Journal of Construction and Building Materials Engineering

e-ISSN: 2581-6454
Volume 5 Issue 2

Comparative Study on Traditional Timber Bridges of Bhutan

with Timber Bridges of Other Nations
1
Raju Sarkar, 2T. Vijaya Kumar, 3Kiran Gurung, 3Dipti Sharma, 3Tashi Choki, 3Kezang
Wangmo, 3Kezang Tshomo, 3Sonam Penjor, 4Abhirup Dikshit, 4Ritesh Kurar
1,2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Bawana
Road, Delhi, India
1
Cordinator and Head, 3Undergraduate Researcher, 4Visiting Researcher
Center for Disaster Risk Reduction and Community Development Studies, Royal University of Bhutan,
Rinchending, Bhutan
Email: 1sarkar_raju@yahoo.com
DOI:

Abstract
This paper has assorted multifarious studies depicting the behaviour of timber bridges to
administer a literature review. It focuses on weaknesses of the timber bridges under seismic
loading as well as methodologies adopted to overcome them. The behaviour of reinforced
joints of timber bridges, the serviceability limits of vibration induced by earthquake loading
and the preference of suitable bearings such that the seismic capacity of timber bridges can
be bolstered is summarized. Additionally, the authors have studied the effect of dynamic
behaviour undergone by the bridges under vehicular loading and its cost efficiency.
Moreover, this paper has also included diverse experimental studies that construe the
behaviour of existing bridges and the seismic behaviour of timber bridges from past
earthquakes. The conclusions of the compiled studied researchers provided the repercussions
of time and climate on the load-bearing capacity of the bridges. By regulating a comparative
study between the behaviour of the seismically loaded former bridges and existing current
bridges, the effects of the earthquakes yet to occur can be marginalized.

Keywords: Bazam, rectification, seismic behavior, traditional architecture

INTRODUCTION timeframes because of its energy

Timber is likely the prime construction
material to be used in for constructing
bridges since Neolithic era. The oldest
bridge, perchance, has been erected by
arranging the trunks across the stream in
girder fashion. Subsequently, multitude of
the timber bridges that have been built
across the globe consisted different
adaptations of beams, cantilevers, arches
and trusses [1]. Timber has been used as a
raw material because of its availability in
abundance [2]. Usage of timber for bridge
construction provides diverse dividends
because of its ease in construction under
any weather conditions without any
detrimental effect. The seasonal variation
doesn’t affect the timber bridges and are
also able to bear overloads for brief
absorbing ability [2]. Despite of the
benefits, timber has its disadvantages. It is
vulnerable to fungi, fire accidents and
insects which damage the bridges. The
deeper sections reduce the hydraulic
operation and flood flow capacity beneath
the bridge [2].
Traditional timber bridges have always
been an essential part of the Bhutanese
architectural tradition. Timber has been the
base material for construction of bridges in
the country, principally because of its ease
of construction, abundance, cost efficiency
and environmental friendliness. The first
cantilever timber bridge known as
“Bazam” was constructed in Punakha in
the later 16th century for pedestrian usage.

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 Journal of Construction and Building Materials Engineering
e-ISSN: 2581-6454
Volume 5 Issue 2

It extended up to a maximum length of 32 follows. In section 2, we explain the

meters with two stone-masonry abutments traditional timber bridges of Bhutan.
at each end. The wooden horizontal deck Section 3 describes the use of timber
was supported by inclined cantilever bridges across the globe. Thereafter,
arrangements with varied angles. The (Section 4) explains the current state of
horizontal component of the bridge is Punakha Bazam in Bhutan. Finally,
covered with wooden shingles (two or (Section 5) concludes the shortcomings of
three-layered depending upon the climate timber bridges in Bhutan and the need for
and purpose). a technological transfer.
Even after the introduction of better, high
Components of Traditional Timber
strength construction materials like
Bridges of Bhutan
concrete and steel, timber remains an
The timber bridges in Bhutan are a simple
important component in traditional bridge
arrangement of cantilevers supported on
construction as it holds significant cultural
either side of the river over which the
values. Since, Bhutan lies in seismic zone
horizontal beams are placed (Fig. 1a). The
IV and V according to Indian seismic
need for such infrastructure increased over
codes [3], it is of utmost important concern
time and more advanced bridges were
that bridges constructed entirely based on
developed but without the use of nails and
thumb rule without the use of standard
codes. Being a Buddhist country, the
codes and procedures needs to be
Bhutanese people have generally
monitored. Several researchers have
constructed bridges with traditional
summarized the results on timber bridges
components such as traditional abutment
[2, 4]. This paper summarizes the use of
houses on the ends of the bridge and
timber bridges in Bhutan as well as in
shingle roof over the deck (Fig. 1b, 1c).
global context. The paper is organized as

Figure 1: (a) Simple cantilever bridge of Bhutan (Source: Getty Images), (b) Traditional
timber bridge of Bhutan (Photography: Kiran Gurung), (c) Plan and structural drawing of
traditional timber bridge of Bhutan (Source: Pro Bhutan).

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 Journal of Construction and Building Materials Engineering
e-ISSN: 2581-6454
Volume 5 Issue 2

A traditional timber bridge generally has accessible heavy material, in order to

following construction components:
WOODEN CANTILEVER SUPPORTS
The cantilever arrangement of the bridge is
embedded into the stone rubble of
abutment houses with an external
projection of about 1.5-2 meters. The
angle of the cantilever is varied in
accordance with the horizontal plane of the
earth surface. The arrangement functions
by reducing the length of the span of the
bridge and by providing supports on both
ends of the bridge (Fig. 2a).
STONE AND POUNDED MUD
ABUTMENT HOUSE
The abutment house is generally a single
room with single storied structure
constructed on each end of the traditional
timber bridge wherein the cantilever
arrangements are embedded. Smaller
stones are used on the outer faces of the
wall whereas the inner parts are filled with
a random arrangement of mud and smaller
pebbles. Stone filling below the deck level
has been intellectually executed, mainly
because the stone had been the only easily
balance with the load of the horizontal
component.
WOODEN DECK
Deck of the bridge is placed over the
cantilever arrangements upon which
wooden planks are fixed perpendicularly
to the beams making the floor of the deck
(Fig. 2b).
Wooden Railings (Jadhang Tazi)
These are the hand railings provided along
the sides of the deck of the bridge which
provides safety and ease in access (Fig.
2b).
Wooden Columns
These columns are fixed and erected from
the deck to support the trusses of shingle
roof (Fig. 2b).
Wooden Shingle Roof (Jamthok)
The roof is elevated open to downplay the
dragging effect of fast winds as well as for
better and free circulation of wind. The
stones placed are typical of oblate shape
(Fig. 2c).

Figure 2: (a) Wooden Cantilever Supports, (b) Wooden Deck, Railings, and Columns, (c)
Shingle Roof (Photography: Kiran Gurung).

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 Journal of Construction and Building Materials Engineering
LITERATURE REVIEW ON TIMBER
BRIDGES GLOBALLY
This section deals with a timeline of the
prominent research conducted on timber
bridges all across the globe. It also
explains the various tests conducted by
researchers and their conclusions. Such
study would help in understanding the
current state of several timber bridges
across Bhutan and formulate a way to
either improve the present structure or to
move towards technological advancement.
Ritter et al. [5] conducted field
performance of stress-laminated timber
bridges on low-volume roads by
monitoring 24 bridges over a period of 2
years and concluded that bridges stressed
with a single jack, 3 to 6 stressing passes
should be made along the bridge length.
The stress level should be gradually
increased to minimize the deck distortion.
They observed that the attachments of the
bridge superstructure and substructure
should not be made until the bridge has
been fully stressed twice. In addition, the
average moisture content of the wood
lamination should be 10%-16% and never
exceed 20% during the construction
period. The authors developed numerous
conclusions, like for sawn lumber bridges,
bar force needs to be analyzed by the year
for the first 2 years of working life and
every 2 years thereon. Later on, it may be
extended to 2-5-year intervals once bar
Figure 3: DAF for bridges constructed of various materials [6].
54 Page 51-62 © MAT Journals 2019. All Rights Reserved
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Volume 5 Issue 2
force stabilize. For glued laminated timber
bridges, bar force is needed to be analyzed
biennially for the first 4 years of working
life and every 5 years thereon. Bridge live-
load deflection should check the maximum
of 1/360 to 1/400 of the bridge span. When
oil-type wood preservatives are used, the
preservative retention should fulfill
American Wood Protection Association
Standard (AWPA). Stressing bars enclosed
in grease-filled plastic tubes should be
taken into account if the bridge is
subjected to corrosion.
Wipf et al. [6] prepared report on the
dynamic field performance of timber bridges.
The report included American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) recommendations of dynamic
load allowance of 0.165 for timber bridges.
Thereafter, researchers selected five glued-
laminated timber girder bridges and four
longitudinal glued-laminated timber panel
bridges for testing. They discerned that nine
tested bridges have fundamental frequencies
between 5Hz and 11Hz as well as a dynamic
load allowance of less than 0.25. It was also
found that nearly all the timber bridges tested
have natural frequencies between the body
bounce and axle hop vehicle frequencies.
This frequency grouping is mainly due to the
bridges all having short span lengths. The
report concluded that the timber bridges have
Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF) values
less than steel values (Fig. 3).
 Journal of Construction and Building Materials Engineering
Wood et al. [7] studied the dynamic
response of three glued laminated (glulam)
timber bridges wherein static and dynamic
field test were performed using a heavily
loaded truck. Bridge deformations
(deflections and accelerations) were
analyzed for diverse vehicular speeds at
the bridge midspan. The deformations
(deflections and accelerations) were
reported using high-speed data acquisition
system and DAF computations. The intent
of the study was to determine the dynamic
behavior of glulam timber bridges so that
reliable design specifications may be
established.
Spyrakos et al. [8] conducted the seismic
study of historic covered bridges in West
Virginia by analyzing the structural
modelling of the bridges. The static
analysis has been carried out with various
loading to represent the 19th century
loading and the modern loading as per
AASHTO. For the seismic analysis the
bridge should be characterized based on
seismic performance category SPC=A and
SPC=B for A=0.19, SPC=C for A=0.25 as
per AASHTO specifications, whereas the
bridge of the region has been modelled to
(a)
Figure 4: (a) James V-Meter, (b) Sylva Test [9].
Mander et al. [10] studied seismic
performances of timber bridges where
parameters like strength, ductility, seismic
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Volume 5 Issue 2
3D beam in accordance to the guidelines
given by the authors. The authors have
conducted numerous tests to attain the
static analysis of the modelled bridges
such as acoustic emission testing,
ultrasonic field-testing and in-situ testing.
The result obtained from the static analysis
and model analysis included results of
selected members of the bridges, such as
Top-chord, Diagonal, Vertical, Arch
member or Top-cross beam. The authors
also listed the six lowest natural
frequencies from the 3D model analysis.
Ross et al. [9] used stress wave timing
nondestructive estimation tools to
investigate timber bridges. It ascertained
that the role of the vehicular bridges is
very important for the safe and efficient
working of the transportation. The bridges
have an average life cycle of 40 years and
thereafter it needs to be either repaired or
replaced by assessing its condition. The
inspection of bridges could be done by
hammering, sounding, coring or drilling
and another nondestructive testing such as
James V-Meter (Fig. 4a), Sylva Test (Fig.
4b), and using stress wave timbers.
(b)
vulnerability were analyzed experimentally.
The study examined seismic resistance of
bridge piles. Experiments were conducted in
 Journal of Construction and Building Materials Engineering
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two phases, firstly, combined axial load and of timber piers. Fig. 5 illustrated the results of
reversed cyclic flexural tests on piles, the tests conducted with four different timber
secondly; tabular study of shaking behavior pile specimens.

Figure 5: Experimentally observed force-drift relationships for four timber pile specimens
[10].

Mueller et al. [11] performed an they are better compared to archaic

experimental and numerical study on long
term performances of hybrid bridges.
Three different types of connectors were
experimented to understand the climatic
dependency for serviceability and load
bearing capacity with the shear test under
long and short time and dynamic loading.
The authors determined stiffness and
ultimate load by a short time, fatigue
behavior by dynamic loading and variation
of moisture by a long time. The study
showed that timber tends to creep more
with the change in humidity. The increase
in moisture content causes swelling
whereas a decrease causes shrinkage.
However, concrete creeps and shrinks
more in dry conditions compared to
timber. Ceccotti [12] studied composite
concrete-timber structures and stated that
bridges. Fig. 6a depicts the cross-sectional
dimensions of structural timber bridges
which were enlarged through laminating
techniques using mechanical joins to
create all-wood composite members.
Concrete-timber composite systems (Fig.
6b) are reinforced with concrete slab layer
stressed in compression and timber ribs in
tension which utilizes the strength and
stiffness of both materials. By the virtue of
its lower density, it is far more efficient
than all reinforced concrete structures in
terms of a load carried per unit self-
weight. Fig. 7 shows the relationship
between self-weight and span for various
types of floor construction. The study also
showed that such bridges have good
insulation, fire resistance and better
architectural insight.

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(a) (b)
Figure 6: (a) Composite members in old timber constructions, (b) Possible concrete-timber
solutions for floors [12].

Figure 7: Weight plotted against span for a service load of 2.5kN/m2. a) All timber section;
b) Concrete-timber composition section; c) All concrete section [12].

Seavey and Larson [13] inspected the
timber bridges to assess the lifespan of
existing 19th century, and critically judge
whether they should be retrofitted or
rebuilt. The study stated that such bridges
should undergo a thorough inspection. A
system POINTIS computer is used for the
evaluation of the bridges elements, as it
requires accurate reliable information. For
timber bridges, it requires information
such as its moisture content, preservatives,
span, legs support, and depth of
degradation and so on.
Mckeel and Gomez [14] extensively
researched the modern timber bridges in
Virginia addressing the costs, structural
performance, and maintenance
requirements of these structures. The study
deduced that the timber bridges were not
economically competitive, and their life
cycle cost competitiveness cannot be
resolved in the moment. They concluded
that most of the bridges constructed under
the auspices of the initiative have
performed well structurally, and only in
the case of the Fredericksburg Bridge has
any serious distress, possibly related to the
treatment process rather than design. They
also discerned that there is no particular
relationship among the timber bridges
between span length and cost per sq. m.
Brunner [15] studied the design of a
timber bridge in Switzerland. This design
work of the bridge has forms of two
continuous, simply supported beams of
10.5m span (Fig. 8a). The substructures
abutment and the central column were
constructed with gabions from galvanized
steel wires imported from France (Fig. 8b).
He observed that the gabions is cheap
alternative and is technically advantageous
in being insensitive to erosion hazards.
The central column is about 3m high with
its foundation on rock in the middle of the

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river. It has been protected by surrounding abutments have been protected with hewn
it with a belt of timber logs filled with rock blocks placed on the sides facing the
rock material. The foundations of the river (Fig. 8c).

Figure 8: (a) Structural System of the pilot bridge, (b) Weaving wires for gabions, (c)
Erosion protection [15].

Parisi and Piazza [16] undertook research
on seismic strength of traditional timber
structures. The authors recognized that
experimental and numerical analyses of
fully strengthened trusses depicted a
discernable seismic response by the
structure in the post elastic range. Timber
faces permanent deformation when load is
applied perpendicular to fibers but yields
higher mechanical properties when
compressed and load is applied parallel to
the fibres. Different possible reinforcing
solutions have been incorporated such as
insertion of bolts, placing of steel stirrups
on the connection sides, and steel binding
strip. It also stated that for seismic
upgrading of joints, metal fasteners have
to be designed such that they can ensure
functionality in a situation of reduced
compression that may develop under
seismic loading. It concluded that the
timber-concrete composite structure offers
the highest mechanical characteristics.
Ghosh et al. [17] conducted a study
comparing thermal and seismic behavior of a
bridge constructed with traditional and
modern isolation bearings. The authors
observed that designing of bearings is
essential for the safety of bridges for
earthquake displacements and resistance. The
bearings have to be designed considering the
long-term effects due to temperature,
shrinkage and creep. It has been discerned
that the modern isolation bearings have
superior thermal and seismic response than
traditional bearings, wherein latter requires
revolutionary change in the concepts of
bearing design. These bearings have been
also designed to ensure that superstructure is
isolated from the vibrations transmitted by
the substructure. Fig. 9 illustrates the various
types of arrangement of bearings were used.

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 Journal of Construction and Building Materials Engineering
Figure 9: Six bearing arrangements considered [17].
Morris [18] studied several archaic
wooden bridges in North America and
from various parts of the world like Å set
Bridge, Flisa Bridge, Sletta Bridge in
Norway. The paper recommends selection
of material and durability design according
to Canadian Highway Bridge Design
Code. It further stated that all wood in
permanent structures shall be preservative
treated in accordance with above design
code or American Wood Protection
Association. The author identified that
relying entirely on preservative treatment
and ignoring design is equally risky.
Priory, across the globe, the longevity of
many non-covered timber bridges mainly
depended upon bulky application of
creosote. But due to escalating
environmental concerns provoked by
application of creosote, numerous new
timber bridges are being dealt by using the
management practices tool developed by
the Western Wood Preservers Institute,
Wood Preservation Canada and Southern
Forest Products Association.
Sandra et al. [19] mentioned that there are
two techniques of preservation of the
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timber framed structures from earthquake.
The first technique known as “Borbone
system” developed in southern Italy and
second technique is Greek earthquake
resistant solution called “Lefkada
traditional building technique”. In the
Borbone system, the timber frame extends
all over the floors, stiffness for wall is
mainly provided by filling material
inserted within frames and bracing if any
and the roof is supported by a truss system
which doesn’t transfer any thrust to the
walls and structural joints and is fixed by
nails. In the Lefkada system, the structures
are multi storied building with masonry
walls at ground floor and upper floor are
held by timber frame only and stiffened by
diagonal members. In this system, the
timbers are provided parallel to the wall
which supports the first floor slab but
doesn’t contribute to the seismic
resistance. However, it prevents the
building from total collapse and repairs
can be done without interfering with the
rest of the building.
 Journal of Construction and Building Materials Engineering
e-ISSN: 2581-6454
Volume 5 Issue 2

When compared to the significant work Cantilever Beam

being done for timber bridges across the
globe, the bridges in Bhutan lack a
technological advancement. Several
bridges have not been designed or
retrofitted for seismic conditions. All the
Bhutanese timber bridges are cantilever
bridges with 3 to 4 cantilever beams
placed depending on the span length of the
bridge. Moreover, bearings are not
provided for making the bridges spring
supportive which could withstand seismic
loadings. Bhutan has a history of
earthquakes and it is very important that
effective measures are needed to be taken
to prevent any calamity.
CURRENT STATE OF PUNAKHA
BAZAM
Bhutanese bridges with its ancient wisdom
have withstood any disaster and will
remain standing for upcoming 30 to 40
years. Some minor retrofication has been
done on some of the bridges like
replacement of wooden planks, plastering
the mud walls for strength with cement
and concrete, inserting L-straps in the
joints for rigidity and double layering the
roofs with CGI sheets. However, a major
retrofication has been done on the whole
structural designing of Punakha Bazam.
The cantilever beam which lends support
from the stones piled up in the abutment
house is sliced vertically throughout its
length. The timber used in bridge
construction is seasoned but there are still
rooms for shrinkage with the aging of
timber (Fig. 10a). So, the timber is sliced
vertically in the middle to leave room for
expansion and shrinkage of timber.
Diagonal Planking
Diagonal planks are nailed to the beam for
efficient force transfer (Fig. 10b). The
planks add to the strength of the beam and
protect the upper horizontal planks.
Reinforcement (Small Screws)
The use of small screws as reinforcement
for the wooden beams, wherein, the
connection of two beams make a deep
beam (Fig. 10c). Not only deep beams can
carry higher loads than diagonal cracking
loads, moreover, their flexural behavior is
no longer critical depicting negligible
deflection. (Guan and Kong, 1994).
Placement of Stone at the River Bank
Stones and boulders piled at the river bank
on the water front of the abutment wall to
reduce the force of water acting on the
wall and reduce scourge of the same (Fig.
10d).

Figure 10: (a) Cantilever Beam, (b) Diagonal Planks (Source: Ministry of Home and
Cultural Affairs), (c) Reinforcement, (d) Placement of stones at the river bank (Photography:
Deepti Sharma).

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 Journal of Construction and Building Materials Engineering
CONCLUSIONS
Customary Bhutanese timber spans with
all elaborative Bhutanese convention and
culture have assumed a fundamental part
in facilitating the development of
Bhutanese native. Indeed, even with the
initiation of technological advances,
traditional bridges have dependably been a
pride and landmark of Bhutan. Some have
been reconstructed and others are timely
monitored and retrofitted. Bhutan faced
the highest magnitude of earthquake of 6.1
in the year 2009 and faces such disaster in
the near future. The summary of the paper
are as follows:
 Since, Bhutan is situated in high
seismic zone it is imperative not only
to retrofit existing bridges, but also to
develop seismically resistant new
bridges.
 The existing timber bridges need to see
a technological advancement either
through the reconstruction using
concrete or retrofitting the existing
structure keeping the aesthetic value.
 Efficient retrofit techniques can be
adopted such as, heartwood of
naturally durable woods having
sufficient decay resistance for the
anticipated and potential exposure to
moisture with appropriate design are
used. Modern glue-laminated timbers
are fabricated in a dry condition,
thenceforth; oil-type preservatives
should be used.
 The approach used in Norway may
also be used, wherein, a lamina which
has been pressure treated with a
waterborne copper-based preservative
is fabricated into beams. The beams
are cut to distance and all connections
are ready by stress considering the
bridge modules with creosote, along
with woody modules spread out apart
by metal connectors.
 For stronger effective stiffness bridges,
concrete timber bridges can be
considered. It gives pleasing aesthetic
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appearance and has an economic
construction advantage.
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