KEMENTERIAN PENDIDIKAN DAN KEBUDAYAAN

UNIVERSITAS NEGERI SEMARANG (UNNES)

Kantor: Gedung H lt 4 Kampus, Sekaran, Gunungpati, Semarang 50229
Rektor: (024)8508081 Fax (024)8508082, Purek I: (024) 8508001 Website:
www.unnes.ac.id - E-mail: unnes@unnes.ac.id

FORMULIR
FORMAT BAHAN AJAR
No. Dokumen No. Revisi Hal Tanggal Terbit
FM-02-AKD-07 00 1 dari 1 1 September 2012

BAHAN AJAR
MATA KULIAH : KALKULUS 1
SEMESTER : GASAL 2015-2016

PROGRAM STUDI PENDIDIKAN MATEMATIKA

FAKULTAS MATEMATIKA DAN ILMU PENGETAHUAN ALAM
UNIVERSITAS NEGERI SEMARANG
TAHUN 2015-2016
 INTRODUCTION

This handout is intended as a beginning handbook for students in

Mathematics Education study program of semester 1. The handout
usage is expected to assist the students in learning calculus 1 especially
limits and derivative and its application. Students are suggested to do
the exercises in this handout to get well understanding of the material.

Kristina Wijayanti
 GENERAL OVERVIEW

A. Competence Standard
At the end of this lecture, the student is able to

(1) understand the number system, functions, limit function, the function of one
variable derivatives, the limit at infinity and infinite limits,
(2) apply functions derived through mathematical modeling.

B. Basic Competence
(1) Students understand the concept of real number systems.
(2) Students are able to understand the function, limit function, continuity of
functions.
(3) Students are able to understand the functions of one variable derivatives,
limits at infinity and infinite limits, extreme values, monotony functions,
concavity of functions, graphs of functions

C. Prerequisite
---
D. Method of Learning Handout
Students are suggested to do this step
(1) Learn the contents of this handout
(2) Do all the exercises in this handout
(3) Develop your understanding by reading books related to the contents of
this handout
 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ii
GENERAL OVERVIEW
A. Competence Standard iii
B. Basic Competence iii
C. Prerequisite iii
D. Method of Learning Handout iii
CONTENTS iv
CHAPTER 1 1
A. The Real Number System 1
B. The Coordinate Plane, Distance, and Circle 3
C. Linear equation 4
D. Functions 4
E. Trigonometric function 5
CHAPTER 2 6
A. Tangent and Limits 6
B. Limits of Functions 8
C. Properties of Limits 12
D. One Sided Limit 18
E. Continuity 20
CHAPTER 3 29
A. The Derivative as a Function 29
B. Rule for Calculating Derivatives 35
C. Derivatives of the Trigonometric Functions 41
D. Derivatives of Velocity 44
E. Higher Order Derivatives 45
F. The Chain Rule 49
G. Implicit Differentiation and Rational Power Functions 54
CHAPTER 4
A. Extreme Values and The Mean Values Theorem 60
B. Increasing and Decreasing Functions 68
C. Relative Extrema 72
D. Significant of the Second Derivative Concavity 77
E. Curve Sketching I : Asymptotes 81
 F. Curve Sketching Il : Summary of Techniques 88
G. Extrema on Closed Bounded Intervals: Max-Min Problems 92
REFERENCE 105
GLOSARY 106
 CHAPTER 1
PRE CALCULUS CONCEPTS

A. The Real Number System

The real numbers may be represented by the set of all points lying on an infinite
line. We first select a point 0 on the line that we refer to as the origin. Each
positive real number lies to the right of 0 and each negative real number lies to
the left of 0.
There are three important special types of real numbers that can be identified by
their decimal forms that are integers (only zeros to the right of the decimal point),
rational numbers (the decimal forms of rational numbers repeat eventually), and
irrational numbers (the decimal forms of irrational numbers do not repeat).
The most familiar notation is set builder notation. For example, {x │ a≤ x ≤b } is
read, “the set of all real numbers equal to or greater than a and equal to or less
than b.”
We will frequently refer to intervals of the real number line with the following
notation:
[ a , b] = {x │ a≤ x ≤ b}, it is called a closed interval
[ a , b) = {x │ a≤ x < b}, it is called a half closed (or a half open) interval
( a , b] = {x │ a <x ≤ b}, it is called a half closed (or a half open) interval
( a , b) = {x │ a <x < b}, it is called an open interval

We can denote intervals that extend infinitely in one direction by use of the infinity
symbol, ∞, as follows :
[a , ∞) = {x │ a≤ x }, it is called a closed interval
(a , ∞) = {x │ a< x }, it is called an open interval
(-∞, b) = {x │x < b}, it is called an open interval
(-∞, b] = {x │x ≤ b}, it is called a closed interval
(-∞,∞ ) is the entire real number line.
It must be understood that ∞ is not a number, it is shorthand for the phrase
“continuing infinitely through positive values” (or negative value for -∞).
In sketching intervals, we use a solid dot to indicate an endpoint that is included
and a hollow dot to indicate an endpoint that is excluded.
If x is a number and A is a set of numbers (not necessarily an interval), “x ∈ A“
read “ x is an element of set A”
If A and B are sets, we say that A is a subset of B if every element of A is an
element of B.
Notation : A ⊆ B.
Empty set is a set with no elements. Notation : ∅.
There are some operations on sets, for examples union, intersection.
The union of two sets A and B is the set containing precisely those elements
which are elements of either set A or set B, or both.
The intersection of two sets A and B is the set containing precisely those
elements which are elements of both set A and set B.
Definition
The inequality a < b means b - a is positive.
The inequality a ≤ b means a = b or a < b.
Theorem
Let x, y, z, and c be real numbers. Then
(i) Exactly one of the following holds : x = y, x < y, or x > y. (trichotomy)
(ii) If x < y and y < z, then x < z. (transitivity)
(iii) If x < y then x + c < y + c.
(iv) If x < y, c > 0 then x c < y c.
(v) If x < y, c < 0 then x c > y c.
Properties (iii) – (v) are frequently used in “solving” inequalities, that is, finding the
numbers for which the inequalities are true statements.
Property (iii) says that one can add a number to both sides of an inequality
without changing the sense of the inequality.
Properties (iv) and (v) show that in multiplying both sides of inequality by c, the
sense of inequality will be retained if c > 0 and reversed if c < 0.
Definition
𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
│x│ =
−𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
The absolute value of real numbers is always nonnegative.
Theorem
Let a be a positive number. The inequality │x│< a is equivalent to the double
inequality –a < x <a.
Definition
The distance between the numbers a and b is the number │b - a│
Theorem
For any real numbers x and y
(i) │x│ ≥ 0
(ii) │x│ = │-x│
(iii) │xy│ = │x││y│
𝑥 𝑥
(iv) = for y ≠ 0.
𝑦 𝑦

(v) c > 0, │x│≥ c ⟺ x ≤ c or x ≥ c

(vi) -│x│ ≤ x ≤ │x│
(vii) │x + y│≤ │x│ + │y│ (triangle inequality)
Theorem
(i) ││x│ - │y││ ≤ │x - y│
(ii) ││x│ - │y││ ≤ │x + y│

Exercise
Find the solution of inequalities below!
1. │x - 2│ = x
2. │x - 2│ < x
3. │x - 2│ ≤ x

B. The Coordinate Plane, Distance, and Circle

The distance between the points P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) in the XY-plane is the
non-negative number d(P,Q) = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 2 .
Geometrically, a circle may be defined as the set of all points lying at a fixed
distance (the radius) from a fixed point (the center).
The circle with center (x0 , y0 ) and radius r has equation (x - x0) 2+ (y - y0)2 = r2.

C. Linear Equations
If P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) are two distinct points on a non-vertical line l, the slope
𝑦 −𝑦
of l is defined by the ratio m = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 1 , x2 ≠ x1.
2 1
For slope is not defined if x2 = x1. For this reason, we say that a vertical line has
no slope.
Suppose l is a line with slope m which contains the point (x1 , y1 ). To find an
𝑦 − 𝑦1
equation for l we let P(x , y ) be an arbitrary point on l. Then, we obtain m = 𝑥 − 𝑥1

So
y – y1 = m(x – x1) point-slope equation
or
y = mx + b where b = y1 – mx1. Slope-intercept equation
The graph of the equation y = mx + b is a line with slope m and y-intercept b.
Conversely, the line with slope m and y-intercept b has this equation.
A vertical line has no slope and equation x = a.
A horizontal line has slope zero, and equation y = b.
Two lines has slope m1 and m2 are (i) parallel if m1 = m2 , (ii) perpendicular if
m1 m2 = -1.

D. Functions
A function from set A to set B is a rule that assigns to each element x ∈ A a
unique element y ∈ B. We write y = f(x) to indicate that the element y is the value
assigned by the function f to the element x. The set A is called the domain of the
function f.
The set of all values {f(x) │ x ∈ A} is called the range of the function.
The graph of the function f is the set of all points (x, y) satisfying the equation y =
f(x).
The graph of the function f is the graph of the equation y = f(x).
The graph of every quadratic function f(x) = Ax2 + B x + C is a parabola.
A polynomial function is a function that can be written in the form
f(x) = an xn + an-1 x n-1+ … + a1 x + a0
where an , an-1 , … , a1 , a0 are constants and n is a positive integer.
A rational function is a quotient of two polynomial functions. A rational function is
not defined for numbers x for which its denominator equals zero.
Absolute value function has of the form f(x) = 𝑥 .

Definition
Given the functions f and g and the number c, the functions f + g, f –g, c f, f g,
𝑓
and 𝑔 are defined by the following equations:

(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)

(f-g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
(c f)(x) = c f(x)
(f g)(x) = f(x)g(x)
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
(𝑔 )(x) = 𝑔(𝑥) (provided g(x) ≠ 0).

Definition
Given the functions f and g, the composite function f∘g is the result of the function
f acting on values of the function g. That is (f∘g)(x) = f(g(x).
The domain of the composite function f∘g is the set of all x in the domain of g for
which the number u = g(x) lies in the domain of f.

E. Trigonometric Function
Radian measure is defined by the equation 2𝜋 radian = 3600. If P(x, y) is a point
on the unit circle and 𝜃 is the angle formed between the radius through P and the
positive x-axis, then sin 𝜃 = y and cos 𝜃 = x.
sin 𝜃 𝑦 cos 𝜃 𝑥 1 1 1 1
Also tan 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 = 𝑥 ; cotan 𝜃 = = 𝑦 ; sec𝜃 = cos 𝜃 = 𝑥 ; cosec 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 = 𝑦
sin 𝜃

The functions sin 𝜃, cos 𝜃, sec 𝜃, cosec 𝜃 are periodic with period 2𝜋.
The function tan 𝜃 and cotan 𝜃 are periodic with period 𝜋.

CHAPTER 2
LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS
A. Tangents and Limits
Definition
Let P and Q be points on a curve C. The line tangent to the curve C at the point
P, if it exists, is the limiting position of the secant line through P and Q as Q
approaches P along the curve C from either direction.
We can now determine how to define the slope of the line tangent to the graph
of a function f at a point P, if it exists, in a way that is consistent with our notion
of a tangent to a curve. First, we let x0 be the x-coordinate of P. Then P has
coordinates (x0, f(x0)) since P is on the graph of f. To find a second point Q on
the graph of f we choose any number h ≠ 0 (positive or negative) and let Q (x0 +
h, f(x0 + h)).
𝑓 𝑥 0 + 𝑕 − 𝑓(𝑥 0 )
Then slope of secant through P and Q = (1)
𝑕

If the graph of f connects the points P and Q in an unbroken arc as the number h
approaches zero the point Q will approach P along the graph of f. Then the
tangent to the graph of f at P is the “limiting position” of the secant through P and
Q as h approaches zero.
Thus, the slope of the tangent should be the “limiting value” of the slope of this
secant as h approaches zero:
Slope of the tangent at P = limiting value of the slope of the secant as h
approaches zero
𝑓 𝑥 0 + 𝑕 − 𝑓(𝑥 0 )
= limit as h approaches zero of (2)
𝑕

Using equations (1) and (2) we formally define the slope of the line tangent to
the graph of a function at a point as follows.
Definition
The slope of the line tangent to the graph of the function f at the point (x0, f(x0)),
if it exists, is the number
𝑓 𝑥 0 +𝑕 − 𝑓(𝑥 0 )
m = lim𝑕→0 (3)
𝑕

Example
Find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of f(x) = x2 at the point (2, 4).
Solution
Here x0 = 2 and f(x) = x2, so f(x0 + h) = f(2 + h) = (2+h)2 = 4 + 4h + h2 and
f(x0) = f(2) = 22 = 4.
𝑓 𝑥 0 + 𝑕 − 𝑓(𝑥 0 ) 4+4𝑕+𝑕 2 −4 4𝑕+ 𝑕 2 𝑕(4+𝑕)
Thus, = = = = 4+𝑕 (𝑕 ≠ 0)
𝑕 𝑕 𝑕 𝑕

The slope of tangent is therefore m = lim𝑕→0 4 + 𝑕 = 4

Example
Find an equation for the line tangent to the graph of f(x) = x3 +3x – 2 at the point
(1, 2).
Solution
We begin by finding the slope of the tangent at (1, 2), as in Example 1.
With x0 = 1 we have f(1) = 13 + 3.1 – 2 = 2
And f(1+h) = (1+h)3 + 3(1+h) – 2
= (1 + 3h + 3h2 + h3) + (3 + 3h) – 2
= h3 + 3h2 + 6h + 2.
The slope of the secant through (1, 2) and (1+h, f(1+h)) is therefore
𝑓 1+ 𝑕 − 𝑓(1) 𝑕 3 + 3𝑕 2 + 6𝑕+2 − 2 𝑕 3 + 3𝑕 2 + 6𝑕
= = = 𝑕2 + 3𝑕 + 6 when h ≠ 0.
𝑕 𝑕 𝑕

The slope of the tangent at (1, 2) is therefore m = lim𝑕→0 𝑕2 + 3𝑕 + 6 = 6.

An equation for the tangent, which has slope m = 6 and passes through the
point (1, 2), is
y - 2 = 6(x-1)

B. Limits of Functions
Intuitively, the statement
L = lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) (read “The number L is the limit of the function f as x
approaches a”) means that we can cause f(x) to be as close to L as desired by
choosing x sufficiently close to a.
As the number x is chosen close to the number a, the value f(x) is close to the
number L. Note that the number x = a is not assumed to belong to the domain
of f.
This emphasizes the fact that lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) is determined by the behavior of f for x
near a but not by the number f(a) itself. Indeed, f(a) need not even exist for
lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) to be defined.
Example
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
The function f(x) = is undefined for x = 0. However, the limit lim𝑥→𝑎 will
𝑥 𝑥

be important in our work on trigonometric functions.

sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
Even though is undefined for x = 0, the value is found very close to the
𝑥 𝑥

number L = 1.
sin 𝑥
Later we shall prove that lim𝑥→𝑎 = 1.
𝑥

Example
𝑥+1 3 − 1
Find lim𝑥→0 𝑥

Solution
Here the function f(x) is undefined if x = 0.
Experimenting with a calculator, however, as x is chosen close to 0 the value f(x)
is close to L = 3.
For linear functions, the relationship between 𝛿 and ε in Definition of limit
function is determined by the slope of the graph of function.
This is because the slope determines the rate at which f(x) changes as x
changes.

We defined the limit of a function informally by saying that L = lim𝑥→𝑎 f( 𝑥)

means that we can cause f(x) to be as close to L as desired by choosing x
sufficiently close to a.
Definition
Let f(x) be defined for all x in an open interval containing a, except possibly at a.
We say that the number L is the limit of the function f as x approaches a, written
L = lim𝑥→𝑎 f( 𝑥) , if and only if, given any number ε > 0 there exists a correspond
number δ> 0 so that
if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < δ then 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 < ε.
In other words, L = lim𝑥→𝑎 f( 𝑥) means that we can cause f(x) to be as close to L
as desired by choosing x sufficiently close to a.
Example
Prove that lim𝑥→3 2𝑥 + 1 = 7!
Solution
In this case we have f(x) = 2x + 1, L = 7, a = 3.
Thus if ε > 0 is given, the following inequalities are equivalent
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 <ε
↔ 2𝑥 + 1 − 7 < ε
↔ 2𝑥 − 6 < ε
↔ 2 𝑥− 3 <ε
𝜀
↔ 𝑥− 3 <2

Formal proof
𝜀
Given ε > 0. Choose δ = 2 .

It follows that if 0 < 𝑥 − 3 < δ then (2𝑥 + 1) − 7 < ε.

This proves that lim𝑥→3 2𝑥 + 1 = 7.
Example
Prove that lim𝑥→3 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 = -4!
Solution
In this case we have f(x) = x2 – 6x + 5, L = -4, a = 3.
Thus if ε > 0 is given, the following inequalities are equivalent
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 <ε
↔ 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 − −4 <ε
↔ 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 < ε
2
↔ 𝑥−3 <ε
↔ 𝑥−3 < 𝜀
Formal proof
Given ε > 0. Choose δ = 𝜀 .
It follows that if 0 < 𝑥 − 3 < δ then 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 − −4 < ε.
This proves that lim𝑥→3 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 = -4.

Example
 𝜋
sin(𝑥) = AP ≤ BP ≤ arc BP = 𝑥 , 𝑥 < 2

sin(𝑥) ≤ 𝑥 -∞ < x< ∞

We may use this inequality to prove that lim𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 = 0.
Proof
Let ε > 0 be given. Choose δ =ε.
If 𝑥 < δ = ε then sin 𝑥 − 0 = sin(𝑥) ≤ 𝑥 < δ = ε.
Thus if 0 < 𝑥 < δ then sin 𝑥 − 0 < ε.
Therefore lim𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 = 0.

𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
We use the definition of absolute value 𝑥 = to rewrite the
−𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
𝑥
function as
𝑥

𝑥 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
= .
𝑥 −1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
This shows that when x is close to zero and positive, all values of the function
𝑥
f(x) = are f(x) = 1. But when x is close to zero and negative, values of the
𝑥

function f are f(x) = -1.

For the limit to exist, values of f must lie close to a single number L when x is
chosen close to 0 on either side.
Since values of f are always 1 or -1, depending only on the sign of x, the limit
does not exist.
C. Properties of Limits
Theorem
1. If a c are elements in ℝ then lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑐 = c.
2. If a is an element in ℝ then lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 = a.
Proof
1. Suppose f(x) = c.
Let ε > 0 be given. Choose δ =ε.
It follows that if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < δ then 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑐 = 𝑐 − 𝑐 = 0 < ε.
This proves that lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑐 = c.
Suppose f(x) = x.
Let ε > 0 be given. Choose δ =ε.
It follows that if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < δ then 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑎 = 𝑥 − 𝑎 = 0 < ε.
This proves that lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 = a.

Theorem
If a and b are elements in ℝ then 𝑎 − 𝑏 < ε, ∀𝜀 > 0 if and only if a = b.
Proof
(⟹) Assume 𝑎 − 𝑏 < ε, ∀𝜀 > 0.
Suppose a ≠ b. This means a – b ≠ 0. Thus 𝑎 − 𝑏 > 0 and hence there exists εo
> 0 such that 𝑎 − 𝑏 = εo.
Choose ε1 = ½ εo.
Then 𝑎 − 𝑏 = εo > ε1. This contradicts with 𝑎 − 𝑏 < ε, ∀𝜀 > 0.
Thus a = b
(⟸)Assume that a = b.
Obvious that 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 0 < ε, ∀𝜀 > 0.
Thus 𝑎 − 𝑏 < ε, ∀𝜀 > 0 if and only if a = b.
Theorem
Assume that lim𝑥→𝑎 f( 𝑥) = L and lim𝑥→𝑎 f( 𝑥) = M both exists. Then L = M.
Proof
Take any 𝜀 > 0.
Since lim𝑥→𝑎 f( 𝑥) = L then there exists δ1 >0 such that if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < δ1 then
𝜀
𝑓(𝑥 − 𝐿 < 2.
Since lim𝑥→𝑎 f( 𝑥) = M then there exists δ2 >0 such that if 0< 𝑥 − 𝑎 < δ2 then
𝜀
𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑀 < 2.

Choose δ = min { δ1 , δ2 }.
It follows that if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < δ then 𝐿 − 𝑀 = 𝐿−𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑓 𝑥 −𝑀
≤ 𝐿 − 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑀
𝜀 𝜀
< 2 + 2 = ε.

Thus 𝐿 − 𝑀 < ε , ∀𝜀 > 0. Therefore L = M.

Theorem
Assume that lim𝑥→𝑎 f( 𝑥) = L and lim𝑥→𝑎 g( 𝑥) = M both exists.
Let c be any number.
Then each of the following limits exists
1. lim𝑥→𝑎 (f( 𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) = L + M
2. lim𝑥→𝑎 cf( 𝑥) = cL
3. lim𝑥→𝑎 f( 𝑥)g(x) = LM
𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿
4. lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀 , provided M ≠ 0.

Proof
1. Take any 𝜀 > 0.
Since lim𝑥→𝑎 f( 𝑥) = L then there exists δ1 >0 such that if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < δ1 then
𝜀
𝑓(𝑥 − 𝐿 < 2.

Since lim𝑥→𝑎 g( 𝑥)= M then there exists δ2 >0 such that if 0< 𝑥 − 𝑎 <δ2 then
𝜀
𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑀 < 2.

Choose δ = min { δ1 , δ2 }.It follows that if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < δ then

𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 − (𝐿 + 𝑀) = 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝐿 + 𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑀
≤ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿 + 𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑀
𝜀 𝜀
<2+2=ε

So, if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < δ then 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 − (𝐿 + 𝑀) < ε.

Therefore lim𝑥→𝑎 (f( 𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) = L + M.
2. Let ε > 0 be given.
Since lim𝑥→𝑎 f( 𝑥) = L then there exists δ1 >0 such that if 0< 𝑥 − 𝑎 < δ1 then
𝜀
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿 < .
𝑐

Choose δ = δ1.
𝜀
It follows that if 0< 𝑥 − 𝑎 < δ then 𝑐𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑐𝐿 = │c│ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿 < │c│ = ε.
𝑐

Hence 0< 𝑥 − 𝑎 < δ then 𝑐𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑐𝐿 < ε.

Thus lim𝑥→𝑎 cf( 𝑥) = cL.

3. Take any ε > 0.

Since lim𝑥→𝑎 f( 𝑥) = L then there exists δ1 >0 such that if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < δ1 then
𝑓(𝑥 − 𝐿 < 1. Thus │f(x)│ < │L│ + 1 whenever 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < δ1
Since lim𝑥→𝑎 f( 𝑥) = L then there exists δ2 >0 such that if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < δ2 then
𝜀
𝑓(𝑥 − 𝐿 < 2 .
𝑀 +1

Since lim𝑥→𝑎 g( 𝑥)= M then there exists δ3 >0 such that if 0< 𝑥 − 𝑎 <δ3 then
𝜀
𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑀 < 2 .
𝐿 +1

Choose δ = min{ δ1, δ2, δ3 }

It follows that if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < δ then
𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 − (𝐿𝑀) = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥 𝑀 + 𝑓 𝑥 𝑀 − (𝐿𝑀)
≤ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 −𝑓 𝑥 𝑀 + 𝑓 𝑥 𝑀 − (𝐿𝑀)
= │ f(x)│ │g(x) - M│ + │M│ │f(x) - L│
𝜀 𝜀
< (│L│+1)( 2 ) + │M│ (2 )
𝐿 +1 𝑀 +1
𝜀 𝜀
<2+ =ε
2

Thus lim𝑥→𝑎 f( 𝑥)g(x) = LM

1 1
4. We first show that lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀 , M ≠ 0.

Since lim𝑥→𝑎 g( 𝑥)= M then there exists δ1 >0 such that if 0< 𝑥 − 𝑎 <δ1 then
𝑀
𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑀 < .
2
𝑀
Obvious that > 𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑀 ≥ ││g(x)│ - │M││.
2
𝑀
So │g(x) │ > │ 2 │ whenever 0< 𝑥 − 𝑎 <δ1.
 1 2
Consequently, < whenever 0< 𝑥 − 𝑎 <δ1.
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑀

Let ε > 0 be given.

Since lim𝑥→𝑎 g( 𝑥)= M then there exists δ2 >0 such that if 0< 𝑥 − 𝑎 <δ2 then
𝑀2𝜀
𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑀 < . Choose δ = min { δ1, δ2}.
2
1 1 1
It follows that if 0< 𝑥 − 𝑎 <δ then − = │M – g(x)│
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑀 𝑀) 𝑔(𝑥

1 2 𝑀 2𝜀
< 𝑀 𝑀 2

= ε.
1 1
Thus, lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀 .
𝑓(𝑥) 1 1 1 𝐿
Then lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) = lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) = lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) = L 𝑀 = 𝑀 .

Theorem
1. lim𝑥→𝑎 x n = 𝑎𝑛
2. lim𝑥→𝑎 f(x)n = (lim𝑥→𝑎 f(x))n = 𝐿𝑛
Proof
Exercise

Theorem
Let m and n be positive integers. Then
n 𝑛
1. If m is even, lim𝑥→𝑎 x m = 𝑎𝑚 , for 0 < a <∞.
n 𝑛
2. If m is odd, lim𝑥→𝑎 x m = 𝑎𝑚 , for -∞ < a <∞.
Proof
Exercise

The Pinching Theorem

Assume that lim𝑥→𝑎 g( 𝑥) and lim𝑥→𝑎 h( 𝑥) exist and that lim𝑥→𝑎 g( 𝑥) = L =
lim𝑥→𝑎 h( 𝑥).
If the function f satisfy the inequality g(x) ≤ f( x) ≤ h(x) for all x in an open interval
containing a (except possibly at x = a), then lim𝑥→𝑎 f( 𝑥) = L also.
Proof
Given any ε > 0.
Since lim𝑥→𝑎 g( 𝑥) = L then there exist a number δ1 > 0 so that – ε < g(x) – L < ε
or
L – ε < g(x) < ε + L whenever 0< 𝑥 − 𝑎 <δ1.
Similarly, since lim𝑥→𝑎 h( 𝑥) = L then there exist a number δ2 > 0 so that
– ε < h(x) – L < ε or L – ε < h(x) < ε + L whenever 0< 𝑥 − 𝑎 <δ2.
Choose δ = min { δ1, δ2}.
Since g(x) ≤ f( x) ≤ h(x), we may conclude that L – ε < g(x) ≤ f( x) ≤ h(x) < ε + L
whenever 0< 𝑥 − 𝑎 <δ. This show that │f(x) - L│ < ε whenever 0< 𝑥 − 𝑎 <δ.
Thus lim𝑥→𝑎 f( 𝑥) = L.

Exercise
Find the limit!
𝑥 2 +3𝑥
1. lim𝑥→3 𝑥−3
𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3
2. lim𝑥→3 𝑥−3
𝑥 3 −6𝑥+5
3. lim𝑥→2 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+2
𝑥−4
4. lim𝑥→4 𝑥−2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
5. lim𝑥→0 2𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥
6. lim𝑥→0 𝑥
tan 𝑥
7. lim𝑥→0 4𝑥
sec 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
8. lim𝑥→0 𝑥

9. lim𝑥→0 𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
10. Suppose that 6x – x2 ≤ f(x) ≤ x2 -6x + 18 for all x. Find lim𝑥→3 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥 𝑥
11. Let f(x) = and g(x) = - , x ≠ 0.
𝑥 𝑥

a. Find the function h = f + g!

b. Show that lim𝑥→0 𝑕(𝑥) = lim𝑥→0 [𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥)] exists, but that neither
lim𝑥→0 𝑓(𝑥) nor lim𝑥→0 𝑔(𝑥) exists!
12. Find two functions f and g so that lim𝑥→0 [𝑓 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)] exists, but either
lim𝑥→0 𝑓(𝑥) or lim𝑥→0 𝑔(𝑥) fails to exist!