nee d
to con tain withdraw n r oute informa tion. 

No tifica tio n me ss a ge : is s e n t w h e n a BG P r o u t er d e t ec ts a n er r or.

Th e n a B GP con nection is termina ted immediately. 

Keepalive me ssage : is sent periodi cally from a BGP rou ter to

its neighbor to re tain their co nnection. 

Route-refre sh me ssage : is sent by a BGP rou ter to reques t its

neighbor to send rou ting info rmation again a fter this rou ter
changes i ts r ou ting policy. 

During message ex change , the Idle state is the initial state of a BGP
router. In Idle s tate , the BGP r ou ter reje cts the conne ction req uest from
its neighbor. Only after re ceiving the Sta rt e vent o f itself , the BGP r outer
tries to es tablish a TCP co nnection with its n eighbor and transitio ns to
the Connect state. 

In Connect sta te , the BGP rou ter star ts the Connect Re try time r,
waiting for a TCP conne ction to be es tablish ed. 

 If a TC P c o n ne c ti o n is es t a bli s he d, t h e B GP r o u t er s e n ds a n O p e n
m ess a g e to its neighbor and transitio ns to th e Open Sent s tate. 

 If a TCP co nnection fails to be es tablished, the BGP r ou ter transitio ns to 

the Active state.

 If the BGP ro uter does no t receive any resp o nse from its neigh-
bor until the Conne ct Retry timer ex pires, th e BGP r oute r con-
tinues to try to establish a TCP con nection with its neighbor
and s tays in the Conne ct s tate. 

In Active s ta te , the BGP rou ter always tries to establish a TCP conne ction. 

 If a TC P c o n ne c ti o n is es t a bli s he d, t h e B GP r o u t er s e n ds a n O p e n
m ess a g e to its neighbor , tur ns off the Conne ct Retry timer,
and transitio ns to the OpenSen t s ta te. 

 If a TCP co nnection fails to be es tab lished, the BGP r ou ter s tays in the 
Active state.

 If the BGP r oute r d oes n ot receive any res po nse from its
neighbor u ntil the Con nect Re try timer expir es, the BGP
router transition s to the Conne ct sta te. 
In Open Sent s tate , the BGP r outer waits for an Open message from
its neighbor an d checks info rmation ca rried i n the Open message,
including AS n umber, version number , and a uthen tica tion pass-
word. 
  If t h e r e c ei ve d O p e n m ess a g e is c orr e c t, t h e B GP r o ut e r s e n ds a
K ee p a li ve message to its neighbor and transitions to the
OpenConfirm sta te. 

 If the received Ope n message is inco rrect, th e BGP r outer

sends a Notification message to its neighbor and transi-
tions to the Idle s tate. 

In OpenCo nfirm state , the BGP ro uter waits f or a Keepalive or

Notificatio n message f rom its neighb or. If i t receives a Kee palive
message, it tra nsitions to the Es tablished s ta te. If it re ceives a
Notificatio n message, it tra nsitions to the Idl e sta te. 

In Est a b lis h e d s t at e , t h e BG P r o u t er c a n e xc h a n ge U p d a t e,
K ee p a li ve, R o u t e - re fresh , an d No tifica tion m essages with i ts
neighbor. 



BGP Route Generation MODE-Network: network command and import command.

In the figure, RTA has two user network segments 100.0.0.0/24 and 100.0.1.0/24, and
RTB has a static route to 100.0.0.0/24 and learns the route to 100.0.1.0/24 through
OSPF. RTB and RTC establish an EBGP neighbor relationship, and RTB advertises the
routes 100.0.0.0/24, 100.0.1.0/24, and 10.1.12.0/24 using the network command so that
RTC can learn the routes in the routing table of RTB. 
 In the figure, RTA has two user network segments 100.0.0.0/24 and 100.0.1.0/24, and RTB
has a static route to 100.0.0.0/24 and learns the route to 100.0.1.0/24 through OSPF.
RTB and RTC establish an EBGP neighbor relationship, and RTB advertises the routes
100.0.0.0/24, 100.0.1.0/24, and 10.1.12.0/24 using the import command so that RTC can
learn the routes of RTB.

By default the origin attribute of imported route is IGP when using the import-route
commande to import route into BGP.

Import-route limit command is used to set a maximum number of imported route that
can be imported

To prevent other routes from being imported into BGP, you need to configure IP-prefix for
precise matching and apply route-policy to control the imported routes.

BGP RULE:
Rule 1 : advertise only the optimal route to the nighbors.
Fields in a BGP routing table include:
Status codes: * - valid, > - best, d - damped, h - history, i-
internal, s - suppressed, S - Stale
Origin : i - IGP, e - EGP, ? – incomplete
Network: network address
NextHop: next-hop address

MED: route metric

LocPrf: local preference

 PrefVal: protocol preferred value

Path/Ogn: AS_Path and Origin attribute

Community: Community attribute information

Rule 2 : advertise the optimal route obtained through EBGP to all BGP neighbors.
Rule 3: do not advertise the optimal route obtained through IBGP to other IBGP neighbor.
Rule 4: synchronize BGP and IGP.

BGP Select optimal route:

IP routing table (IP_RIB): global r ou ting infor mation d atab ase, including all IP rou t-
ing 
inf ormation.

BG P r o u ti n g t a bl e ( L oc al _ RI B) : B GP r o u ti ng i nf or m a ti o n d a t a b as e, i n -
cl u di n g r o u t es selected by the lo cal BGP rou ter, neighb or table, an d
neighbor list. 

After re ceiving an Upda te message from a B GP neighbor , a BGP r ou ter

uses the route s ele ction algo rithm to de ter mine the op timal rou te f or
each prefix an d s tores the selected op timal r oute to the lo cal BGP rou t-
ing table ( Lo cal_RIB) . 

If multipath is e nabled o n a BGP rou ter, it su bmits the op timal route and
all equal -cos t r ou tes to IP_RIB to determine whether to ins tall them. In
addition to the optimal ro ute r ec ei v e d fr o m BG P n eig h b o rs, L o c al _ RI B al s o
in cl u d es t h e r o u t es i n j ec t e d b y t h e r o u t er. Th ese ro utes are called lo cally
originated r outes. 

In L oc al _ RI B, a r o u t er e n c a ps ul a t es o nl y t h e o p ti m al pr e fi x i n a n U p d a t e
m ess a g e a n d advertises it to BGP neighbors. 
IP routing table (IP_RIB): global r ou ting infor mation d atab ase, including all IP rou t-
ing 
inf ormation.

BG P r o u ti n g t a bl e ( L oc al _ RI B) : B GP r o u ti ng i nf or m a ti o n d a t a b as e, i n -
cl u di n g r o u t es selected by the lo cal BGP rou ter, neighb or table, an d
neighbor list. 

After re ceiving an Upda te message from a B GP neighbor , a BGP r ou ter

uses the r oute selection algorithm to determ ine the op timal rou te f or
 each prefix an d s tores the selected op timal r oute to the lo cal BGP rou t-
ing table ( Lo cal_RIB). 

If multipath is e nabled o n a BGP rou ter, it su bmits the op timal route and
all equal -cos t r ou tes to IP_RIB to determine whether to ins tall them. In
addition to the optimal ro ute r ec ei v e d fr o m BG P n eig h b o rs, L o c al _ RI B al s o
in cl u d es t h e r o u t es i n j ec t e d b y t h e r o u t er. Th ese ro utes ar e called lo cally
originated r outes. 

In L oc al _ RI B, a r o u t er e n c a ps ul a t es o nl y t h e o p ti m al pr e fi x i n a n U p d a t e
m ess a g e a n d advertises it to BGP neighbors. 

BGP attribute :
Well-known att ributes must be identified an d sup por ted by all BGP rou ters. 

Well-known mandatory attributes mus t be carried in a B GP Upda te message. (origin,

AS_Path, Next_h op, …) 

Well-known dis cr etionary attr ibutes do not nee d to be ca rried in a

BGP Update message and can be selected as required. (L ocal_Pref ,
Atomic_aggregate …) 

Optio nal attribu tes do no t nee d to be iden tif ied by all BGP rou ters. 

Optional trans itive attr ibutes can not be ide ntified by some BGP r oute rs
but can be carried in BGP messages a nd then advertised to neighbors. (ag-
gregator, community …) 

A B GP r o u te r c a n i g n or e t h e m e ss ag es c ar ry i ng opti on al n on -t ra nsi tive att rib -

ute s and does no t a dvertise these message to neighbor s. (MED …) 


Origin attribute :
Three Origin attributes are available:

i indicates that this BGP route is injected using the network command.

e indicates that this BGP route is learned through EGP. EGP is seldom used on the live network
and the Origin attribute of a route can be changed to e using a routing policy.

? is for Incomplete, indicating that this BGP route is learned using other methods, for example, a
route is imported using the import command.

The three Origin attributes can be listed in ascending order of priority as i > e > (?).
AS_Path :
Four AS_Path attributes are available:
 AS_Sequence: will be described in BGP route aggregation.

AS_Set: will be described in BGP route aggregation.

AS_Confed_Sequence: is used in the BGP Confederation and not described in this course.

AS_Confed_Set: is used in the BGP Confederation and not described in this course.
Local_Pref:
The Local_Pref attribute is valid only between IBGP neighbors and not advertised to other
ASs. This attribute indicates the BGP preference of a router. A larger value indicates a
higher preference.

This attribute determines the optimal route for traffic leaving an AS. When a BGP router
obtains from different IBGP neighbors multiple routes with the same destination address but
different next hops, the router selects the route with the largest Local_Pref attribute value as
the optimal route. The default Local_Pref attribute value is 100.

MED: Multi-Exit Discriminator

Based on BGP route selection rules, the route with the lowest MED is preferred.
The MED attribute is transmitted only between two neighboring ASs. An AS that re-
ceives this attribute does not advertise it to any other ASs. In the figure, AS 100 will not re-
ceive the MED configured in AS 300, but AS 200 will. Therefore, AS 200 can select the high-
bandwidth link.

The MED attribute corresponds to the metric in IGP. It determines the optimal route for
traffic entering an AS. When a BGP router obtains from different EBGP neighbors multiple
routes with the same destination address but different next hops, the router selects the
route with the smallest MED attribute value as the optimal route. The default MED attri-
bute value is 0.

Community:
The Community attribu te is classified in to w ell -known and ex-
tended community a ttributes .

Well-known community attributes include four types:

 Internet: is the default attribute. All routes belong to the Internet. Routes
 carrying the Internet attribute can be advertised to all BGP neighbors.

 No_Export: indicates that a route carrying this attribute is not advertised to other
ASs. In the figure, if RTB expects that the route 10.1.11.0/24 is not advertised to
other ASs after it is advertised to AS 12, RTB can set the Communityattribute of this
route to No_Export.

 No_Advertise: indicates that a route carrying this attribute is not advertised to other
BGP neighbors. In the figure, if RTB wants to advertise the route 10.1.11.0/24 only
to RTC, RTB can set the Community attribute of this route to No_Advertise.

 No_Export_Subconfed: is used in the BGP Confederation and not described

in this course.

An extended community attribute is a 4-byte list in the format aa:nn or the com-
munity number.

 In aa:n n, aa indica tes an AS number and nn indicates the

community identifier defined by the a dministrator. 

 The community number ranges from 0 to 4 29 496 729 5. In

RFC1997 , the values 0 to 65 53 5 an d 429 49 01 760 to 4 29 496 72 95
are reserved. 

PrefVal on BGP rou te selec tion : is a Huawei proprietary attribute and is valid only
one the dev ice whe re it is config ure d. It corresponds to the we ight in BGP rout se le c-
tion rules. A larger P refVal value indicate a higher priority.
Impact of route aggregation mode on BG P route selection:
A manua lly aggregated route has a hig her priority than an automatic aggregate d route

Route learned from EBGP Neighbors are p referred to tho se learned from IBGP n eig h-
bors

IGMP:

IGMPv1 defines two messages types:

General Query: A r ou ter perio dically sends this type of message to

224 .0. 0. 1 (rep resents all hos ts and rou ters on the same netw ork seg-
ment). The q uery in terval defa ults to 6 0 se conds and is configurable. 

Membership Repor t: Hos ts send this type o f message to a nno unce tha t a mul ticas t
group h as a ctive receivers. 
 


In this figure, Client A and Client C want to receive data sent to group G1, whereas Client B wants
to receive data sent to group G2. The general query and response process is as follows:

① RTA sends a General Query message.

② All hosts on the network segment receive the General Query message. Client A and Client
C are members of G1 and start Timer-G1. Client B is a member of G2 and starts Timer-G2.
The timer length is a random value between 0 and 10, in seconds. The host with the
timer expiring first sends a Report message for the multicast group. In this example, the
Timer-G1 on Client A expires first, so Client A sends a Report message with the destination
address G1. When Timer-G2 on ClientB expires,ClientB sends aReportmessage withthe
destinationaddress G2
 to the network segment.

③ When Client C detects the Report message sent by Client A , it stops

Timer-G1 and no longer sends any Report me ssage for G1. T his report
suppression mechanism reduces the number of protocol packets on
the network segment .

After RTA receives Report messages, it knows that members of G1 and G2 exist on the network
segment. When RTA receives multicast data sent to G1 and G2, it forwards the data to this net-
work segment.

IGMPv1 host join a group

A new ho st Client D wants to join gr oup G3. To re ceive multicast da ta

quickly, Client D sends a Re por t message for G3 immediately, wi thou t
waiting for a Ge neral Query me ss ag e. Af t er r ec ei vi n g t h e R e p o rt m ess a g e,
RT A k n o w s t h a t a m e m b er o f G 3 a p p e ars o n th e netwo rk segment. When
RTA receives multicas t d ata sen t to G3, it for wards the data to this ne t-
work segment. 

IGMPv1 Problem 1 : Leave message.

IGMPv1 does not define the Leave message.

After a client leaves a multicas t gr oup , it no longer respo nds to General

Query messages sen t to the gro up. If all clients leave the group , RTA will
not receive a ny Rep ort messages be cause th ere are no members of the
group on the netw ork segmen t. Therefore , R TA deletes the matching mul-
ticast fo rwarding en try after a specified peri od o f time ( Grou p member-
ship timeou t in terval = IGMP general query interval x Robu stness variable
+ Maximum resp onse time = 60 x 2 + 10 = 130 s). 

IGM Pv Proble m 2 : Quer ie r Ele ction

If multiple rou ters are co nnected to the sam e receiver network segment,
only one rou ter needs to sen d IGMP queries. 
 IGMPv1 does no t define a que rier election m echanism a nd depends on
multicast rou ting pr otocols to select a q uerier on the ne twork segment. 

Because differen t r outing pro to cols use diffe rent ele ction mecha nisms, multiple queri-
ers 
may be selected on the same network segment in IGMPv1.

IGMPv2 makes improvemen t a nd optimiza tio n for these two issues in IGMPv1 .

IGMPv2 (compare with IGMPv1)

IGMPv1 messages

Version: IGMP version identifier, which is set to 1 in IGMPv1 messages.

Type: 0x11 identifies a General Query message and 0x12 identifies a Membership Re-
port message.

Group address: In a General Query message, the group address is 0. In a Member-

ship Report message, the group address is the address of the group that the
sender wants to join.

IGMPv2 messages: 

IGMPv2 messages differ from IGMPv1 messages in that they do not have a version field but
have a maximum response time field.

Type: IGMPv2 defines two new message types in addition to those in IGMPv1:

 Group-Specific Query (0x11): sent by a querier to a specific group on the local

network segment to check whether the group has members.

 Leave (0X17): sent by a host to notify routers on the local network segment that it
has left a group.

Maximum response time: specifies the maximum time the router will wait for the re-
sponse to a Query message.
  For a General Query message, the default maximum response time is 10 sec-
onds.

 For a Group-specific Query message, the default maximum response time is 1 sec-
ond.

Group address:

 In a General Query message, the group address is 0. 

 In a Group-Specific Query message, the group address is the address of the

group for which the router needs to query.

 In a Report or Leave message, the group address is the address of the group that a
host has joined or left.

IGMPv3
IGMPv3 support the SSM service model

Compared with IGMPv2, IGMPv3 has the following changes:

IGMPv3 also defines two message types: Query and Report. Unlike IGMPv2,
IGMPv3 does not define the Leave message. Group members send Report
messages of a specified type to notify multicast routers that they have left a
group.

In addition to General Query and Group-Specific Query messages, IGMPv3

defines a new Query message type: Group-and-Source-Specific Query. A
querier sends a Group-and-Source-Specific Query message to members of a
specific group on the shared network segment, to check whether the group
members want data from specific sources. A Group-and-Source-Specific
Query message carries one or more multicast source addresses.

A Membership Report message contains not only the group that a host wants
to join but also the multicast sources from which it wants to receive data.
IGMPv3 adds a source filter mechanism and defines two filter modes: IN-
CLUDE and EXCLUDE. Group-source mappings are represented by (G, IN-
CLUDE, (S1, S2...)) or (G, EXCLUDE, (S1, S2...)). A (G, INCLUDE, (S1,
S2...)) entry indicates that members of group G want to receive only data sent
from sources S1, S2, and so on. A (G, EXCLUDE, (S1, S2...)) entry indicates
that members of group G want to receive data from multicast sources except
S1, S2, and so on. When group-source mappings
 change, hosts add these changes to the Group Record field in IGMPv3 Report mes-
sages and send the messages to the IGMP querier on the local network segment.

An IGMPv3 Report message can carry multiple groups, whereas an

IGMPv1 or IGMPv2 Report message can carry only one group. There-
fore, IGMPv3 greatly reduces the number of messages transmitted on
a network.


IGM P snooping imple ments forward ing and control of multi cast data
frames at the data link layer .

IGMP configuration :

Multicast routing-enable

Interface g0/0/1

Ip add 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0

Igmp enable

Igmp version 2

Display igmp interface

Display igmp group

Protocol Independent Multicast PIM:

 
In unicast forwarding, a router looks up the destination IP address of unicast packets in its
unicast routing table to find a route to forward the packets. Unicast routes can be manually
configured or dynamically learned using a routing protocol.

In multicast applications, receivers may exist in any locations on a network. Static configu-
ration of multicast routes cannot ensure real-time service delivery and service flexibility,
requires heavy manual workload, and is prone to errors.

To correctly and efficiently forward multicast data packets, routers need to run mul-
ticast routing protocols.


PIM-DM mechanism:

PIM rou ting en tries are cre ated by the PIM p roto col to guide multi cast
forwarding. PIM rou ting en tries fall in to two types : (S , G) a nd (* , G ),
where S indi cates a s pecific multicas t sour ce , G indicates a s pecific
multicast group , and * indi cates any multica st s ource. 

(S, G ) r outing entries are used to establish a n SPT on a PIM ne twork and
apply to b oth PIM-D M a nd PIM -SM netw orks. 

(*, G ) r ou ting entries are used to es tablish a n RPT on a PIM ne t work

and ap ply only to PIM-S M ne tworks. 

A PIM rou ter may have bo th ( S, G) and (*, G) entries. W hen the rou ter
receives a mul ticas t pa cket with the s ource a ddress S an d the gr oup
address G , the ro uter forwa rds the pa cket according to the f ollowing
rules afte r the packe t p asses the RPF che ck: 

If an ( S, G) e ntry is available, the ro uter for wards the mul ticast

packet a cco rding to the (S , G) entry. 

If the rou ter has no (S, G) entry bu t has a (* , G) en try , the r ou ter
creates an (S , G) en try ba sed on this (*, G) e ntry, an d then forwar ds
the p acke t a ccording to the (S , G) en try. 





PI M is Pr o t o c ol I n d e p e n d e n t M ul ti c as t. T h e c o m m o nl y us e d v ersi o n is
PI M v 2. PI M packe ts are en caps ulated in IP p a ckets , carrying the pro-
tocol ID 1 03 and group ad dress 22 4.0.0.1 3. 

In a PIM domain , a poin t -to-multipoin t mul ticast forwa rding pa th is se t

up fr om a multicas t s our ce to e ach multica st group. A multicas t forward -
ing path looks like a tree, so it is also called a multicas t distribu tion tree
(MDT). 

Character ist ics of an MDT: 

Each link transmits at mos t one copy of iden tical da ta , regar dless
of h ow many group members exis t o n the ne twork. 

Replication of multicas t data starts at the j u nctio n p oint as far f rom the mul-
ticast so urce as possible. 

PIM has two working mo des: 

Pr o t oc o l I n d e p e n de n t M u lt ic as t D e ns e M o d e ( PI M - D M). 

Pr o t oc o l I n d e p e n de n t M u lt ic as t Sp a rs e M o d e ( PI M - SM) . 

PIM-DM a ssume s that group me mber s a re d ensely d ist ributed on a

network and each networ k segment may ha ve group me mber s. 

The de sign of PIM-D M is a s f oll ows: 

 First, flood multicas t packe ts to all ne twork segments. 

Then p rune the ne twork segments with no gr oup members. 

Set u p a nd main tain a unidire ction al, lo op -fr ee SPT from the mul-
ticast so urce to gro up members through peri odic flo od - prune pro -
cesses. 

Ke y me ch a nis ms of P IM - DM i nclu de ne ig hb o r disc o ve r y , floo d an d p ru ne ,

sta te re f re sh , graft, and ass ert . 

In a PIM- DM netwo rk, multicas t rou ters periodically send Hello messages to dis-
cover 
neighbors and maintain neighbor relationships.

The pi m t imer hello interval command sets the interval be-

tween Hello messages in the in terface view. The de fault
Hello interval is 3 0 se con ds. 

The pi m he llo -option holdt ime interval com mand sets the
Hello message timeout interval in the in terfa ce view. The de-
fault timeout interval is 1 05 seco nds. 

DR election: 

On a PIM-D M ne twork , rou ters compa re prio rities and IP add resses carried in 
Hello messages to select a designated router (DR) on the multi -access
network.

The DR a cts as the IGMPv1 querier. 

The r oute r with the highes t DR p riority beco mes the DR on the
multi -access ne twork. If multiple r outers hav e the same highes t
DR priori ty, the ro uter with the largest inter face IP address be-
comes the DR. 

If the DR fails, a new DR will be elected am o ng the o ther rou ters. 

Flooding : PIM-D M a ssumes tha t all h osts o n a netw ork a re rea dy to re -

ceive multicas t d ata. W hen a multicast sou rce begins to se nd data to
multicast group G , the data floo ding pr ocess is as f ollows: 

When a rou ter receives a multicas t data pa cket, it perform s an RPF che ck. 

If the RPF che ck su cceeds, the r oute r creates an ( S, G) e ntry , and

then forwar ds the data pa cket to all d owns tr eam PIM -DM no des
 (flooding). 

If the RPF che ck fails, the r oute r dr ops the p acket. 

R o u te rs m us t p erf o r m RP F c h ec ks t o p r ev e n t d u pl i c a te m u lti c as t p a ck e ts
a n d p a c ke t lo ops during multi cast da ta forwa rding. 

A route r per forms an RPF check by lo oking u p the ro ute to the mul-
ticast so urce to de termine whe ther the multi cast pa cket is re ceived
from the corre ct ups tream interfa ce. On a ro uter, the outboun d in-
terface of the r oute to a multica st sour ce is the RPF inter face for
this multicast sou rce. A rou ter performs an R PF che ck after receiv-
ing a multicas t data pa cket fr om an interf ace . If this i nterf ace is
not the RPF interfa ce of the multicas t s our ce , the RPF check fails,
and the rou ter d rops the pa cket. 

Pruning : If there a re n o gro up members on a downs tream bran ch ,

flooding multica st pa ckets will cause a was te of bandwid th. The prune
mechanism of PIM-D M can conserve bandwid th.

If there are no group members on a d ownstr eam bran ch , the r ou ter

sends a Prune message to the ups tream r ou ter, n otifying it that
multicast da ta d oes not need to be f orwarde d to this b ranch. After
the u pstre am ro uter receiv es the Prune mess age, it deletes the
downstre am inter face from the dow nstream interface list of the
matching ( S, G) e ntry. The pru ning pr ocess continues un til only the
necessary bran ches are lef t on the PIM -DM n etwork. In this way, an
SPT fr om the multi cas t so urce is es tablished. 

Each pr uned interfa ce has a timer. When the timer expires , a

flood-pr une pro cess s tar ts again. The defaul t prune timeou t
timer value is 210 se cond s. 

The flo od-p rune pro cess repeats every 3 min utes on a PIM - DM netwo rk.
RTC has pru ne d the downs tream in terfa ce co nnected to RTE a nd s tar ted
a pru ne timer for this inter face. W hen the ti mer times o ut, R TC will re-
store multicas t data forwa rding to R TE. This causes waste of netw ork re-
sources. 
The PIM-D M p rotocol uses the s ta te refres h mechanism to preven t was te o f ne twork re -
so u rc es c a us e d b y p eri o di c fl o o d - p r u ne p r oc es ses.

Graft mechanism:

As shown in the figure, Client B se nds an IG MP Repor t mess age to re-

quest for multicas t data sen t to group G1. R TE receives the IGMP Rep ort
message from Client B an d kn ows tha t multi cast d ata needs to be fo r-
warded to the dow nstream interfa ce. S o, RTE se n ds a Gr a ft m ess a g e t o t h e
u ps tr e a m r o u t er R TC i m m e di a te ly, r e q ue st i ng RT C t o resume da ta forwar d-
ing to the corresp onding in terfa ce. After re ceiving the Graf t mess age ,
RTC replies with a Graf t Ack message an d se ts the ou tb ound interf ace
conne cte d to RTE to for war ding sta te. 




















Assert mechanism :
 




As shown in the figure, R TA, RTB an d R TC all receive multicas t packe ts

from their u ps tr e a m i n t er f ac es, a n d t h e RP F c h ec k s s uc c ee d o n t h e t hr e e
ro u t er s. D o w ns tr e a m inte rfaces of the r oute r s are con nected to the
same netwo rk segment. RTA , R TB, and RTC all send multi cast pa ckets to
the ne twork segment. The th ree copies of du plicate multi cast pa ckets
waste ba ndwidth res our ces. 

To prevent this pr oblem, a PIM rou ter will se nd a multicas t Asser t mes-
sage to all PIM r oute rs on the shared ne twor k segment a fter receiving
duplicate multicas t packe ts from a neighbo ring rou ter. The destina tion
address of the Assert message is 224. 0.0.13 . When the o ther PIM r ou t-
ers receive the Assert message, they compar e local parameters with
those car ried in the Assert message f or asse r t election. The assert win-
ner is selected following these r ules: 

The r oute r with the smal les t prefe rence valu e of the unicast
route to the mult icas t sour ce win s . 

If multiple rou ters have the sam e r oute pref erence, the r oute r
with the smal lest route cost to the mu ltica st sourc e w ins. 

If multiple rou ters have the same r outer pref erence a nd cos t to
the multi cast so urce , the route r with the la r gest downst ream
interface IP addres s wins . 
The PIM rou ters perfo rm the f ollowing opera tions based on the asser t ele ction re-
sult: 
 The d owns tream in terface of the r oute r that wins the electio n
is the assert winner and forw ards multicas t packets to the
shared network segment. 

The d owns tream in te rface s o f the PIM rou te rs that lose the elec-
tion a re asser t l osers a nd no longer f orward multicast pa ckets to
the s hared netw ork segmen t. The PIM rou ter s delete the down -
stream in terface s fr om the d owns tream in te rface list of their (S ,
G) entries. 

After the as sert electio n is comple te, only o ne down stream interfa ce is
active on the netw ork segmen t, so only one copy of multicas t p acke ts is
transmitted to the ne twork segment. 

All assert losers can periodically resume multicast pa cket fo rwarding, which triggers
periodic a ssert electi ons. 


PIM-D M configurat ion:

Multicas t r outing -e nable
Interface g0/0/ 1
Pim dm 

Display pim routing table

Display pim neig hbor

PIM-DM Lim itations:

PIM-DM is applicable to campus netw orks wi th densely distributed grou p members. 

On a ne twork with sparsely dis tribu ted gr ou p members (In terne t), peri-
odic flo oding of multi cast traffic will bring gr eat p ressure to the ne t-
work. 

The PIM -SM mo de pr ovides effe ctive solutio ns to limitation s o f PIM - DM. 
PIM-SM:
Compared with PIM-D M tha t uses the p ush mode , PIM -SM uses the pull
mode to f orward multicas t packe ts. PIM - SM assumes that grou p mem-
bers are distrib uted sparsely on a network , a nd almos t all ne twork seg-
ments have no grou p members. Multicast ro utes a re create d f or data
forwarding to a network segment only w hen group members appea r o n
the ne twork segment. PIM -SM is us ually use d for ne tworks with a large
number o f sp arsely distributed grou p membe rs . 

PIM-SM is implemente d as follows: 

A PIM rou ter works as the rendezvous point (RP) to serve gr oup
members or mul ticas t s our ces that ap pear o n the ne twork. All
PIM rou ters on the netw ork k now the RP's p osition. 

When a new gro up member appe ars on the n etwork ( a h ost joins
a group G thr ough IG MP), the last - hop ro ute r sends a J oin mes-
sage to the RP. A (* , G) en try is then crea ted hop by hop , and fi-
nally the rou ters es tablish an RP T with the R P as the r oo t. 

When an active multicast sou rce appears o n the ne twork (the mul-
ticast so urce sends the firs t mul ticas t da ta p acket to a group G) ,
the firs t-h op rou ter en caps ulates the multica st da ta in a Register
message and se nds the Register mess age to the RP in unica st
mode. The RP then crea tes an (S, G) entry , a nd the multi cast
source is registere d o n the RP. 

Key mechanisms of PIM -SM include neighbor disco very , DR ele c-

tion, RP discovery , RP T se tup , mul ticast so ur ce registra tion , SPT
switchover , and assert . You can also co nfigur e a B oots tra p r outer
(BSR) to implement fine -grained managemen t in a single PIM -S M
domain. The neighbor dis covery a nd assert mechani sms are same
as th ose in PIM -D M

Rendezvous Po int (RP):

An RP pr ovides the f ollowing fun ction s: 

Acts a s the core ro uter in a PIM -SM d omain and the roo t n ode of an RP T . 

Forwards all multicas t traf fic on the shared tree to re ceivers. 

You ca n spe cify the range o f multi cast grou p s served by the RP using a command. 
 An RP can be s tatically specified or dynamica lly selected : 

 To use a static RP, you need to spe cify the R P address on ea ch

PIM-SM r oute r, so tha t each ro uter knows th e RP’s loca tion. 

A d y n a mi c RP i s e le c t e d am o n g m ul ti pl e c a n di d a t e R Ps (C - R Ps) u si ng a
d e di c at e d p rotocol. Yo u nee d to e nable the p roto col used for RP
election and co nfigure multiple PIM -SM rou ters as C -RPs. 

RP configuration re commendations: 

On a small or medium ne twork , co n figure a s tatic RP, be cause

the s tati c RP is s table an d h as low requireme nts on e quipment
performan ce. 

If a ne twork has only one mul ticas t s ource , s pecify the r ou ter di-
rectly con nected to the multicast sou rce as the sta tic RP. This con-
figuration s aves the pro cess of registering th e multicas t s our ce to
the RP by a so urce DR. 

To use a static RP, ensu re that all ro uters (in cluding the RP) in the PIM - SM do-
main are configured with the same RP infor mation a nd mul ticast grou p ra nge. 

On a large ne twork , use the dynamic RP election mo de to improve

reliability and fa cilitate main tenan ce. 

If multiple densely distribu ted mul ticas t s ou rces exis t o n the net-
work, co nfigure the core ro uters close to the multicas t s our ces as
C-RPs. If there are many de nsely distrib uted gr oup members , con -
figure the core r oute rs close to group memb ers as C -RPs. 


Designated routers (DR s) need to be elected on a PIM - SM netwo rk. There are tw o 
types of DRs: receiver DR and source DR.

A receiver DR is con nected to multicas t gr ou p members a nd is

responsible f or se nding (* , G) Join mess age to the RP. 

A sour ce DR is con nected to a mul ticas t s our ce an d is respon si-

ble for sending unicas t Register messages to the RP. 

The DR election rules used in the PIM-S M mo de are the same as those
used in the PIM- DM mode. 
SPT Switchover:
On a PIM-S M ne twork , a ba ndwidth usage th reshold can be co nfigured to implement 
RPT-to-SPT switchover.

The re ceiver DR perio dically checks the fo rwarding rate of multicast

packets. When the re ceiver DR finds tha t the rate of multicas t data
packets sen t f rom the RP to gr oup G ex ceeds the threshold , i t triggers an
SPT switchover. 

The re ceiver DR sen ds an (S , G ) Join message to the s our ce DR an d creates an

(S,G) entry . The Join message is transmitted hop by h op, an d r outer s along the
path all crea te the correspo nding (S , G) en tr y. Finally, an SPT is se t u p f rom the
source DR to the receiver DR. 
Af te r t h e SPT is s et u p , t h e r e c ei ve r DR se n d s a Pr u n e m ess a ge t o
t h e R P. T he Pr une message is transmitte d h o p by hop along the
RPT. After receiving the Pru ne message , the routers o n the RP T
conver t the (* , G) en try into the (S , G) en try , and pru ne their
downstre am inter faces. After the pru ning pr ocess is complete,
the RP no long er forward s multi cast pa ckets along the RPT. 

If the SPT does no t pass thr ough the RP, the RP co ntinues to sen d
a Prune message to the sour ce DR, so that ro uters along the path
between the RP an d s ource DR delete their d ownstream inter-
faces from the (S, G) entry. After the pr unin g pro cess is com-
plete, the sou rce DR no longer f orwards multicast data pa ckets to
the RP along the SPT from itself to the RP. 
 According to def ault co nfiguration of the VR P, ro uters conne cte d to receiv-
ers join the SPT im mediately af ter re ceiving the firs t mul ticas t da ta packe t
from a multicas t s our ce, triggering an RPT - to -SPT switch over. 

Th r o u g h t h e R PT - t o - SP T s wi t c h o ve r m ec h a nis m , PI M - SM c a n est a b lis h a n SPT

m or e p recisely than PIM -DM. 
PIM-SM configuration :

OSPF:
Disadvange of RIP:
  Hop-by-hop convergence : s low
 Rout ing-by-rumor mechanism
 Using hop count t o mesure t he distance t o the dest inat ion

OSPF solve this problems:

The term link-s tate refers to the s ta tus of in terfaces o n an OSPF r ou ter ,
which in cludes the following informa tion : 

IP address and mask o f the in terfa ce 

Bandwidth of the in terface (link co st). 

Neighbor tha t the interf ace is conne cte d to 

Link ty pe. 


OSPF transmits link s tate informa tion to its neighbors ins tead of tra nsmit-
ting its comple te r out ing table. 

Ea c h r o u t er m ai n t ai n s it s li n k s t a te d a t a b as e ( L SDB ). N ei g h b ors sy n c hr o n iz e
t h eir L SDB s and the n u se the SPF algorithm to calculate the o ptimal ro ute.
This spee ds u p the netwo rk convergen ce spe ed. 

OSPF uses the accumulated ba ndwidth of the links as the cri terion for rou te
selection. This me thod is more a ccu rate th an using the a ccumulated ho p
coun t. 

OSPF can solve RIP problems in large ne twor ks. The following des cribes how OSPF
works. 


Basic OSPF:
Router id:
A route r ID is a 32 -bit unsigned intege r in th e forma t o f an IP ad dress. An
OSPF r ou ter u ses the following cri teria to sel ect the ro uter ID: 

It prefers the man ually co nfigured r ou ter ID. Yo u are advised to man-
ually configure a rou ter ID for an OSPF r oute r. 

If there is n o r outer ID manually configured , it selects the larges t IP

address on any of i ts loo pba ck in terfa ce as its rou ter I D. 

If no l oopba ck interfa ce is presen t, it uses th e largest IP a ddress on

any of its active physi cal inter faces as its ro uter ID . 

If a r outer ID is reconfigured on an OSPF ro u ter, the OSPF pro cess mus t be

reset to apply the new r oute r ID. 

Hello packet : perform the following fuctions:

 Discover neighbors.
 Establish neighbor relationships: 2 routers negotiate parameters in hello packet to
establish a neighbor relation.
 Maintain neighbor relationship: OSPF use the keepalive mechanism to continually de-
tect the neighbor reachibilaty.
Description of neighbor states:
Down: This is the initial state of a neighbor relationship. It indicates
that there has been no information received from the neighbor.
Init: This state occurs when a router has received a Hello packet from its
neighbor but its router ID is not in the neighbor list contained in the received
Hello packet. This means that bidirectional communication with the neighbor
has not yet been established.
2-Way: In this state, a router finds that its router ID is in the Hello
packet from a neighbor. Bidirectional communication with the neigh-
bor is then established.

Because the neighbors were unknown before an OSPF router starts its discovery of
neighbors, the destination IP address of a Hello packet is a multicast address
224.0.0.5 instead of a specific unicast address. How does an OSPF router discover
neighbors on a network that does not support multicast? neighbor relation-
ships must be manually established : # ospf1
# peer neighbor router id
Link state information:
OSPF routers exchange link state information to synchronize their link-state data-
bases and then just forward the original link state information to other neighbors.
Eventually, all OSPF routers will possess the same set of link state information.

Link state information includes the link type, interface IP address and subnet
mask, neighbors on the link, and link cost.

A router just needs to know the destination network ID/subnet mask, next hop, and
cost (interface IP address and subnet mask, neighbors on the link, and link cost).
But why is the link type included in the link state information?  because there
is diffirent network type.

OSPF network type:

Point-to-point network: A point-to-point network connects a pair of routers together and
supports broadcast and multicast.

Broadcast Network:
A broadcast network allows two or more devices to access the same shared link and sup-
ports broadcast and multicast. It is one of the most common OSPF network types.(exemple
Ethernet network)

Point-to-point and broadcast networks are the most common OSPF network types. Besides, there
are two more network types which are rarely found.


NBMA network: 
Unlike the br oad cast ne twork , a non -bro adca st multiple access (NB MA)
network does no t supp ort bro adca st and multicast by defaul t. On an
NBMA netwo rk, OSPF emulates ope ration s o ver a b road cast ne twork. B ut
the neighb or mus t be man ually specified. 

An example of NBMA ne twork : a ne twork on which r oute rs are conne cted

through fully - meshe d FR links. 

In recen t yea rs, NBMA ne tworks are seldom deployed. 


Point-to-Mu ltip oint Network : 

A point- to-mul tipoint ne twork , whi ch is a s p ecial co nfiguration of n on -
broad cast multi - access network s, is treated as a gr oup of poin t -to-poin t
 conne ctio ns . On a poin t- to- multipoin t ne tw o rk, OSPF neighbo rs can be
discovered th rough the Inverse Ad dress R es o lu ti o n Pr o t o c ol (I n v er se
AR P). A p oi n t- t o- m u lti p o i n t ne t w o r k c a n b e c o nsi d e re d a s a set of multiple
point- to-p oint ne tworks and supp orts br oad cast a nd mul ticas t . 

OSPF cost:

Cost = reference bandwidth/interface bandwidth 

The defaul t r efer enc e bandwi dth i s 100Mbps. I f the r esul t i s not an i nteger , i t i s
tr uncated to a whol e num ber to be the cost val ue. I f the r esul t i s l ess than 1, the
i nter face has the c ost of 1. 

Th e co st c an b e c h an ged in t wo wa ys: 

Confi gur e the c ost under i nter face configur ati on m ode. Note that the con-
fi gur ed c ost i s the fi nal val ue for thi s i nter face , but i s val i d onl y on thi s
i nter fac e. 

Change the defaul t r efer enc e bandwi dth for OSPF. Thi s m odi fi cati on takes
effec t onl y on al l OSP F -enabl ed i nter faces of the l ocal r outer . I t i s suggested
that al l r outer s i n the Autonom ous System shoul d be confi gur ed wi th the
sam e r eferenc e bandwi dth i n or der to ensur e consi stency i n r oute sel ecti on.
When c hangi ng the defaul t re fer ence bandwi dth, you shoul d gi ve over all
consi der ati on on bandwi dth di str i buti on on the whol e networ k before you
deci de a new val ue. 

 OSP F m etr ic i s the c um ul ati ve c ost , whi ch i s a total cost of al l outbound i nter faces
of the r outer s the pac ket passi ng thr ough fr om the sour ce to the desti nati on.
For exam pl e, i f a pac ket r outed by OSP F fr om RTA desti ned for RTC’s i nter face
L oopback 1 attac hed to subnet 192. 168. 3. 3/2 4, t he cost i s equal to the cost of
G 1 pl us the c ost of G 3. 

OSP F take both hop c ount and ba ndwi dth i nto account i n cost cal cul ati on.
Hence, i t i s a m or e r el i abl e r outi ng pr otocol than RI P. 

OSPF packet type and function:

RI P o p er a te s o n U DP p o r t n u m be r 520, w h il e O SP F is d e fi n e d a b o ve I P r a t h er
t h a n T CP o r UDP, which means OSPF pa ckets are direc tly en capsula ted in
IP packets, with pro to col n umber 89 . 
All OSPF packets have the same format of header:
Version: The value is set to 2 if OSPF version 2 is in use.
Type: indicates the type of OSPF packet. 
Packet length: indicates the length of entire OSPF packet, in bytes.

Router ID: indicates the identity of the router that originates this packet. 
 Area ID: indicates the OSPF area into which the packet is being advertised.

Checksum: is used to verify data integrity of the entire OSPF packet, including the OSPF
packet header.

Auth Type: indicates the authentication mode being used.The value 0 indicatesnon- au-
thentication. The value 1 indicates simple password. The value 2 indicates crypto-
graphic (MD5) authentication.
Authentication: contains the information necessary for authentication. The content of
this field varies according to the AuType field.



Type 1 packets are Hello packets, wh ich are u sed to establish and maintain
neighbor re la t i on s h i p s. A s d i sc u s s ed e ar li er , b ef or e e s ta b l i sh i ng a n O S PF
ne i g hb or r e l at i on s h i p, t wo rou ters must negot iate some parameters.

T yp e 2 p a c ket s are Da ta b a se D e sc ri p ti o n ( DD ) p ac ke t s , w h ic h ar e u se d to d e-
s cr ib e th e content of local LSDB to neighbors so that the neighbors can
determine whether the ir LSDBs are co mplete.

T yp e 3 p a c ket s are L i nk St a te Re q ue s t (L S R) pa c ket s . A r o ut er de t er mi n e s

wh et h er it s L SD B is comp lete compared w ith t he information in DD packets
from its neighbors. If its LSDB is incomp lete, it cr eates a lis t of LSAs that
need to be obta ined from the sender of the DD packets and then sends.

T yp e 4

p a c ke t s are L in k S t at e Up d at e (L S U) p ac ke t s , wh i c h ar e u se d t o re s p o nd t o t h e
 LS R packets received from neighbors. According to the request l ist in the re-
ceived LSR packet, the router packs the req uired LSAs into LSU packets and
sends them to the neighbor. LSA f l o o di n g i s p erf or me d b y L S U p ac ke t s , an d a s
a re s u lt , t he L S DB sy n ch r on iz at i o n a mo n g a l l routers in the area is imp lemented.

T yp e 5 p a c ket s are L i nk St a te A ck no w le d g me nt (LS A ck) p ac ke t s , w h ic h ar e

u se d t o acknowledge received LSAs in order t o ensure LSA s ynchroniza-
tion reliabi lit y.

DD, LS R, LSU , and LSAck packets contain LSA i nfor mation in vary ing degrees:

A DD packet contains LSA header infor mation , including LS Type, LS ID, Advertising

Router, LS Sequence Nu mber, and LS Checksu m.

An LSR packet contains LS Type, LS ID, and Ad vertising Router.

Each LSU packet carries a collection of LSAs.

An L SA ck p ac ke t co n ta i n s L S A he a der i nf or ma t i o n, i n cl u d in g L S
Typ e , L S ID , Ad vertising Router, LS Sequence Number, and LS
Checksum.


LSDP synchronization:




State description:

ExStart: This state occurs when two neighboring routers

establish a master/slave relationship and determine the in-
itial DD sequence number. In this state, the exchanged DD
packets don’t include any LSAs.

Exchange : This state occurs when a router exchanges DD

packe ts containing link state summary information with its
neighbor.

Loading: This state occurs when two routers send LSR, LSU,
and LSAck packets to each other. This state occurs when a
router f inds entries in its Link State Request list. In this state,
the rou ter sends LSR packets to its neighbor, receives LSU
packets f rom it and answers LSAck packets as acknowledge-
ment.

Full: This state occurs when the neighboring router’s LSDB

is synchronized. In this state, the neighboring routers are
f ully adjacent.

LSDB synchron izat ion process:

 RTA and RTB have router IDs 1.1.1.1 and 2.2.2.2 respectively, and a
neighbor relationship has been established between them. When the
neighbor RTB’s state becomes ExStart, RTA sends its first DD packet to
RTB. The DD packet sequence number is randomly set to X, the I-bit is set to 1, indi-
cating that this is its first DD packet; the M-bit is set to 1, indicating that subsequent
DD packets need to be sent,
and the MS-bit is set to 1, indicating that RTA asserts itself as the master.

Similar ly, when the neighbor RTA’s state becomes ExStart,

RTB sends its f irst DD packet, with a DD sequence number of
y and three f lags I-bit, M-bit and MS -bit s et to 1, 1 and 1 re-
spectively, as the same meaning as RTA’s. Because RT B has
a larger router ID , RT B will beco me the master . Upon re-
ceipt of the DD packet f rom RTB, RTA generates a Negotia-
tion-Done event agreeing that RTB is the master, and transi-
tions neighbor RTB’s state f rom ExStart to Exchange.

Then RTA sends a new DD packet containing summary i nfor-

mation of its LSDB. In this packet, the DD packet sequence
number is overrode by RTB with Y in step 2, the I-bit is set to
0, indicating that this packet is not its f irst DD packet, the M -bit
is set to 0, indicating that this packet is the last DD pack et
containing LSDB summary inf ormation, and the MS -bit is set to
 0, indicating that RTA asserts itself as the slave. W hen receiv-
ing this DD packet, RTB generates a Negotiation -Done event
and transitions its neighbor RTA’s state f rom ExStart to Ex-
change.

Then RTB sends a new DD packet, which contains LSDB

summary inf ormation together with sequence number Y+1
and the M-bit set to 1, indicating that RTB asserts itself as
the master. Suppose all its LSDB summary inf ormation is in-
cluded in this DD packet, the M-bit is now set to 0, telling
RTA, "this is the last DD packet for you".

Although there is no need f or RTA to sends its LSDB summary

inf ormation to RTB, as a slave, it still needs to acknowledge
each DD packet f rom the master. Theref ore, RTA responds to
RTB’s DD packet with an empty DD packet containing the se-
quence number Y+1. Then RTA generates an Exchange -Done
event and transitions neighbor RTB’s state to Loading. W hen
RTB receives this DD packet, it transitions its neighbor state
to Full. (Assume that RT B has the latest and complete LSDB
and does not need to request updates f rom RTA.)



 Th e s e rie s of tr a ns iti o n s i n t h e O SP F n ei g h b o r st a te m a c hi n e is i ll us-
tr a t e d b y t h e di a gr a m a bove. The transi tion p rocess is des cribed as
follows: 

Down: This is the ini tial sta te of a neighbo r conversatio n. It indi-

cates that the ro uter has no t received a ny H ello packe t fr om its
neighbor in the last Rou terDea dInterval. On an NBMA network , a
router can s till send Hello packe ts at every P ollInterval to its man-
ually configured neighbo r which is in D own s tate. The PollInterval
is ofte n as large as the Ro uter DeadInterval. 

Attempt: This s tate only appears on NBMA networks . It indi cates

that the ro uter has not re ceived any re cen t informa tion from its
manually con figured neighbor, bu t that it h as been se nding Hell o
packets to the neighbor a t every Hello In ter val. If the rou ter does
not receive any Hello packe t from its neighbo r within a Rou terDea d-
Interval, the neighbor sta te tran sitions to D o wn. 

Init: This s tate o ccu rs whe n the r ou ter re ceives a Hello pa cket
from a neighbor bu t d oes not see its own R o uter ID in neighbor
list of this Hello packe t, which means they h ave no t es tablished a
two-way communi cation with ea ch other. In this s tate , the rou ter
IDs of all its k nown neighbors mus t be inclu d ed in the neighbor
list of the Hello pa cket sent by the ro uter. 

2-way Re ceived : This even t occurs when the router sees its own
Router ID in neighbor list of the Hello pa cket received from the
neighbor, or receives a D D packe t f rom the n eighbor. If the r oute r
needs to es tablish an adja cency with a neighbor, 


the neigh bo r st ate transitio ns to ExSta rt an d LS DB sync hroniza -

tion b egins. Oth erwise, the neighbor state transitions to 2 -W ay.

2-W a y : T hi s s t at e oc c urs w h e n t h e r o u t er es t a blis h e s a bi di r ec ti o n a l

c o mm u n ic a ti o n, bu t does n ot yet f orm an adj acency , with its neigh-
bor. This is the final s tate to which the neigh bor transitio n, if there
is so f ar n o need f or es tablishing a djace ncy with this neighbo r. 

1-Way Rece ived : This event o ccurs w hen th e rou ter finds tha t
its ro uter ID is not con tained in the neighbo r list of the received
Hello packet. This is of ten due to a res tart of the neighboring
router. 

ExStart: This s ta te o ccurs w hen the rou ter st arts to send D D pa ck-
 ets to i ts neighbor. I n t his st a t e, t he m a st er -s la v e r el a ti o ns hi p is es-
t a blis h e d a n d t h e i ni ti al D D s e q u e nc e n umber is determined. No te
that the DD packe ts do no t in clude a ny L SA s ummary informatio n
in this sta te. This is the first step towards fo rming an adj acen cy. 

Exch a ng e : T his st a t e o cc ur s w h e n t he r o u te r e x c h a ng es w it h it s nei g h -

b or D D p a c k et s co ntaining LSA s ummary infor mation to describe its
entire L SDB. 

Loading: This s ta te o ccurs w hen the rou ter s ends L SR packe ts

to i ts neighb or re questing the more rece nt L SAs tha t have bee n
discovered in the re ceived DD p a c k e ts i n t he Ex c h a n ge st a t e.
Su bs e q u e n tl y, t he r o u te r r e cei v es re s p o n di n g L SU pa ckets from
the neighb or. 

 Full: This s tate o ccurs whe n its link s tate req uest list is emp ty,
which means the lo cal L SDB is syn chro nized with its neighbor ’s. It
indicates tha t the neighbor is f ully adja cent. 


LSA Header:



 A Link State Adve rti sement ( LSA) is the carri er of OSPF link s tate infor -
mation be tween rou ters. The LSA is the basi c str uctural unit of LS DB.
In other wo rds , an L SDB is composed of an a rray of LSAs. 

All LSAs have the same fo rmat of header , in cluding the following fields: 

LS age: indica tes the age of the LSA, in se con ds: smal ler LS age indicate mor e
recent LSA. 

LS type: indica tes the LSA forma t an d f uncti on. There are five
types of commonly used LSAs. 

Link State ID : iden tifies the link describe d b y an LSA, for example, ro uter ID. 

Advertis ing Router : indica tes the ro uter ID o f the ro uter that originates this
LSA. 

LS sequence numbe r : is used to dete ct old a nd du plicate LSAs : the biggest LS

sequence numbe r indicate more r ecent LSA. 

LS type, Link S tate ID, and Advertising R ou ter toget her identify an LSA. 

 Asi de fr o m l o c all y o rig i n at e d L SAs, t h er e ar e L SAs o b t ai n e d fr o m o t h er

n ei g h b ors i n L SD B. It’s necessa ry f or LSAs to be adver tised be tween
neighboring rou ters th rough a passageway. 

DR and BDR el ect ion and role s:

Without DR an d B DR, pro blem with MA ne tw ork inclu ding the NBMA are:

 Managing n(n- 1)/2 adja cen cies is complica te d

 Unnecessarily floo ding repea ted LSAs is a wa ste o f res our ces

 DR an d B DR red uce the numbe r o d a djace nci es and OSP F traffic

An interface with the h ighest router prio rit y take pr ecedenc e

Same prio rity  interface with a la rger rout er id take prec edence
Ospf priority value range from 1 to 255 and is 1 by default.
OSPF Intra-Area Routing:

Router LSA:

#Display ospf lsdb rou ter self -orig inate

An OSPF rou ter originates a R oute r -LSA for e ach area to which the
router belongs , to des cribe the s ta tes o f the router 's links. The three
fields in the L SA heade r are as follows: 

Type: LSA type. A Rou ter -L SA is the Type 1 LS A. 

LS id : link s tate ID. 

Adv rtr : ID of the ro uter that originates this Router - LSA. 

One R outer -LSA can des cribe mul tiple links with fields Link ID , Data, Link Type , a nd 
Metr ic f or each link. The meanings of keywords are as f ollows:
Type: link type (no t the same con cep t as the network type
mentioned in previou s se ctions ). A Ro uter- LS A describes the
following types of links: 

 P oi n t- t o- P oi n t : d esc ri b es a si n gl e c o n n e c ti o n d ire c tl y t o t h e
n ei g h b ori n g ro uter. The poin t- to-p oint link ty pe i s treate d
as topology inf ormatio n.

 TransNet: describes a link to a tra nsit netwo rk, to which

two or mo re r o u t er s ar e at t a c h e d, s uc h a s a b ro a d c as t n e t-
w o r k a n d n o n- b r o a dc a st mul ti -access (NB MA) network. The
TransNet link ty pe is trea ted as top ology inf ormat ion.

 StubNet: describes a link to a stub network , to w hich only a single ro uter

is attached, such as a loopback interf ace. The StubNet

link type is treated as routing inf ormation.

Link ID: peer ID a t the o ther e nd of the link. The meaning of the
Link ID field varies a ccording to the link type . 

Data : ad ditional in formatio n a bou t a link. Di fferent types of links

have differen t a dditional informa tion. 

Metric: cos t o f a link. 

Network-LSA (network LSA):
Only the router which is connected to a broadcast or an NBMA network can generate network LSA.

DR use network LSA to describe route that have established adjacency with it in the network.

The network-LSA describes all the routers that are attached to a broadcast or an NBMA
network with the interface IP address of the DR, the network's address mask, and a list of
IDs of all routers that are fully adjacent to the DR.

SPF calculation: Shotest Path Tree:

Type 1 an d Type 2 LSAs carry to pology a nd r outing inf ormation. 

OSPF calcula tes a n SP T using the SPF algorith m and va rious types of LSAs. 

Phase 1: Create an SPT on the basis of Type 2 LSAs, as well

as point -to-point and TransNet links in Type 1 LSAs.

Phase 2: Calculate an optimal route on the basis of Type 2

LSAs and StubNet links in Type 1 LSAs.
OSPF Single Area configuration: ospf configuration

OSPF Inter-Area Routing:

Inter-area route calculation:

OSPF divides a large network into multiple interconnected smaller areas. Routers in the
same area only need to synchronize their Link-State Databases (LSDBs) in the area ra-
ther than to flood LSAs to the entire OSPF domain, in order to reduce the consumption
of memory and CPU to some extent. 
After an OSPF domain is divided into areas, the routers are further divided into two roles
according to functions:

Internal router: All interfaces of an internal router belong to the same OSPF area.

Area border router (ABR): Interfaces of an ABR belong to two or more OSPF
areas.

An internal router maintains a single LSDB and calculates the routes in the area.

How do OSPF routers residing in different areas communicate with each other?
 An ABR acts as a gateway for inter-a rea traff ic and maintains multiple
LSDBs , one for each a tta ched area. 

An ABR converts link s tate informa tion in o n e of its a ttache d area s to rou ting 
inf ormation, and then advertise it to another area it is connected to.

The conversio n of link s ta te info rmation into rou ting informa tion is a ctu -
ally the p roces s o f conver ting Ty pe 1 or Ty pe 2 LSAs in to Type 3 LSAs.
Note that an ABR transmits inter -area rou tin g information bidire ction-
ally. 


Network summary LSA(network -summary-LSA)


A Network-Summary-LSA describe the metric routing of an ABR to a destination network
segment.
A Network-Summary-LSA (Type 3 LSA) contains the following fields:

Ls id: destination network address

Adv rtr: ID of the ABR

Net mask: subnet mask of the destination network

Metric: cost of the route from the ABR to the destination network

Inter-Area route calculation:
A Type 3 LSA originated by an ABR is used to calculate an inter-area route.

An ABR is determined according to the value of the field Adv rtr in a Type 3
LSA.

A destination address prefix and the cost of the route from an ABR to that des-
tination can be obtained from the fields Ls id, Net mask, and Metric. 

When a router receives multiple Type 3 LSAs with the same destination address prefix
from different ABRs, the router separately adds the cost from itself to each ABR and
the metric reported in related LSA, and has them compared with each other. The
route with the lowest cost is generated. If two or more routes with the same total
cost exist, the router performs equal-cost load-balancing.


Destination Inter-Area Loops Prevention:

To prevent inter-area routing loops, OSPF defines the backbone area, non- back-
bone area, and transmission rules of Type 3 LSAs.

OSPF divides an autonomous system into a backbone area (also called Area 0) and a
number of non-backbone areas. All non-backbone areas must be connected to
the backbone area, and all traffic between non-backbone areas must pass
through the backbone area.

OSPF does not allow Type 3 LSAs from the backbone area to be injected back to
the backbone area.

As for the ABR mentioned earlier, OSPF requires that an ABR should have at least one in-
terface belonging to the backbone area.

Following the inter-area routing loop prevention rules, a new network can be deployed
free of routing loops among areas. However, due to improper network planning, the
connection between areas may not comply with the inter-area routing loop prevention
rules.
Virtual Links:




OSPF External Routing:
 In this example, a s tati c r oute for des tinatio n sub net 10. 1.60.0/2 4 is
configured on RTA. The next ho p is RTF. 

 RTA redistributes the s tati c r oute into OSPF protocol and adver tises it
into Compa ny A’s en terprise netwo rk. An OS PF rou ter tha t impo rts ex-
ternal r outes is called au to nomous system b oundary rou ter (ASBR).
(Communication between devices r e q ui re s bi di re c ti o n al r o u t es b e t w e e n
t h em . T his c o ur se o n l y de scr i be s h o w a n O SP F network ob tains ex ternal
routes.) 

RTA originates an AS-Ext ernal- LSA ( Type 5 LS A), which des cribes a r oute
to a d es ti n a ti o n e x te r n al t o t h e Au t o n o m o u s Sys t em vi a t h e ASB R. RT B a n d
RT C s e p ar a te ly o ri gi n a te ASB R - Su m m ar y -L SAs ( Ty p e 4 L SAs ) t o de sc ri b e
ro u t es fr o m t h em se lv es t o t h e ASBR. 

Type 4 an d Type 5 LSAs are used by rou ters to calculat e exter nal ro utes. 

ASBR-Summary-LSA (ASBR summary lsa):

 Th e fig u r e a b o ve ill us tr a t es a n ASB R- Su m m a r y- L SA ( T y pe 4 L SA) ori gi n a t e d
b y RT B i n Area 1. 

When RTB flo ods a Type 5 LSA to Area 1 , a Type 4 LSA is simultane-
ously originated an d flo oded to that area . 

A Type 4 LSA con tains the following fields: 

Ls id: ID of an ASBR. 

Adv rtr : ID of the ABR tha t originates the Typ e 4 LSA. 

Metric: cos t o f the rou te fr om the ABR to th e ASBR. 

A Type 4 LSA can be flo oded only in one area . Each time a Type 5 LSA
is flooded t o the next area via an ABR, a Typ e 4 LSA is the n o riginated
by the ABR to describe a rou te to rea ch the ASBR tha t originates the
Type 5 L SA. In company with the Ty pe 5 L SA, the Type 4 LSA is flooded
no fu rthe r than the b order of the area where it is origin ated. 

Therefore , in an au ton omous system , there can be multiple Ty pe 4 L SAs

with the same ASBR ID (indica ted by Ls ID) b ut different ABR ID (indi-
cated by Adv r tr) to des cribe the r ou tes to r each the same ASBR. 

External route type:

 OSPF can import tw o types of external rou te s: 

Type 1 e xternal route : The metric of the Typ e 1 ex ternal rou te is

equal to the sum of the cost to the ASBR (a. k.a AS internal cost )
and the cost from the ASBR to the e xternal destination (a .k.a AS
external cost ). This o ccurs when the AS ex te rnal cost is considered
at the same level as the AS inte rnal cos t. Th ere is equivalence be-
tween the AS exter nal cost an d the AS inter n al cos t, an d the Type 1
external metric is comparable directly to the link sta te me tric of
OSPF. By reason of ab ove, the Type 1 exte rnal route is mo re re lia-
ble than the Type 2 exte rnal route. 

Type 2 e xternal route : Whe n the AS exter nal cos t is considered

far greate r than the cost of any rou te in tern al in the AS , the Type
2 exte rnal r oute uses onl y the AS ex ternal co st as its cost, ignor-
ing the AS internal cos t. As mentio ned, the Type 2 ex ternal r oute
has l ower reliability tha n the Type 1 ex ternal rou te. 

By default, OSPF uses Type 2 exter nal r outes . 



Forwarding Address f ield:

 


Generally, the Fo rwarding Address field in a Type 5 LSA des cribing an

external r oute impor ted by an ASBR is set to 0.0.0.0. 

In the sce nario s hown in the figure ab ove, th e rou te de stined for
192.1 68.3.0/ 24 is originated by RTB and the next hop is 1 0.1.12 3.3 . OSPF
runs on the subne t 10.1.1 23.0/ 24 to which the IP add ress 10.1.1 23.3 be-
longs. Theref ore, the value of the For wardin g Address field is set to
10.1.12 3.3 in the Type 5 LSA genera ted by R TB. 

Upon re ceiving the Type 5 LSA , R TA finds th a t the LSA h as Fo rwarding

Address set to n on-zer o, then i t look s u p the forwar ding add ress
10.1.12 3.3 in the r outing table to de termine the nex t hop. 


Stub Area and totally Stub Area:

Transit area and End a rea:

OSPF a reas a re classified into the following two type s: 

Transit a rea : The tr ansit area no t o nly sup po rts the traf fic tha t is
originated in it or destined for it, but also su pports the traffi c tha t
is just passing thr ough it (als o kn own a s trav ersing traffi c). F or
example, Area 0 is a transit area. 

End area : The end area only supp orts the tra ffic that is orig-
inated in it or destined fo r it. For example, Area 1 is an end
 area. 

For en d are as, the following issues need to b e co nsidered: 

First, consider whethe r there is nece ssity of having all specific

routes to other areas. If there is only a single gateway to o ther ar-
eas or exter nal au ton omous s ys te ms, t h e a ns w er is N O, b ec a u se t h e
su m m ar iz e d r o u t es is m o re c o n cis e a n d effe cti ve than all spe cific
routes for the outgoing traf fic. 

Se c o n d, c o n si d er t he d e vi c e c a p a ci t y f or p r oc e ssi ng a n d s t o r ag e.
Th e c os t is a cru cial factor in netwo rk cons tr uctio n an d main te-
nance. In view of this, the 

Stub Area
An ABR does not adver tis e any AS exte rnal r oute s through Type 4 and Type 5 LSAs
to a stub ar ea . This results in a great redu cti on o f the size of the LSDBs and ro uting
tables. 

To ensu re the traffi c originated in a stu b ar ea can rea ch a de stina tion

outside the AS, an ABR of the stub area gen erates a def ault r oute a nd
advertises it into the stub a rea thro ugh Type 3 LSAs. 

The s tub area is an optional configuration at tribute . It is suggeste d tha t

you sh ould not configure every n on -ba ckbo n e area to be a s tub area. A
stub area is a non-backbone area loca ted at the far end of the Autono-
mous Syste m, u sually with only one ABR. 

When configuring a stub area, keep in mind the following p oints : 

The b ackb one area cann ot be co nfigured a s a stu b area. 

If an a rea is co nfigured as a stu b a rea, a ll th e rou ters in this area must be 

conf igured as stub routers.

An ASBR canno t be part of a stu b area. That is, AS exte rnal

routes cannot be adverti sed in a stub area . 

Virtual links cann ot be co nfigured thr ough s tub areas. 

Totally Stub Area:
Neither AS ex ternal rou ting informa tion in Type 4 or Type 5 LSAs nor in-
ter-area rou ting inf ormation in Type 3 LSAs a re allowed to be a dvertised
in a totally stub area. 

An ABR generate s a defaul t r oute and inje cts it in to the stub area
where it attached thr ough Type 3 LSAs to ins truct other r oute rs in the
stub area how to get to o ther OSP F areas an d even othe r au to nomous
systems. 
 When configuring a totally s tub area on the ABR, the n o -summary pa-
rameter is additio nally appende d a t the end of the command stub ,
which is differen t fr om that fo r a stub a rea ( stub no -summa ry) 

NSSA and Tota lly NSSA:

Th e N ot- S o- St ub b y A re a ( N SSA) w a s ne w l y i n tr o d u c e d t o o ri gi n al
O SP F R FC as a supplement. 

An NSSA is similar to a stub a rea. Differe nt fr om stu b are as an d to tally

stub a reas, N S SA s ca n im po rt a nd ad ve rtise AS e xte r nal r ou te s t o the
e ntire O SPF A S with ou t l earning exte rnal routes f rom the other part s
of the OSPF AS. 

N SSA L SA ( T ype 7 L SA ) : 

The Type 7 LSA is in tro duce d to supp ort NSS As by allowing im-
ported exte rnal r outes to be ad ver tised in th e OSPF au ton omous
system. 

Type 7 LSAs a re o riginated by the ASBR of a n NSSA and are

flooded only within the NSSA. 

A default rou te can be advertised through a Type 7 L SA as well to guide traffi c 

to other ASs.

Type 7 L SAs can be conver ted into Type 5 L S As. 

W h e n a n AB R of a n N SSA re c ei v es T y p e 7 L SAs, t h e AB R s el ec ti v el y
tr a nsl a t es t h e Type 7 LSAs into Type 5 LSAs to adver tise impor ted
external r outes to othe r area s o f the OSPF d omain. 

When multiple ABRs exist in an NSSA, only th e one with the greates t R oute r ID 


translates the Type 7 LSAs into Type 5 LSAs.

Difference s betw een a totally NSSA and an NSSA: 

Type 3 L SAs are no t allowed to be floo ded in a to tally NSSA,

whereas Ty pe 3 L SAs will pass into and o ut o f an NSSA. 

The only differen ce in configura tion between NSSA an d totally

NSSA is the ad ditional a ppending paramete r no-summary for a
totally NSSA. 



LSAs Functions:
LSAs have the following f unctions : 

Router-LSA (Type 1 ): des cribes collected sta tes o f the rou ter's in-
terfaces to an a rea. It is originate d by every router and floo ded
only th rougho ut a single a rea it belongs to. 

Network -LSA (Type 2 ): de scribes link states of a broa dcas t and

NBMA interfa ce. It is o riginated by the DR an d floo ded only
through ou t a single area it belo ngs to. 

Network -Summary - LSA (Type 3 ): des cribes a rou te to a destina-

tion network o utside the area , ye t s till inside the AS. It is origi-
nated by a n ABR and floode d thro ughou t the LSA's asso ciated
area. 

AS B R- Su mm a r y- LS A (T y pe 4 ): d esc ri b es r o u t es t o a n ASB R. I t is o ri gi-

n a t e d b y a n AB R a n d fl o o d e d t hr o u g h o u t t h e a re as e x ce p t t h e ar e a
w h er e t h e ASB R r esi d es . 

AS-External -LSA (Type 5): describes ro utes to des tination s ex ter-

nal to the Au ton omous System. It is originated by an ASBR and
flooded to all areas exce pt stu b are as a nd N SSAs. 

N SS A- L SA ( Ty pe 7 ): d es cri b es AS e xt e r n al r o u t es. I t is o ri gi n at e d b y a n
ASB R a n d only floo ded in NSSAs. 

A special OSPF a rea is co nfigured not o nly to redu ce the number of

LSAs in the area and rou te calculation load o n the ro uters , bu t also to
reduce the impact of the netw ork fa ults ou ts ide the area. However ,
the be nefits of a s pecial OSPF area a re o nly available within the area.
So, what me thods ca n be applied in o ther ar eas? 


LSA Update mechanism:

The LSA reliability mus t be guaran teed to en sure ro ute cal culation a ccu racy. 

OSPF main tains a n aging timer of 3 600 se con ds (Max age) for ea ch LSA.
When the i n cr e m e n t al L S a g e i n e ac h L SA h e a d er r e a c h es t he M a x a g e,
t h e L SA is de le te d f ro m the LSDB. 

To p r ev e n t a n L SA f r o m b ei ng d isc a r d e d d u e t o a ti m e o ut , O SP F r es e n ds t he
 L SA e ve r y 18 00 se conds with a higher seq uen ce n umber. 

An OSPF rou ter re -originates an L SA every 1 8 00s and advertises it to o ther rou ters. 

To s peed up netwo rk convergen ce, OSP F pr o vides the triggered upda te mechanism. 

Once l ink states change , a rou ter flo ods upd ate messages in the are a
to for ce o ther rou ters to re calcula te r outes i mmediately. Hence, the
fast netwo rk convergen ce is accomplished. 


OSPF Authen tica tion Mechan ism :




O SP F s u p p o rt s a ut h e n ti c ati o n . O nl y a u t he n ti c a t e d O SP F r o u te rs c a n
es t a blis h neighb oring relatio nships and exch ange rou ting info r-
mation. 

The OSPF authenti catio n work s o n o ne of the following bases : 

Area basi s ( A rea authenticat ion) 

Per- interface basi s (inte rface authenticat ion) 

Suppor ted au then ticatio n mo des: null, simple, M D5 , a nd H MAC -MD5. 

W he n b ot h a re a - ba se d a nd pe r -in te rf ace -b a se d a uth e nti cati on a re c on -
figu re d , pe r - interfac e-based authenticat ion is p refer red. 


Rou te c on tr ol:

 Co ntr o l tr aff ic r eac ha b ility

 Adj ust n etw or k tr aff ic pa th

1) Co ntr o l Reac h ab ility:


When advertis ing , rec eiving , and import ing routes , r outing p olicy im-
plements cer tain policies a cco rding to a ctua l netw orking requirements
in order to filter the ro utes and change th e attribu tes of the ro utes .
Purposes of routing polic ies are as follow s: 

Con tr ol r ou te a d ve r tise me n t : a d v er tis es o n l y t h e r o u t es

m a tc hi n g ce r t ai n conditio ns. 

Con tr ol r ou te se ndi n g a nd re ce i vin g : r e c ei ve s o nl y n e ce ss ar y a n d

v ali d r o u t es t o con trol the ca paci ty of ro utin g table, enha ncing
network secu rity. 

Filte r and cont rol imported route s : impo rts only the ro utes
meeting cer tain con ditions from other r outin g protocols, and
sets the attributes of impor ted rou tes. 

Set route att ributes : sets attribu tes f or the routes filtered by rou ting policy. 

Different from the ro uting me chanism tha t f orwards packe ts by sea rch-
ing for the r o u t es b as e d o n t h e d e sti n a ti o n a d dr es ses of I P p ac k e ts, p ol -
ic y- b as e d r o u ti n g (P B R) is based on the user -d efined rou ting p olicies. 

PBR has a higher prio rity than routing poli c y . Before f orwarding a
data packe t, the r ou ter ma tches the p acke t a gainst the PBR rule
first. If ma tch e d, the pa cket is f orwarded ba sed on the p olicy. Other-
wise, the pa cket is f orwarde d base d on the r outing table. The PBR
does not modify the routing table. It affe cts data pa cket 


f orwarding based on the pre -def ined rules.




Routing Policy:

Routing policies are implemented in the following steps:

Define attributes of routing information to which routing policies are applied. De-
fine a set of matching rules regarding various attributes of routing information
such as the destination address and AS number.

Apply matching rules to route advertising, receiving, and importing.

Currently, the following filters are provided for routing protocols:

ACL

Address prefix list

AS_Path filter

Community attribute filter

Extended community attribute filter

RD filter

ACL:
An ACL is compose d o f a list of rule s. Ea ch ru le con tains a pe rmit or
deny clause . These rules define pa cke ts with informatio n in the pa ckets. 

ACL classificatio n: 

Ba sic ACL : m a t c h es p ac k e ts a g ai ns t s o ur c e a d d ress , fr a g m e nt a ti o n

fl ag, a n d time range. The ACL number ranges from 2 000 to
299 9. 

Ad va nce d ACL : m a tc h es p a c k et s ag ai n st s o ur ce a d dr es s, de sti n a ti o n

a d dr es s, sour ce por t n umber, des tinatio n p or t n umber, pro to col
type, priori ty, and time ra nge. the ACL n umb er ranges from 30 00
to 39 99. 

La ye r 2 ACL : m a tc h es p a c k et s ag ai n st s o ur ce M AC a d dr ess, d es ti n a -
ti o n M AC ad dress , an d p acke t type. The ACL number ra nges fr om
400 0 to 49 99. 

User-defined AC L: matches packe ts against u ser -defined rules. The ACL number 
ranges f rom 5000 to 5999 .

An ACL ca n consis t o f multiple deny or permit clauses. Each clause de -

scribes a rule. Af ter re ceiving data pa ckets, the device matches the pack -
ets agains t the first ACL rule. If the pa ckets do n ot match the first ACL
rule, the device ma tches the p acke ts aga ins t the nex t ACL rule. Once the
 packets match a rule, the device execu tes th e action in the r ule and does
not match packe ts agains t othe r rules. If the packe ts do no t ma tch any
rule, the device dire ctly forward s the packe ts. 
Note: The ACL rules may overla p or conflict with ea ch other. The rule
matching order decides the r ule priori ties. The ACL pr ocesses rule over-
lapping or co nflict based on rule priorities.

Eempl e ACL:


 



IP-Prefix List:

IP-Prefix List can match both IP address prefix and mask le ngth

IP-Prefix List cannot filte r packets, but can filter only rout ing informat ion .
 
IP prefix list is the add ress prefix list. The ad dress pre fix list filter s the
routes based o n the defined prefix filter list. 

Format and matching r ule of prefix list: 

Th e p re fi x f ilt e r lis t c o n sis ts of IP a d d re ss es a n d m as ks. An I P a d-

dr es s c a n b e a su bnet add ress or h ost ad dres s. The mask length
ranges from 0 to 3 2. 

Each IP pre fix in the IP prefix list has an inde x. The IP prefixes
are pro cessed in a n as cending order of index . 

If the indexes a re n ot manually se t, the devi ce allocates indexes to

the IP prefixes with an interval of 10. If a ne w I P p refix has the
same name and index as an ex ist ing I P pr efi x but thei r contents
are different, the ne w IP prefix over writ es t he old one. 

If no IP pre fix is matched , the def ault ma tch ing mode of the last IP
prefix is deny by default . If a refere nced IP p refix list does no t exist,
the de fault mode permit is used. 

Prefix mask length range: 

The IP prefix list can match a s pecific rou te or match the ro utes
within a cer tain mask length. The prefix mas k length can also be
specified using the keywords greate r -equal o r less -equal. If the
keyword grea ter-equal or less -equal is no t 
 specif ied, the precise matching is used. That is, only the
route with the same mask length as the pref ix list is matched.
If the keyword greater -equal is specif ied, the routes of which
the mask lengths range f rom greater -equal value to 32 bits
are matched. If the keyword less -equal is specif ied, the
routes of which the mask lengths range f rom the specif ied
value to less -equal are matched.






Filter-Policy Too l :




The fi lter -policy tools of pr oto cols ca n refer ence ACLs or address prefix
lists to filter the re ceived, advertised , a nd i mported rou tes. 

For a distance -ve ctor pro tocol an d a link -sta te pr otocol , the opera tions of the filter - 
policy tools are diff erent:

The dis tan ce -vector pro to col gener ates rou tes based on ro uting
table, so the fi lter w ill affect the routes r ec eived from and
sent to ne ighbors . 

The link-s tate pro to col gener ates rou tes bas ed on the link s tate
base an d the r ou ting informa tion is hidden i n the link s tatus LSA.
However, the filter -policy c a n n o t f ilt e r t h e a d v er tis e d a n d r e ce iv e d
L SAs. T he r ef or e, the filte r- poli cy doe s not affect link state adver-
tise ment, integrity of l ink state, or routing t able . It af fects only
the lo cal r outing table. Only filtere d r outes can be added to the
routing tabl e. 

The r oute s adver tised by the filter -policy ex port command of dif-
ferent pro to cols a re differe nt: 

 The r oute s impor ted to or discovered by the DV pr otocol are filtered. 

  Only the r outes impor ted to the link s tatus p roto col are filtere d. 

Route -Policy Tool:






Each n ode in the ro ute policy matches permit o r deny mode. If a node
matches the permit mode , whe n a ro ute meets all if -ma tch clau ses in the
node, the r oute is allowed and the ap ply cla use matching the node is ex-
ecuted , and the nex t n ode is no t pro cessed. If a r oute does no t match
any if-match clause in the node , the next no de is pr ocesse d f or r ou te fil-
tering. If a node matches the deny mode , wh en a rou te ma tches all if -
match clauses in the node , the ro ute is no t a llowed and the apply clause
of the node is no t exe cu ted , an d the next no de is n ot pro cessed. Other-
wise, the nex t node is pr ocesse d f or r oute filtering. 





Policy-based Routing (control reachability)



 


Adjust Network Path:



You ca n change pro to col a ttrib utes to con tro l the rou ting table en-
tries, affecting traffic pa th : 

If OSPF or IS-IS is run , a djus t the cos t values of inte rfaces. 

If RIP is run , adjus t the metric or nex t h op. 

If BGP is r un, adj ust the AS -Pa th , L ocal_Pref , MED, an d Community attribu tes . 



Limitatiion of Rou ting Po licy:




Due to the limitation in ro ute policy , u sers e xpect to cus tomize pa cke t
forwarding p olicies base d on the tra ditional routing me thod. Po licy-
based routing allows netw ork a d mi ni st r at o rs t o m a k e us er - d e fi n e d p oli -
ci es t o c h a n g e p ac k e t r o u t es b as e d o n s o u rc e addresses , pa cket size , an d
link quality in additio n to destina tion addres ses . 


Policy-based Rou ting:

PBR includes : 

Local PBR: applies to pa ckets sent by the de vice, s uch as ICMP and BGP p ack-
ets. 

 To se n d t h e p a c ke ts w i t h dif fe r e nt s o ur ce a d d r ess es a n d
le n gt h s, co nfigure lo cal PBR. 

 It is implemented using the P olicy -Based-R ou te tool. 

Interface PBR : applies to the pa ckets fo rwar ded (n ot initiated) by the local de-
vice. 

 To forward pa ckets to the specified next ho p , configure the

interface PBR. The packe ts ma tching the redi rection rule are
 forwarded through the spe cified nex t hop interface. The pack-
ets n ot matching the re direction r ule are for warded b ased on
routing table. In terfa ce PBR applies to load balancing an d mo -
nitoring. 

 It is implemented using the traffi c p olicy. 

Smart PBR: selects the o ptimal pa th for service traffic base d o n link quality. 

 To sele ct pa ths for differen t services base d on link q uality,

configure smart PBR. 

 It is implemented using the Smart -P olicy-Rou te tool. This

method is no t described in this course. 








Differences Between the routing Policy and PBR :


A route r ha s a routing tabl e and a for wardin g table . The f orwarding ta-
ble is mapped from the ro uting table . PBR ap plies to the forwa rding ta-
ble, an d r outing policy applies to the rou ting table . Forwarding is per-
formed a t the bo ttom layer, while rou ting is performed at the up per
layer. Therefo re, the forw arding ba sed on fo rwarding ta ble has a higher
priority than the f orwarding based on rou tin g table. 

A route p olicy take s effe ct in r ou te dis covery . It uses ce rtain rules to

influence r oute adver tisement, re ceiving, a n d selection, thus modifying
the r outing entries. The PBR takes e ffect in p acket forwar ding . It uses
certain rules to influen ce pa cket fo rwarding, bu t d oes n ot affe ct the
routing table. 





1. In a multicast network environment, if IGMPv1 hosts and IGMPv2 routers (hereinafter referred to as version 1
hosts and version 2 routers) are co-located on the same LAN, how do they work together? (Multiple Choice)
If there is a version 1 host in the LAN, all hosts must be required to use version 1.
Membership reports sent by version 1 hosts are always received by version 2 routers.
If a version 1 host exists in a specific group, the version 2 router must ignore any outgoing messages re-
ceived in that group.
Version 2 routers must set a group-related countdown timer that considers the existence of the Version 1
host.
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2. When two routers establish a logical BGP peer through multiple physical links, you must use the peer connect-
interface command.
True
False


3. IGMPv1 contains only two message types: membership query and membership report.
True
False


4. Which types of access control lists can be divided into? (Multiple Choice)
Basic access control list
Advanced access control list
Layer 2 ACL
User-defined ACLs


5. The master-slave relationship of OSPF neighbors is negotiated through DD packets.

True
False



6. When using manual link aggregation mode, the wrong description of joining member interfaces in the follow-
ing is:
The Eth-Trunk interface cannot be nested. That is, the member interface cannot be an Eth-Trunk.
An Ethernet interface only can be added to one Eth-Trunk interface. If you need to join other Eth-Trunk in-
terfaces, you must first exit from the original Eth-Trunk interface.
If the local device uses an Eth-Trunk, the peer interface directly connected to the member interface must
also be bundled into an Eth-Trunk interface so that the two ends can communicate normally.
Eth-Trunk has two working modes: Layer 2 working mode and Layer 3 working mode. The two working
modes are automatically identified and no manual switching is required.


7. Which of the following causes the BGP neighbor relationship failed to be established?
ACLs that block all TCP connections are configured between the two BGP neighbor relationships.
IBGP neighbors are non-physically connected.
BGP synchronization is enabled in the fully interconnected IBGP neighbor relationship.
The update time between the two BGP neighbors is inconsistent.


8. About the description of P2MP networking, which is correct? (Multiple Choice)

Devices with inconsistent mask lengths on the P2MP network cannot establish neighbor relationships. How-
ever, you can use the ospf p2mp-mask-ignore command to break this limitation.
The election of DR/BDR is required in the P2MP network.
No link layer protocol is P2MP by default. P2MP must be forcibly changed by other network types.
You can use the filter-Isa-out peer command to filter the sent LSA on a P2MP network


9. About the descriptions of LSA of various messages, which is wrong?

The DD type LSA contains only the summary information of the LSA, that is, the LS Type, LS ID, Adver-
tising Router and LS Sequence Number.
The LS Request message contains only the LS Type, LS ID, and the Advertising Router.
The LS Update message contains the complete LSA information.
The LS Ack packet contains the complete LSA information.

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

10. Which of the following description of the distribution tree is correct?

The multicast source is root, the multicast distribution tree that the multicast group members as leaves called
RPT.
The RP (Rendezvous Point) is root, the multicast distribution tree that the multicast group members as
leaves called SPT.
SPT applies to both PIM-DM and PIM-SM.
RPT applies to both PIM-DM and PIM-SM.


11. When applying policy routing, which of the following descriptions are wrong? (Multiple Choice)
Apply strategy routing in the system view, in this case, strategy routing works on all packets received
through this router.
Apply strategy routing in the system view, in this case, strategy routing takes effect only on packets gener-
ated locally.
Apply strategy routing in the interface view, in this case, strategy routing only affects the packets received
and sent by the interface.
Apply strategy routing in the interface view, in this case, strategy routing only affects the packets received
on the interface.


12. When an operating OSPF router receives an LSA and the LSA does not exist in its link state database, how
does the router handle this LSA?
The router will silently discard this LSA without returning any messages.
This LSA will be immediately flooded to other OSPF neighbors.
The LSA is installed in its own link state database, and then this LSA is acknowledged by multicast.
Check the age of the LSA to see if it expires.


13. About the description of well-known attributes in BGP, which is correct? (Multiple Choice)
The well-known attributes are divided into two types: recognized mandatory and optional transition.
BGP must recognize all well-known attributes.
Well-known attributes are identifiled by all BGP routers and must exist in the Update message.
Well-known attributes are identifiled by all BGP routers, but it does not need to exist in the Update message.
14. About multicast RPF check, which of the following statements is wrong? (Multiple Choice)
Multicast RPF check is not rely on unicast routing.
All multicast protocols use RPF check.
The router receives the multicast packet but fails the RPF check and discards the received multicast packet.
There are two RPF check functions. One is to prevent loops in multicast routes, the other is to prevent for-
warding of redundant multicast data packets.

15. The route injected into the BGP through the redistributed command has the Origin attribute of Incomplete.
True
False

16. Which of the following is the characteristics of the OSPF stub area?
AS-external-LSAs can be published in the Stub area.
The route to the outside of the AS can only be based on a default route generated manually by the ABR.
Virtual connections cannot span the Stub area.
Any area can be a stub area


17. In the static LACP mode, the correct description of the active link selection is: (Multiple Choice)
After a member interface is added to the Eth-Trunk in static LACP mode, the member interface sends the
information negotiation active port about the system priority, system MAC address, interface priority, and inter-
face number to the peer.
The higher the system LACP priority is, the higher the priority is. At both endsI of the devices, select the
system with the larger LACP priority value as the active end. If the system LACP priority is the same, select the
one with the higher MAC address as the active end.
The passive end device determines the activity interface based on the active end interface LACP priority and
interface ID (interface number).
The interfaces selected by two-end device are inconsistent and the data can be forwarded normally.

18. Since the AS-PATH attribute cannot be function within the AS, it is specified that the BGP router will not ad-
vertise any updates from the IBGP peer to its IBGP peers.
True
False

19. In the RSTP protocol, the uplink port of the non-root switch has the parameter of the port identifier. The port
identifier consists of two parts, they are:
One-byte port priority and one-byte port number
One-byte port priority and two-byte port number
Two-byte port priority and one-byte port number
Two-byte port priority and two-byte port number


20. Which of the following is incorrect about the OSPF protocol?

When a router receives a Network-Summary-LSA, the router runs the SPF algorithm.
Network-LSA is used to describe the link status information of the broadcast network segment and the
NBMA network segment.
Virtual connection is a virtual link that belongs to the backbone area (Area 0).
Type-4 LSA is used to describe how to reach the ASBR and contain routing and topology information.


21. Autonomous System (AS) refers to a set of routers defined by users and using a unified routing policy.
True
False


22. Which statements about OSPF packets are true? (Select 2 answers)
Hello packets can be sent immediately after the interface joined OSPF area.
After received LS Update packets, the router must send LSAck for confirming.
LS Update messages synchronize the link state database by sending detailed LSAs.
LS Update packets are sent only after an adjacency is established.


23. Regarding the description of IGMPv1 and IGMPv2, the correct one is: (Multiple Choice)
IGMPv1 packet type does not include a leave member packets.
IGMPv2 packet type includes member leave packets
IGMPv1 supports universal group queries.
IGMPv2 supports only general group queries.


24. How many types can the Hello packets of ISIS be divided into? (Multiple Choice)
Level-1 LAN IIH
Level-2 LAN IIH
Level-3 LAN IIH
P2P LAN IIH



1.True or False
The AS_Path attribute cannot take effect within an AS. Therefore, a BGP router will not adver-
tise any Update message received from an IBGP peer to other IBGP peers. ( )

√ ×

Correct answer：
√

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 10.0

2.True or False
IGMPv1 defines a mechanism to select a querier when there are multiple routers on a shared net-
work. ( )

√ ×

Correct answer：
×

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 10.0

3.True or False
An ASBR in an OSPF NSSA area can import external routes within this area and flood the Type
7 LSA in the NSSA area, but it does not flood Type 4 LSAs or Type 5 LSAs within this area. In-
stead, it translates Type 7 LSAs into Type 5 LSAs and then floods the Type 5 LSAs to other ar-
eas.

√ ×

Correct answer：
√

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 10.0

4.True or False
Each DD packet has a DD sequence number, which is used for DD packet acknowledgement.
DD contains complete link state information. ( )

√ ×

Correct answer：
×

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 10.0

5.True or False
If Router Priority is set to 0 for a router, it is allowed to elect this router as a DR or BDR in an
OSPF routing domain, but its priority is the lowest.

√ ×

Correct answer：
×

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 10.0

6.True or False
The first four bits of a multicast IP address are fixed as 1110 and are mapped to the high 25 bits
of a multicast MAC address. Among the last 28 bits of a multicast IP address, only 23 bits are
mapped to a multicast MAC address, and information about the other 5 bits is lost. As a result,
32 multicast IP addresses are mapped to the same MAC address. ( )

√ ×

Correct answer：
√

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 10.0

7.Single
What is the function of the detail-suppressed keyword in the aggregate command? ( )
 a.A. It suppresses the delivery of generated summarized routes to the IP routing table.

b.B. It suppresses the delivery of specific routes to the IP routing table.

c.C. It only advertises the summarized routes to other BGP peers.

d.D. It advertises both the summarized routes and specific routes to other BGP peers.

Correct answer：
c

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 0.0

8.Single
On a network running RSTP, some devices use STP. When RSTP-enabled switches detect a to-
pology change, which method is used by the RSTP-enabled switches to notify STP-enabled
switches of the topology change? ( )

a.A. RSTP BPDUs with the TC are used.

b.B. STP BPDUs with the TC are used.

c.C. RSTP BPDUs with the TCA are used.

d.D. STP BPDUs with the TCA are used.

Correct answer：
b

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 10.0

9.Single
The Hold time in the Open message sent by BGP Peer A is 90s, while that in the Open message
sent by Peer B is 30s. What is the interval for sending Keepalive messages after the two peers
establish a connection?

a.A.90s
 b.B.30s

c.C.10s

d.D.No Keepalive messages will be sent

Correct answer：
c

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 0.0

10.Single
Which of the following statements regarding routing policies is true?

a.A.Routing policies control packet forwarding based on destination addresses in the routing
table.

b.B.Routing policies are based on the forwarding plane and serve forwarding policies.

c.C.A routing policy needs to be manually configured hop by hop to ensure that packets are
forwarded according to the policy.

d.D.A routing policy is configured using the policy-based-route command.

Correct answer：
a

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 0.0

11.Single
Which of the following statements regarding Network-Summary-LSA is true?

a.A.After a router receives a Network-Summary-LSA, this router runs a SPF algorithm.

b.B.After a router receives a Network-Summary-LSA, this router not runs a SPF algorithm.
 c.C.An IR generates a Network-Summary-LSA.

d.D.An ASBR generates a Network-Summary-LSA.

Correct answer：
a

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 0.0

12.Single
Which of the following statements regarding an SPT switchover after RPT setup is false? ( )

a.A. An RPT cannot provide multicast forwarding for a long time.

b.B. Because all multicast traffic passes through an RP router, the RP router may become the
data forwarding bottleneck.

c.C. An SPT has the shortest path and provides higher forwarding performance than an RPT.

d.D. A RPT cannot be used to forward high volumes of traffic.

Correct answer：
a

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 0.0

13.Single
Which of the following statements regarding BGP is false?

a.A.BGP is an exterior routing protocol and is used to transmit routing information between
ASs.

b.B.BGP is a link-state routing protocol.

c.C.BGP supports CIDR.

d.D.BGP provides abundant route filtering and routing policies.

Correct answer：
b

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 0.0

14.Single
Which of the following statements regarding different LSA types is false? ( )

a.A. DD packets contain only LSA summary information, including LS Type, LS ID, Adver-
tising Router, and LS Sequence Number.

b.B. LS Request packets contain only LS Type, LS ID, and Advertising Router.

c.C. LS Update packets contain complete LSA information.

d.D. LS Ack packets contain complete LSA information.

Correct answer：
d

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 10.0

15.Single
What is the Origin attribute of the routes injected into BGP using the network command? ( )

a.A. IGP

b.B. EGP

c.C. Incomplete

d.D. Unknown
Correct answer：
a

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 0.0

16.Single
Which of the following statements regarding MUX VLAN is true? ( )

a.A. You do not need to configure the principal VLAN and subordinate VLAN in sequence.

b.B. The MUX VLAN function must be enabled on an interface so that it can take effect.

c.C. The principal VLAN and the subordinate VLAN of the MUX VLAN can be the same
VLAN.

d.D. The MUX VLAN can contain only one subordinate group VLAN.

Correct answer：
b

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 0.0

17.Single
Which of the following statements regarding the summary automatic command and BGP route
summarization is false? ( )

a.A. This command enables automatic summarization for the locally imported routes.

b.B. After this command is configured, BGP summarizes routes based on natural network
segments.

c.C. After this command is configured, BGP sends only the summarized routes to peers.

d.D. This command is used to implement automatic summarization. Automatic summariza-

tion takes precedence over manual summarization.
Correct answer：
d

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 10.0

18.Single
Which of the following statements regarding OSPF external route types is false? ( )

a.A. OSPF includes Type 1 and Type 2 external routes.

b.B. The cost of a Type 1 external route is the addition of the AS external cost and the AS
internal cost (the cost from a router to an ASBR).

c.C. The cost of a Type 2 external route is the AS external cost.

d.D. A Type 2 external route is always preferred over a Type 1 external route when other
conditions are the same.

Correct answer：
d

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 0.0

19.Single
When OSPF runs in a broadcast network, DR and BDR need to be elected. In which state will
DR and BDR be elected?

a.Init state

b.Attempt state

c.2-way state

d.Exchange state

Correct answer：
c
 QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 0.0

20.Single
Port isolation provides secure and flexible networking solutions for users. Which of the follow-
ing statements regarding port isolation is false? ( )

a.A. Port isolation can be used for configuring Layer 2 isolation.

b.B. By default, interfaces are isolated at Layer 2 but can communicate at Layer 3.

c.C. Before the port isolation function takes effect on an interface, the port isolation function
must be enabled.

d.D. The port-isolate enable command can run in the system view.

Correct answer：
d

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 10.0

21.Single
Which of the following statements regarding Local-Preference is true? ( )

a.A. Local-Preference is a well-known mandatory attribute.

b.B. Local-Preference affects traffic that enters an AS.

c.C. Local-Preference can be transmitted between ASs.

d.D. The default Local-Preference value is 100.

Correct answer：
d

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 10.0

22.Single
Which of the following statements regarding stub area configuration notes is true? ( )

a.A. The backbone area can be configured as a stub area.

b.B. If an area is configured as a stub area, all the routers within this area must have stub
area attributes configured.

c.C. An ASBR can belong to a stub area.

d.D. A virtual link can pass through a stub area.

Correct answer：
b

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 10.0

23.Multiple Choice
Which of the following statements regarding the LSA age field are true?

a.A.The unit of this field is seconds. In a LSDB, the LS age of a LSA decreases with time.

b.B.The unit of this field is seconds. In a LSDB, the LS age of a LSA increases with time.

c.C.If the LS age of a LSA has reached the LSRefreshTime (30 minutes), the originator of
this LSA needs to regenerate an instance of this LSA again.

d.D.If the LS age of a LSA has reached the LSRefreshTime (30 minutes), any router can re-
generate an instance of this LSA again.

Correct answer：
bc

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 0.0

24.Multiple Choice
Which of the following statements regarding the MED value are true? ( )
 a.A. According to BGP route selection rules, the MED value has a lower priority than
AS_Path, Preferred-Value, Local-Preference, and Origin.

b.B. The default MED value of BGP routes is 0.

c.C. By default, BGP can compare the MED values of routes from different ASs.

d.D. By default, if there is no MED value in routes, the value 0 is used. If the bestroute med-
none-as-maximum command is configured, the maximum MED value 4294967295 is used.

Correct answer：
abd

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 0.0

25.Multiple Choice
What services and functions can ACLs be applied to the router AR3200? ( )

a.A. Routing policy

b.B. Traffic classifier

c.C. Firewall

d.D. Policy-based routing

Correct answer：
abcd

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 0.0

26.Multiple Choice
Which of the following statements regarding routing policy and policy-based routing are true?
( )

a.A. Policy-based routing is used to control packet forwarding without following routes in
the routing table.
 b.B. A routing policy is used to control import, advertisement, and receiving of routing in-
formation.

c.C. A routing policy is used to control packet forwarding without following routes in the
routing table.

d.D. Policy-based routing is used to control import, advertisement, and receiving of routing
information.

Correct answer：
ab

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 0.0

27.Multiple Choice
Which of the following statements regarding the OSPF protocol are true?

a.A.An AS-External-LSA describes a route from a router to an ASBR.

b.B.An AS-External-LSA describes an AS external route and is flooded outside an AS.

c.C.An AS-External-LSA does not belong to any area.

d.D.The cost of a Type 2 external route is only the AS external cost value, ignore AS inter-
nal cost value.

Correct answer：
cd

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 0.0

28.Multiple Choice
Which of the following statements regarding DR/BDR are false? ( )

a.A. All DR others establish neighbor relationships with DR and BDR only.

b.B. In a broadcast network, DR and BDR must be elected. A broadcast network without a
DR or BDR cannot operate normally.
 c.C. DR others listen on the multicast address 224.0.0.5.

d.D. DR others listen on the network address 224.0.0.6.

Correct answer：
abd

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 0.0

29.Multiple Choice
On a network, some switches are enabled with RSTP and some switches are enabled with STP.
What will happen?

a.A.STP and RSTP calculation are performed independently.

b.B.STP and RSTP is compatible each other, but the rapid convergence of RSTP is unavaila-
ble.

c.C.A Huawei switch changes from RSTP to STP. After the STP-enabled switch is removed
from the network, the RSTP-enabled switch can can be moved back to the RSTP mode.

d.D.A Huawei switch changes its mode from STP to RSTP. After the RSTP-enabled switch
is removed from the network, the STP-enabled switch can can be moved back to the RSTP
mode.

Correct answer：
bc

QuestionScore:(10.0) Current Score: 0.0

30.Multiple Choice
RSTP defines different ports compared with STP. Which of the following ports cannot work in
forwarding state? ( )

a.A. Root port

b.B. Designated port

c.C. Backup port

 d.D. Alternate port

Correct answer：
cd
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