Chapter-2

RECONFIGURABLE MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Reconfigurability, when used in the context of antennas, is the capacity to
change an individual radiator’s fundamental operating characteristics through
electrical, mechanical, or other means. Thus, under this definition, the traditional
phasing of signals between elements in an array to achieve beam forming and
beam steering does not make the antenna “reconfigurable” because the antenna’s
basic operating characteristics remain unchanged in this case. Ideally,
reconfigurable antennas should be able to alter their operating frequencies,
impedance bandwidths, polarizations, and radiation patterns independently to
accommodate changing operating requirements. However, the development of
these antennas poses significant challenges to both antenna and system designers.
These challenges lie not only in obtaining the desired levels of antenna
functionality but also in integrating this functionality into complete systems to
arrive at efficient and cost-effective solutions. As in many cases of technology
development, most of the system cost will come not from the antenna but the
surrounding technologies that enable reconfigurability [45].

2.2 NECESSITY OF RECONFIGURABILITY

Let us consider two general application areas, single-element scenarios and
array scenarios, In single-element scenarios an antenna used in portable wireless
devices, such as a cellular telephone, a personal digital assistant, or a laptop
computer. Single antennas typically used in these devices are monopole or
microstrip antenna based and may or may not have multiple-frequency
capabilities. Some packages may use two or three antennas for diversity reception
on small devices to increase the probability of receiving a usable signal, but

13
usually only one of the antennas is used for transmission. The transmission from
the portable device to a base station or other access point is the weakest part of the
bidirectional communication link because of the power, size, and cost restrictions
imposed by portability. Moreover, the portable device is often used in
unpredictable and/or harsh electromagnetic conditions, resulting in antenna
performance that is certainly less than optimal. Antenna reconfigurability in such a
situation could provide numerous advantages. For instance, the ability to tune the
antenna’s operating frequency could be utilized to change operating bands, filter
out interfering signals, or tune the antenna to account for a new environment. If
the antenna’s radiation pattern could be changed, it could be redirected toward the
access point and use less power for transmission, resulting in a significant savings
in battery power. The antennas are mostly used in array configuration, feed
structures with power dividers/combiners and phase shifters. For instance, current
planar phased array radar technology is typically limited in both scan angle and
frequency bandwidth as a result of the limitations of the individual array elements
and the restrictions on antenna element spacing. This restriction comes from
mutual coupling effect on one hand, appearance on grating lobe on other hand.
Many of these established applications assume that the antenna element pattern is
fixed, all of the elements are identical, and the elements lie on a periodic grid. The
addition of reconfigurability to antenna arrays can provide additional degrees of
freedom that may result in wider instantaneous frequency bandwidths, more
extensive scan volumes, and radiation patterns with control on side lobe
distributions [46].
There are several antenna structures that are suitable for implementation of
reconfigurable antennas, Among them microstrip patch antennas are very
attractive structures for various types of reconfigurable antennas, all such antennas
are usually equipped with switches that are controlled by DC bias signals. Upon
toggling the switch between on and off states, the antenna can be reconfigured
[47]. The following section describes the design procedure of microstrip patch
antenna types presented and different feed types used in this dissertation.
14
2.3 MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA DESIGN
A microstrip antenna in its simplest configuration consists of a radiating patch on
one side of a dielectric substrate, which has a ground plane on the other side. The
patch conductors usually made of copper or gold can be virtually assumed to be of
any shape. However, conventional shapes are normally used to simplify analysis
and performance prediction. The radiating elements and the feed lines are usually
photo etched on the dielectric substrate.
The radiating patch may be square, rectangular, circular, ring, elliptical or any
other configuration. Square, rectangular and circular shapes are the most common
because of ease of analysis and fabrication. Some of the advantages of the
microstrip antennas compared to conventional microwave antennas are

Low weight, low volume,

Low fabrication cost,

Easy mass production,

Linear and circular polarization are possible with simple feed,

Easily integrated with MIC,

Feed lines and matching networks can be fabricated simultaneously with
antenna structures.
Patch antennas find a variety of applications starting from military to commercial,
because of their ease of design and fabrication. Patch arrays are extensively used
in phased array radar applications and in applications requiring high directivity
and narrow beam width.
One of the first tasks in the printed antenna design is the selection of a suitable
substrate material. The major electrical parameters to be considered are the
relative dielectric constant and the loss tangent. A higher dielectric constant results
in smaller patch antenna but generally reduces bandwidth and results in tighter
fabrication tolerances. A high loss tangent reduces the antenna efficiency and
increases feed losses. As a rule of thumb, select a substrate with lowest possible
dielectric constant. Substrate thickness is chosen as large as possible to maximize

15
bandwidth and efficiency but not so large to allow surface-wave excitation. For a
maximum operating frequency of ‘f’, the substrate height ‘h’ should satisfy

. 
h ≤ (2.1)
√


Where ‘c’ is the speed of light and ‘εr’ is the relative dielectric constant of the
substrate material.

2.3.1 Design Procedure of the Microstrip Rectangular Patch Antenna

The rectangular patch antenna is simplest form of patch antenna as shown in
Fig.2.1 and usually designed to operate near the resonance. The length ‘L’ of the
patch radiator is then selected such that it satisfies the condition of resonance. It is
usually chosen close to λ/2 such that the input impedance of the patch is pure real
at the desired frequency. Since the two ends of the patch are open, an open-end
correction is usually taken into account while calculating the physical length ‘L’ of
the patch.

Figure 2.1 Geometry of rectangular microstrip patch antenna

The patch width ‘W’ generally lies between 0.5 to 2 times ‘L’. The width
can be used to vary the input impedance of the patch. As we have to ultimately
match the patch input impedance to 50-ohms, we can control input impedance to
some extent by changing the patch width ‘W’. If ‘W’ is chosen very small, the
antenna radiation efficiency will be reduced. So there is tradeoff between the input

16
impedance and radiation efficiency. Once W and L are selected, we can calculate
the input impedance of the patch and then use an impedance transformer to match
this impedance to the 50-ohm feed line [48]. The design of a rectangular
microstrip patch antenna begins with (a) choice of a substrate (b) selecting feed
mechanism, (c) determining patch width w and (d) selecting the feed location. The
microstrip rectangular structure as shown in Fig.2.1has been used to implement a
reconfigurable rectangular patch antenna and triple-polarization diamond shape
antenna in this report.
In the following steps rectangular patch antenna design procedure is given after
choosing the its essential parameters such as frequency of operation (fr ),dielectric
constant of the substrate (ε ), height of dielectric substrate (h).

1) Calculation of Width (W):

For an efficient radiator, a practical width that leads to good radiation
efficiencies is given as

 
W 
(2.2)
  

With the substituting the values of c= 3x108 m/s, fr and ε by by using the
the above formula ‘W’ can be calculated.

2) Calculation of Effective dielectric constant ( ε  ):

The effective dielectric constant due to the air dielectric boundary is given
by

ε  
ε  ε 1  12   / (2.3)
  

With the substituting the values ε ,h and W effective dielectric constant

ε  can be calculated using the above formula.

3) Calculation of effective length (Leff):

17
 By choosing the substrate, the width and length of the patch can be
estimated. An initial approximation for the length can be made for a half
wave microstrip antenna radiated by the formula:
 
L  # $ (2.4)

 !"" 

With the substituting the values of c= 3x108 m/s, fr and ε  by using the
the above formula ‘Leff’ can be calculated.

4) Calculation of the length extension(∆L):

Due to the fringing fields along the radiating edges of the antenna, there is a
Line extension associated with the patch, which is given by the formula

*
#
 !"" 
.$ 
.,-
∆L  0.412h) +
* 0 (2.5)
#
 !"" 
../$ 
./
+

With the values from h, w and ε  by using the the above formula ‘∆L’
can be calculated.

5) Calculation of the length of the patch (L):

The length of the patch can now be calculated as
L = Leff - 2∆L (2.6)

With the values from Leff and ∆L by using the above formula ‘L’ can be
calculated.

6) Calculation of the ground plane dimensions:

The transmission line model is applicable to infinite ground planes only.
However, for practical considerations, it is essential to have a finite ground
plane. It has been shown by [48] that similar results for finite and infinite
ground plane can be obtained if the size of the ground plane is greater than
the patch dimensions by approximately six times the substrate thickness (h)

18
 all around the periphery. Hence,the ground plane dimensions would be
given as:
Lg = 12h + L, Wg = 12h + W (2.7)

7) The feed point determination:

All feeding excitation port is to be matched to 50Ω. In order to have a
matching of the impedance the connecter has to be placed at some distance
from the edge which has a match of 50Ω. Normally, there is a trial and
error method that has been adopted to check the minimum value of the
Return loss. The feed point initially kept in the center of X-axis and varies
in the Y-direction to get the optimum return loss.

2.3.2 Design Procedure of the Microstrip Ring Patch Antenna

Ring microstrip antennas of various shapes, such as circular, rectangular, square

and triangular have been studied as alternatives to standard rectangular and
circular disks. These antennas are geometrically and electrically an intermediate
configuration between a printed loop and a patch. The microstrip ring structure as
shown in Fig.2.2 has been used to implement a wheel antenna in this report.The
details of the design of this antenna are given next.

Figure 2.2 Geometry of ring microstrip patch antenna

19
Like many forms of microstrip patches, the annular ring has received considerable
attention. When operated in its fundamental (TM11) mode, this printed antenna is
smaller than its rectangular or circular counterparts. The annular ring may also be
somewhat broadband in nature when operated near the TM12 resonance. It has
been shown that the structure is a good resonator (with very little radiation) for
TM1m modes (m odd), and a good radiator for TM1m modes (m even) [48].
The circular ring has been analyzed extensively using the cavity model because
the cavity model analysis is found to be simple. This can be accomplished using a
procedure similar to that for the rectangular patch but now using cylindrical
coordinates [49].

Figure 2.3 Geometry of circular ring in cylindrical coordinates

The cavity model of the ring is obtained by replacing its peripheries with magnetic
walls. Because there is no variation of the fields along the z direction for thin
substrates, the modes are designated as TMnm modes. With no excitation current,
the wave equation for electrical field can be written as

#1   2  $  0 (2.8)

Where

2  23 45 /6
(2.9)

20
The general solution for the wave Eq.2.8 in cylindrical coordinates is given as
78  7
)9: #2;$<:= #2>$ ? 9:= #2;$<: #2>$0@ABCD (2.10)

and
G JKL
EF  (2.11)
HIF JM

G JKL
EM  (2.12)
HI JF

Where Jn(.) and <n(.) are the Bessel functions of the first and second kind,
and of order n, respectively. The other field components are zero inside the cavity.
The surface current on the lower surface of ring metallization is given by
UP  ?DVEF  ;WEM
9PQ  ?R̂ T E (2.13)

or
G:KX
9M  )9: #2;$<:= #2>$ ? 9: #2>$<: #2;$0BYCCD (2.14)
HIF

G:KX
9F  )9:= #2;$<:= #2>$ ? 9: #2>$<:= #2;$0@ABCD (2.15)
HI

The radial component of the surface current must vanish along the edges at ; = >
and ;= Z to satisfy the magnetic wall boundary conditions. This gives
9F #;  Z$  EM #;  Z$  0 (2.16)

Application of this boundary condition leads tothe well- known characteristic

equation for the resonant modes:
9:= #2Z$<:= #2>$ ? 9:= #2>$<:= #2Z$  0 (2.17)

For the given values of >, b, εr and n, the frequency is varied and the roots of the
characteristic equation for the resonant modes are determined. These roots are
denoted by 2nm for the resonant ]Mnm modes and form _nm such that
_nm 2nm.a (2.18)

21
The integer C denotes the azimuthal variation as per Cosnϕ, while the integer a
represents the ath zero of the characteristic equation and denotes the variation of
fields across the width of the ring.
If C = b/a then Eq.2.17 can be written as

9:= #b_:c $<:= #_:c $ ? 9:= #_:c $<:= #b_:c $  0 (2.19)

Using zeroth-order approximation,The resonant frequency is obtained as,

efg h
d:c  (2.20)
ij√kl

where
@= velocity of light in free space
> = Inner radii of ring
4m= dielectric constant of substrate
In Eq.2.20, the effect of the fringing fields has not been considered. Thus the
frequency calculated by this formula is lower than the measured value. The
accuracy can be improved by using effective dielectric constant (εre).

efg h
d:c  (2.21)
ij kln

To determine the value of 4re, the ring resonator is modeled as a microstrip line
bent in a circular shape. The effect of the curvature on the resonant frequency is
expected to be small provided the radius of curvature is large compared with the
width of the strip conductor. The effective dielectric constant can be determined as

p5q r sltu  slwu x  / (2.22)

v v y

Where

z = b-a
Z = Outer radii of the ring
ℎ=thickness of dielectric

22
The modified values of the inner and outer radii of the ring can be determined
using parallel plate waveguide model of a microstrip line and are given by

ae = a –(We-W)/2 (2.23)

be = b + (We-W)/2 (2.24)

Where z|is the effective width of the ring and can be given by,

#! #
$$
W #f$  W  "
v (2.25)
)~ € 0
"


W #0$  (2.26)
‚

‚
fƒ  (2.27)
„‚ 
Where μ† is the permeability and’ zˆ ’is the quasi-static characteristic impedance of
microstrip line of width W.
A pair of empirical formulas for the modified radii of the ring is


ae = a - (2.28)
-
‰
be = b + (2.29)
-
The above model gives reasonably accurate results as long as z| is less than the
mean diameter of the ring, i.e. (> + Z).
An approximate value of _C1= kC1acan be obtained using the Eq. 2.31. This
expression gives reasonably accurate value of kn1 for C ≤ 5 and
#Š‹$
)#Š‹$0< 0.35 (2.30)
‹Œ
_C1 = kC1a = (2.31)
#‹Š$
Based on the cavity model formulation described above a design procedure is
outlined which leads to practical designs of circular ring microstrip antennas for
the dominant TMz110 mode. The procedure assumes that the specified information
includes the dielectric constant of the substrate (ℰr ), the resonant frequency (fr )
and the height of the substrate h.

23
2.3.3 Design Procedure of the Microstrip Meander line Patch Antenna [4]
In microstrip, two types of transmission line antennas are possible, the
travelling wave antenna where the end of the microstrip line is terminated in a
resistive match and the standing wave antenna where the microstrip line is
terminated by an open or short circuit. Standing wave antennas radiate a broadside
beam while travelling-wave antennas may be designed to radiate a beam in any
direction between broad side and end fire. The meander line antenna is a standing
wave antenna realized as a periodic structure with broadside beam radiation.

The lowest resonance of the meander line antenna occurs when the length of the
Meander line antenna is approximately half of the operating wavelength [50]. The
antenna element also resonates when the total length of the antenna is in multiples
of the wavelength. The studies by Jalil[51] and Hanyang[50] show that the
resonant frequency of the antenna is inversely proportional to the number of
meander line sections within a constant physical length .

The microstrip meander line structure as shown in Fig.2.4b has been used to
implement a reconfigurable multiband meander line antenna in this report. The
details of the design of this antenna are given next.

The meander line element consists of a meandering microstrip line formed by a

series of sets of right angled bends. The fundamental element in this case is
formed by four right angled bends as shown in Fig.2.4 (a). The right angled bends
are chamfered to reduce the right angled discontinuity susceptance for impedance
matching.

(a) 24
 Y

s
Feed point X

(b)

E d E

s s

E E

(c)

Figure 2.4 (a) Fundamental meander line with 4 bends

(b) Geometry of the Meander antenna element
(c) Radiated field polarizations from fundamental meander line antenna
The radiation from a meander line antenna mainly occurs from the discontinuities
(bends) of the structure. The radiation mechanism of a travelling wave meander
line (rampart line) antenna array has been reported by P.S.Hall [52-53]. The
radiations from a meander line antenna originate from the right angle bends and
that can be represented by a small magnetic current element located diagonally.
This gives rise to radiated field polarizations from each bend as shown in
Fig.2.4(c), where the vector ‘E’ denotes the Electric field (E-field) direction.

25
 The beamwidth and bandwidth are both controlled by the meander line
parameters viz. spacing between the short segments(s), spacing between the long
segments(d) and the width of the meander line(w) as defined in Fig.2.4(b). The
antenna will resonate when the total length of the meander line equals one or more
than one guided wavelength. In the case of meander line antenna, the resonant
length of the patch is more than its total physical length (The equivalent length
when all the short and long segments added together). This is due to the effects of
the bends and the open ended lines [53]. The element has been designed to give
two resonances where they are peaking close to each other in order to get a
wideband performance at the desired frequency band. The lower and upper
resonances in this case occur when the total length (Lt) of the antenna becomes
multiples of the fundamental resonant length. The fundamental element will
resonate when the total length is equal to λg/2 or its multiples, where λg is the
wavelength in the dielectric material. Here, the introduction of the multiple
meander sections gives a bandwidth enhancement by shifting the higher resonance
away from the lower resonance. The radiations from the bends add up to produce
the desired polarization which in turn depends on the dimensions of the meander
line antenna. The spacing between two bends are very critical, where if the bends
are too close to each other, then cross coupling will be more, which affects the
polarization purity of the resultant radiation pattern. In other case, the spacing is
limited due to the available array grid space and also the polarization of the
radiated field will vary with the spacing between the bends and the spacing
between the microstrip lines [54-55].

The radiation from a meander line antenna is diagonally polarized, when

one cell of the meander line antenna is considered as shown in Fig.2.4(c). If we
assume that the bends are all identical and matched then the total radiated field
from one period is given by [52].

26
7φ #θ$ 
#t$ ’
Qβ Q• –
b@ABθ | GŽ v
‘βG 
v sin sin  β ?  ?
 
—β •— –
| #G$#Q•—$βG–
sin sin  β ?   (2.32)
 

7θ #θ$ 
#t$ ’
Qβ Q• – —β •—
b˜| GŽ v
‘βG 
v sin cos  β ?    | #G$#Q•—$βG– sin cos  β?
   
–

 (2.33)

›  ?2œ
sin θ (2.34)

Where

θ = Elevation angle in Cartesian coordinates

φ = Azimuth angle in Cartesian coordinates

β = 2π/λg, the microstrip wave number

k0 = 2π/λ0, the free space wave number

C = Radiated field strength

Here, the | Gω time dependence is suppressed

2.3.4 Design Procedure of the Microstrip Square Spiral Patch Antenna

Spiral antennas belong to the class of frequency independent antennas which
operate over a wide range of frequencies. Polarization, radiation pattern and
impedance of such antennas remain unchanged over large bandwidth [56]. Such
antennas are inherently circularly polarized with low gain. Array of spiral antennas
can be used to increase the gain. Spiral antennas are reduced size antennas with its
windings making it an extremely small structure [57-59]. It consists of one or
multiple arms as well. Lossy cavities are usually placed at the back to eliminate
back lobes because a unidirectional pattern is usually preferred in such antennas.

27
Spiral antennas are classified into different types; archimedean spiral, square spiral
and star spiral etc. Archimedean spiral is the most popular configuration.
These antennas operate in 3W way; travelling wave, fast wave and leaky wave.
The travelling wave, formed on spiral arms, allows for broadband performance,
fast wave due to mutual coupling phenomenon occurring between arms of spiral
and leaky wave leaks the energy during propagation through the spiral arms to
produce radiation. Ring theory (band theory) explains the working principle of
spiral antenna. The theory states that spiral antenna radiates from a region called
active region [60] where the circumference of spiral equals wavelength.
Different design parameters are to be considered while designing a square spiral
antenna as shown in Fig. 2.5 include spacing between the turns 's', width of arm
'w', inner radius 'r1' and outer radius 'r2’. The inner radius is measured from centre
of the spiral to centre of the first turn while the outer radius is measured from
centre of the spiral to centre of the outermost turn.

Figure 2.5 Geometry of single arm square microstrip patch antenna

Other than these design parameters, spiral antennas have lowest and highest
operating frequencies which can be calculated from the following relations where
'c' corresponds to speed of light:

fžŸ  c¡2πr (2.35)



28
 f¢ˆ£  c¡2πr (2.36)


In an rθ coordinate system, spiral grows along r-axis and θ-axis simultaneously.

All spirals satisfy following equation where 'a' corresponds to growth factor and 'b'
corresponds to multiplication factor:

r = a + bθ (2.37)

Different designs of spiral antenna can be obtained by varying number of turns it

contains, the spacing between its turns and the width of its arm.

2.4 FEED MECHANISMS OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS

Microstrip antennas have radiating elements on one side of a dielectric substrate,
and thus early microstrip antennas were fed either by a microstrip line or a coaxial
probe through the ground plane. Since then, a number of new feeding techniques
have been developed. Prominent among these are coaxial feed, microstrip
(coplanar) feed, proximity-coupled microstrip feed, aperture coupled microstrip
feed, and coplanar waveguide feed. Selection of feeding technique is governed by
a number of factors. The most important consideration is the efficient transfer of
power between the radiating structure and the feed structure, that is, impedance
matching between the two. Another consideration is the suitability of the feed for
array applications.
2.4.1 Coaxial Feed/Probe Coupling
Coupling of power through a probe is one of the basic mechanisms for the transfer
of microwave power. The probe can be an inner conductor of a coaxial line in the
case of a coaxial line feeding or it can be used to transfer power from a triplate
line (strip line) to a microstrip antenna through a slot in the common ground plane.
A typical microstrip antenna using a coaxial connector is shown in the Fig.2.6.
The coaxial connector is attached to the back side of the PCB, and the center
conductor after passing through the substrate is soldered to the patch metallization.

29
 Figure 2.6 Coaxial probe feeding of a microstrip antenna
The location of the feed point is determined for the given mode so that the best
impedance match is achieved. Excitation of the patch occurs principally through
the coupling of the feed current Jz to the Ez field of the patch mode [61]. The
coupling constant can be obtained as:

Coupling © ª¯ E J dv © cos#πx
/L$ (2.38)

Where L is the resonant length of the patch, and x0 is the offset of the feed point
from the patch edge. Eq.2.38 shows that coupling is maximum for a feed located
at a radiating edge of the patch(x0 = 0 or L).

30
 Figure 2.7 Equivalent circuit of a microstrip antenna fed by a coaxial probe

Figure 2.8 Modified equivalent circuit of a microstrip antenna fed by a coaxial

Probe
The coaxial feed, using Huygen’s principle, can be modeled by a cylindrical band
of electric current flowing on the center conductor from the bottom to the top
along with an annular ribbon of magnetic current in the ground plane. An
idealization that simplifies the computation is to replace the electric current
cylinder by a uniform line current ribbon. In order to determine the probe
impedance for a microstrip antenna, the canonical problem of a parallel plate
waveguide fed by a coaxial line has been analyzed using the integral equation
formulation [62]. The input impedance of this geometry shown in Fig.2.6 has been
determined.
31
In an approximate analysis, an excitation field corresponding to TEM field
distribution in the annular ring about the probe gives fairly accurate result [17].
The resulting impedance can be modeled by an equivalent circuit, as shown in
Fig.2.7 the modified equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.2.8. A number of other
approaches for the analysis of a probe fed microstrip antenna are described in the
literature [63-66].
Coaxial feed has the advantage of simplicity of design through the
positioning of the feed point to adjust the input impedance level. But it has several
limitations. First, coaxial feeding of an array requires a large number of solder
joints, which makes fabrication difficult and compromises reliability. Second, for
increased bandwidth of a patch antenna, a thicker substrate is used and therefore
requires a longer probe. This gives rise to an increase in spurious radiation from
the probe, increased surface wave power and increased feed inductance. However,
the feed inductance can be compensated for by a series capacitor. One approach to
introduce a capacitor in series with the probe is to etch out an annular slot in the
patch metallization concentric with the probe. However .the electrical field in the
annular region will introduce cross-polar components in the radiation pattern. The
antenna impedance can be transformed to a desired value by introducing
electromagnetic coupling between the patch and the probe. The coupling region is
increased by terminating the probe in a disk, and positioning the disk below the
patch. The input impedance depends on the disk size, spacing of the disk from the
patch, and the probe position.
2.4.2 Microstrip Edge Feed
Excitation of the microstrip antenna by a microstrip line on the same substrate is
the natural choice because the patch can be considered an extension of the
microstrip line, and these both can be fabricated simultaneously. The coupling
between the microstrip line and the patch is in the form of the edge or butt-in
coupling as shown in the Fig.2.9.

32
 Figure 2.9 Antenna with microstrip edge feed
The edge-coupled microstrip feed can be modeled by means of the step-in-width /
impedance junction. The equivalent circuit for this is shown in Fig.2.10. A design
based on edge-coupled feed is available in [67], and an analysis of the edge
coupled feed based on the FDTD approach is described by Vandenbosch G.A.E
and A.R.Van de Capelle [68].

Figure 2.10 Equivalent circuit of edge feeding

The edge-coupled feed described above suffers from a limitation of impedance

mismatch because the input impedance of the patch at its radiating edge is very
high compared to the 50Ω impedance of the feed line. Therefore, an external
impedance matching circuit is used between the patch edge and the 50Ω

33
microstrip line. The impedance matching circuit, besides giving rise to spurious
radiation, cannot be accommodated in arrays, because of the non-availability of
physical space on the substrate. The microstrip line blocks radiation from the
portion of the patch with which it is in contact resulting in reduced radiation. This
is a serious limitation of this feed at millimeter wave frequencies where the patch
width can be comparable to the width of the microstrip line.
2.4.3 Microstrip Inset Feed
This type of feed overcomes the some of the short comings of microstrip edge
feed. Here, the microstrip line is inset into the patch, a diagram of an inset fed
patch is shown in Fig.2.11, where Y represents the inset length. The approximate
equivalent circuit for the inset microstrip feed is shown in Fig.2.12.The purpose of
the inset cut in the patch is to match the impedance of the feed line to the patch
without the need for any additional matching element. This is achieved by
properly controlling the inset position. Hence this is an easy feeding scheme, since
it provides ease of fabrication and simplicity in modeling as well as impedance
matching.A parametric study of rectangular patch with various inset lengths Y has
been reported [69].

Figure 2.11 Antenna with microstrip inset feed

34
 Figure 2.12 Equivalent circuit of inset feeding

The input impedance for an inset fed patch is given by the simplified expression
[71].
i°
Zin (Y) = Cos2( $Zin(0) (2.39)
±

Here Zin(0) is the input impedance if the patch was fed at the end. Hence by
feeding the patch antenna as shown Fig.2.11, the input impedance can be
decreased. This method can thus be used to tune the input impedance to the
desired value. The feed position is selected such that the input impedance of the
antenna is 50Ω. The resulting feed point is about the same as that used for coaxial
feed.

2.5 RECONFIGURABLE ANTENNA DESIGN METHODOLOGIES

This section discusses the different methodologies that are used to design
reconfigurable antennas. It describes each method and illustrates the strengths and
weaknesses associated with each. Classical non-reconfigurable design methods
have dominated antenna engineering for the majority of antenna design history. In
order to make the transformation from fixed element operation to reconfigurable
antenna design requires a suitable conversion in design methodology. There are
three broad methodologies that have been identified for achieving reconfigurable

35
antenna designs and operation namely antenna geometry morphing, matching
network morphing and smart geometry reconfiguration. Antenna geometry
morphing represents the most structurally complicated of the methods. It is
implemented through a large array of switchable sub-elements which are
combined to form the desired radiating structure. Feed geometry morphing is the
simplest of the methods and modifies only the feed structure or impedance
matching network of the antenna while the radiating structure remains constant.
The smart geometry reconfiguration method lies between the other two in its
structural implementation complexity. It modifies only critical parameters of the
antenna radiating structure to achieve the desired range of reconfigurable control
[72].

2.5.1 Antenna Geometry Morphing

The antenna geometry morphing method achieves reconfigurable operation by
switching a large array of interconnected sub-elements. The sub-elements are
²
connected together via RF switches and are typically less than size


(conductors). Because the sub-elements are much less than a wavelength in size,
they do not form efficient radiating elements individually. However, switching
together multiple adjacent sub-elements results in an aggregate structure that
forms the desired radiator. This sub-element arraying allows considerable
flexibility in forming the radiator. The geometry of the aggregate radiating
structure can take a wide variety of forms depending on the desired application.
The reconfigurable antennas designed via this method are often referred to in the
literature as distributed radiators because the total radiating structure is distributed
over many smaller structures. Fig.2.13 illustrates the concept of the antenna
geometry morphing method. The example is a reconfigurable microstrip patch
antenna consisting of a large grid of switched microstrip sub-patches that are
available on the dielectric substrate. These sub-patches do not represent individual
microstrip patch antennas themselves but act as actively reconfigurable conducting
structures. The detailed blow-up in Fig.2.13 shows a single functional unit cell for

36
the composite antenna. These unit cells illustrate the concept of the sub-patch
conducting structure. Each unit cell consists of a small conducting patch of metal
and four RF micro switches. The switches provide the RF conduction path to the
nearest neighboring unit cell. The composite antenna is then constructed by
activating the necessary switches to form then antenna. In this example, the
structure is first configured to form a conventional rectangular microstrip patch
antenna. Next, several of the sub-patches along the length of the microstrip feed
are switched to the off state. This moves the effective feed point for the patch
antenna closer to the center of the patch and alters the input impedance of the
patch. Finally, the unit cells are configured to form a bow-tie patch antenna which
has different radiation characteristics than the rectangular patch.

Figure 2.13 Reconfigurable Antenna structure [72]

The antenna geometry morphing method has the obvious advantage of providing a
large amount of antenna reconfigurability. The array of sub-elements provides a
large level of flexibility in composing the aggregate antenna. Because of the
flexibility in configuring the antenna, a wide range of control over many antenna
characteristics is offered by employing this method. Thus, a single reconfigurable
platform could be used for a large number of applications. System operation over

37
multiple frequency bands, with variable radiation pattern characteristics and
selective polarization is possible with a single reconfigurable platform. Likewise,
the layout of the sub-element array pattern is not limited to two dimensional planar
microstrip geometries. Surface conformal and three dimensional geometries also
represent viable configurations. The highly flexible nature of total geometry
morphing dictates the primary difficulty with implementing this method. The
extreme complexity involving numerous individual components to necessary to
realize the geometries is inherent in this method. A large number of sub-elements,
switches and control lines are required to implement the reconfigurable geometry.
This leads directly to geometry and component management issues. A large
number of active components also means there are a large number of points of
failure. Recent advancements in RF switches have been the driving force behind
much the reconfigurable antenna designs. As with any mechanical switch, RF
switches are susceptible to reliability issues due to mechanical fatigue. Thus, any
structure which depends explicitly on the reliable operation of these switches will
be subject to performance degradation in the case of switch failure.

2.5.2 Feed Geometry Morphing Technique

The feed geometry morphing method represents the simplest of the three
techniques for achieving reconfigurable antenna operation. In this method, the
actual radiating structure remains constant and only the feed or impedance
matching section of the antenna is reconfigured. Like the antenna geometry
morphing method, this method is often employed with microstrip geometries
because of the relative ease in placing RF switches on planar structures. In the
case of microstrip feed lines, there are typically 10 or more sub elements in the
transverse direction across the width of the microstrip line for adequate parameter
²
control. They are on the order of in length along the longitudinal direction. Fig.


2.14 illustrates one implementation of the matching network morphing method. In

this example a microstrip patch antenna is edge fed by a reconfigurable microstrip

38
line. The reconfigurable microstrip line consists of a small array of switchable
microstrip sub-elements. Each of these sub-elements may be switched on or off by
activating one of the miniature RF switches that form the interconnections
between the sub-elements and compose the overall microstrip structure. The width
and length of the feed line is altered to change the impedance of the microstrip.
The grey boxes represent inactive sub-elements and the a boxes represent active
sub-elements. The top left configuration in Fig. 2.14 shows the microstrip patch
antenna and the available microstrip feed lattice. The top right sub-element
arrangement shows the feed configured as a narrow microstrip line having a
characteristic impedance. The patch antenna operates in a radiation mode that is
specified by this feed configuration. The bottom two arrangements in Fig.2.14
show the microstrip feed line configured in two other possible formations. These
variations in feed impedance then excite different radiation modes in the
microstrip patch antenna.
The matching network morphing technique carries the distinct advantage of being
extremely simple to implement in practice. The only component of the antenna
that is changed is the feed network and thus the complexity of the design is
minimized. As a result, the number of physical switching components is kept to a
minimum and switch reliability becomes less of an issue. Conversely, this method
exhibits the disadvantage of limited antenna reconfigurability. The antenna
operation is varied only through changes in matching. Consideration is not given
to other critical radiation characteristics. Because the principal radiation mode is
altered by the impedance, the electrical performance characteristics are likely to
change as well.

39
 Figure 2.14 Feed geometry morphing technique [72]

2.5.3 Smart Geometry Reconfiguration Method

The third method of reconfigurable antenna design is smart geometry
reconfiguration. Falling between antenna geometry morphing and the feed
geometry morphing method in both the amount of achievable parameter control
and system complexity, this method modifies only critical parameters of the
antenna radiating structure to achieve the desired reconfigurable performance. It
can be implemented with considerably fewer control elements than the antenna
geometry morphing method and thus has the advantage of reduced design
complexity. However, with a thorough understanding of the underlying antenna
design and careful design consideration, it can yield a high level of
reconfigurability and antenna parameter control. The primary disadvantage of this
method is that the underlying physics of the particular antenna must be known in
order to take advantage of minor geometry modifications to achieve the
reconfigurable goal. Additionally, the amount of reconfigurability is ultimately
limited by the electrical characteristics of the antenna geometry. In this

40
dissertation antenna geometry method and smart geometry reconfiguration are
used to design and implement various reconfigurable antennas.

2.6 CLASSIFICATION OF RECONFIGURABLE ANTENNAS AND

RECONFIGURATION TECHNIQUES [1]

There are various techniques are there to implement reconfigurable antennas, as

indicated in Fig.2.15.Antennas based on electronic switching components to
redirect their surface currents are called electrically reconfigurable. Antennas that
rely on photoconductive switching elements are called optically reconfigurable
antennas. Physically reconfigurable antennas can be achieved by altering the
structure of the antenna. Finally, reconfigurable antennas can be implemented
through the use of smart materials such as ferrites and liquid crystals. In this
dissertation electrical reconfiguration technique is used to design and implement
various reconfigurable antennas.

Figure 2.15 various techniques to achieve reconfigurable antennas

When designing reconfigurable antennas, we must address which reconfigurable

property (e.g., frequency, radiation pattern, polarization or combination of these)

41
needs to be modified. Based on that Reconfigurable antennas can be classified into
four different categories

1. Frequency reconfigurable Antennas

2. Radiation Pattern reconfigurable Antennas

3. Polarization reconfigurable Antennas

4. Compound Reconfigurable Antennas

2.6.1 Frequency Reconfigurable Antennas

Frequency reconfigurable antenna has the reconfiguration of the resonant
frequency by the change of the structure, while the radiation patterns and
polarization remain unchanged. Frequency-reconfigurable antennas (also called
tunable antennas) can be classified into two categories: continuous and switched.

Continuous frequency-tunable antennas allow for smooth transitions within
or between operating bands without jumps.

Switched tunable antennas, on the other hand, use some kind of switching
mechanism to operate at distinct and/or separated frequency bands.
Both kinds of antennas in general share a common theory of operation and
reconfiguration, the main differences are in the extent of the effective length
changes that enable operation over different frequency bands and the devices used
to achieve these changes.

2.6.1.1 Principle behind frequency reconfiguration

Many common antennas such as linear antennas, loop antennas, slot
antennas, and microstrip antennas, are usually operated in resonance. In these
cases, the effective electrical length of the antenna largely determines the
operating frequency, its associated bandwidth (typically no more than about 10%
and usually around 1% to 3% for a single resonance), and the current distribution
on the antenna that dictates its radiation pattern. For instance, for a traditional

42
linear dipole antenna, the first resonance occurs at a frequency where the antenna
is approximately a half wavelength long, and the resulting current distribution
results in an omnidirectional radiation pattern centered on and normal to the
antenna axis. In this case, if one wants the antenna to operate at a higher
frequency, the antenna can simply be shortened to the correct length
corresponding to a half wavelength at the new frequency. The new radiation
pattern will have largely the same characteristics as the first because the current
distribution is the same relative to a wavelength. The same principle holds true for
loops, slots, and microstrip antennas as well.

2.6.1.2 Frequency Reconfiguration Mechanisms

A number of mechanisms can be used to change the effective length of resonant
antennas, although some of these are more effective than others in maintaining the
radiating characteristics of the original configuration. The effective length of the
antenna, and hence its operating frequency, can be changed by adding or removing
part of the antenna length through electronic, mechanical, or other means. There
are different kinds of switching technology FETs and PIN diode in frequency
tunable monopole and dipole antennas for various frequency bands. Although
these are just some of the many examples of switched frequency reconfigurability
with a range of different antenna types and geometries, they all share the common
approach of discrete changes in effective length to achieve their goals.
The use of variable reactive loading has much in common with the switched
reconfigurability discussed above the only real difference between the two is that,
in this case, the change in effective antenna length is achieved with devices like
varactor diodes or mechanisms that can take on a continuous range of values
(typically capacitance) that allows smooth rather than discrete changes in the
antenna’s operating frequency band.

2.6.2 Polarization Reconfigurable Antennas

Antenna polarization reconfiguration can help provide immunity to interfering
signals in varying environments as well as provide an additional degree of
43
freedom to improve link quality as a form of switched antenna diversity. They can
also be used in active read/write tracking/tagging applications.

2.6.2.1 Principle behind Polarization reconfiguration

The direction of current flow on the antenna translates directly into the
polarization of the electric field in the far field of the antenna. To achieve
polarization reconfigurability, the antenna structure and/or feed configuration have
to change in ways that alter the way current flows on the antenna without
significant changes in impedance or frequency characteristics. Polarization
reconfigurations can take place between different kinds of linear polarization,
between right- and left-handed circular polarizations, or between linear, circular
and elliptical polarizations.

2.6.2.2 Polarization Reconfiguration Mechanisms

The mechanisms to achieve polarization reconfigurability are largely the same as
those described for frequency reconfigurability earlier, although their
implementations are necessarily different. By inserting a switch (FET or PIN
diode) into the antenna geometry, by carefully controlling the current direction we
will be able to achieve different polarizations. Polarization reconfigurability is also
achieved by including switches in the feed excitation slots rather than the surface
of the patch.

2.6.3 Radiation Pattern Reconfigurable Antennas

Radiation patterns reconfigurable antenna has the reconfiguration of the radiation
patterns by the change of the structure, while the resonant frequency and
polarization remain unchanged.

2.6.3.1 Principle behind Radiation pattern reconfiguration

The arrangement of currents, either electric or magnetic, on an antenna structure
directly determines the spatial distribution of radiation from the structure. This
relationship between the source currents and the resulting radiation should makes
pattern reconfigurability. To develop antennas with specific reconfigurable

44
radiation patterns, a designer must determine what kinds of source current
distributions, including both magnitude and phase information, are necessary.
Once a topology for the current distribution is determined, a baseline antenna
design can be selected and then altered to achieve the desired source current
distribution. This design process is very much similar to that of array synthesis.
The remaining task is to either arrange the design so that the frequency
characteristics are largely unchanged or to compensate for changes in impedance
with tunable matching circuits at the antenna terminals. In some cases, antenna
types (such as reflector antennas or parasitically coupled antennas) are selected so
that the input is more isolated from the reconfigured portion of the structure,
allowing the frequency characteristics to remain relatively unchanged while
radiation patterns are reconfigured.

2.6.3.2 Radiation Pattern Reconfiguration Mechanisms

One of the most effective and widespread methods to change radiation patterns
independently from frequency behavior is the use of electrically tuned or switched
parasitic elements. Parasitic element lengths are changed with FET or PIN diode
switches or varactors which, in turn, alter the magnitudes and phases of the
currents on the parasitic elements relative to the driven element. Tilts in the main
beam in one plane can then be switched or swept as the lengths of the parasitic
elements are changed. These methods possess several attractive qualities: isolation
of the driven element(s) from the tuned element(s) and a range of available
topologies and functionalities. Fundamentally, tuning of antenna radiation patterns
in this manner relies on the mutual coupling between closely spaced driven and
parasitic elements, resulting in effective array behavior from a single feed point.
Therefore, changes in radiation patterns are achieved through changes in the
coupling between the elements, which, in turn, change the effective source
currents on both the driven and parasitic elements. Relative leads or lags in the
induced current on the parasitic element(s) result in classical “reflector” or
“director” behavior that leads to steered or tilted beams. The effects of radiation

45
from DC bias lines with the driven element relatively isolated from the
reconfigured sections of the structure, the operating frequency and impedance
bandwidth are preserved. This antenna, in a similar manner to most parasitically
tuned antennas, can be analyzed theoretically using a combination of coupling and
array theory to explain pattern tilts.

2.6.4 Compound Reconfigurable Antennas

The ability of the antenna to reconfigure the selective operating frequency,
bandwidth, radiation pattern and polarization characteristics are termed as
compound reconfigurable antenna. The fundamental theory of operation behind
any compound reconfigurable antenna is no different from that of an ordinary
reconfigurable antenna, design and control in this case are obviously more
complex. To date, most single-element compound reconfigurable antennas have a
primary focus on one operating dimension and then additional functionality is
achieved by tuning of the existing structure. However, in the case of
reconfigurable apertures, the frequency and radiation characteristics are
determined together.

2.7 ANTENNA SWITCHING TECHNOLOGIES

This section gives a brief overview of the RF switches available for use in antenna
systems. It includes switches that have been used in both classical antenna systems
and more reconfigurable implementations. In particular it explores conventional
mechanical switches and solid state switches and makes recommendations of
candidates for use in reconfigurable antenna designs.
The fundamental role of a switch or relay is a device to make or break an electric
circuit. In static and quasi-static terminology, a switch operates simply as either a
conduction path or a break in the conduction path. However, switch operation in
an RF system will include additional electrical properties. Switch resistance,
capacitance and inductance along the RF signal path must be included in the
analysis of the system. In RF antenna systems, switch function typically entails
controlling and directing the flow of RF energy along a desired RF path.
46
Traditionally, this path may include any of the RF subsystems leading to the
antenna feed distribution network as well as the antenna feed and, in the case of
arrays, any power distribution network. The introduction of reconfigurable
antennas has also added the antenna itself to the list of places where switches are
utilized to control the direction and flow of RF current. Irrespective of the type of
switch used, there are several important characteristics that must be evaluated for
all RF switch applications and particularly reconfigurable antenna designs.
Similar to electrical switches, RF and microwave switches come in different
configurations providing the flexibility to create complex matrices and automated
test systems for many different applications. Below is a list of typical switch
configurations and usage:
• Single-pole-double-throw (SPDT or 1:2) switches route signals from one
input to two output paths.
• Single-pole-multiple-throw (SPnT) switches allow a single input to
multiple (three or more) output paths.
• Double-pole-double-throw (DPDT) switches can be used to switch
between two inputs and two outputs, as a drop-out switch, for signal
reversal, or to bypass a test component.

The following are the important parameters for proper choice of switch at
microwave frequencies
Frequency range/Bandwidth
The chosen switches should have better performance at operating frequency of the
antenna. The impedance bandwidth should be broader than the antenna bandwidth.
It should have less effect on the antenna performance. The parasitic due to
switching circuitry should be minimal.
Insertion loss
In addition to proper frequency selection, insertion loss is critical. Losses greater
than 1 or 2 dB will attenuate peak signal levels. A low insertion loss system can be

47
achieved by minimizing the number of connectors and through-paths, or by
selecting low insertion loss devices for system configuration.
Return loss
Return loss is caused by impedance mismatch between circuits. At microwave
frequencies, the material properties as well as the dimensions of a network
element play a significant role in determining the impedance match or mismatch
caused by the distributed effect. Switches with excellent return loss performance
ensure optimum power transfer through the switch and the entire network.
Isolation
Isolation is the degree of attenuation from an unwanted signal detected at the port
of interest. Isolation becomes more important at higher frequencies. High isolation
reduces the influence of signals from other channels, sustains the integrity of the
measured signal, and reduces system measurement uncertainties.
Switching speed
Switching speed is defined as the time needed to change the state of a switch port
(arm) from “ON’ to “OFF” or from “OFF” to “ON”.
Settling time
As switching time only specifies an end value of 90% of the settled/final value of
the RF signal, settling time is often highlighted in solid state switch performance
where the need for accuracy and precision is more critical. Settling time is
measured to a level closer to the final value. The widely used margin-to-final
value of settling time is 0.01 dB (99.77% of the final value) and 0.05 dB (98.86%
of the final value).
Power handling
Power handling defines the ability of a switch to handle power and is very
dependent on the design and materials used.
Termination
A 50-ohm load termination is critical in many applications, since each open
unused transmission line has the possibility to resonate. This is important when
designing a antenna for higher frequencies where switch isolation drops
48
considerably. When the switch is connected to an active device, the reflected
power of an unterminated path could possibly alter the characteristics of the
antenna.
Operating life
A long operating life reduces cost per cycle and budgetary constraints allowing
manufacturers to be more competitive.
Types of Switches
RF switches may be mechanical or semiconductor. A switch is an open circuit
when no actuation voltage is applied and a low-impedance path for the RF signal
when an actuation voltage is applied. The switch can be implemented in a series or
Shunt configuration. The Table 2.1 summarizes the performance comparison of
mechanical switches with the solid state switches.

Parameter Mechanical Switch Solid State Switch

Frequency range from [DC] from kHz

Insertion loss Low High
Return loss Good Good
Isolation Good excellent
Switching speed in ms in ns
Settling time < 15 ms < 1 us
Power handling High Low
Operating life 5 million cycles infinite
ESD immunity High Low
Sensitive to Vibration RF power overstress

TABLE 2.1 Performance comparison of Mechanical and Solid state switches

2.7.1 Mechanical Switch

Due to their large size conventional mechanical switches are not practical for
reconfigurable antenna applications. However, they have been used extensively in
high power RF applications. Mechanical switching is normally accomplished by
breaking the conducting path of a transmission line within the switch. The

49
electrical performance of mechanical switches are often much better than those of
solid state switches. Insertion losses of less than 0.1 dB and isolations of over 70
dB are common. Generally they are big in size they might not be compatible with
the printed circuit board. These are capable of handling high power levels.
Because we have moving parts in the switch system their switching speed is
limited by the resonant frequency of the mechanical parts, we will have less
switching speeds, this justifies the use of mechanical switch at lower frequency
and high power handling situations.

2.7.2 Semiconductor Switches

2.7.2.1 PIN diode switch

The PIN diode switch is a popular in microwave circuit applications due to its fast
Switching times and relatively high current handling capabilities. Conventional
electromechanical RF switches are inherently speed limited devices due to inertial
and contact potential effects. The PIN diode can operate at speeds orders of
magnitude faster than mechanical switches and can be placed in packaging
measuring a fraction the size of mechanical RF switches. The PIN diode along
with other solid state switches utilize a semiconductor junction as the RF control
element which accounts for the increase in switch speed and reduction in package
size. Switching speeds of less than 100 ns are typical. An important quality for RF
applications is the fact that it can behave as an almost pure resistance at RF
frequencies. This resistance may be varied over a range of approximately 1 to 10 k
by biasing with a dc or low frequency current. The bias current required for on
state operation is normally on the order of 10 mA, therefore, the power
consumption for overall system will be less when we use PIN diodes.
Structure of PIN diode consists of three regions namely p-doped, n-doped, in
between these layers Intrinsic (un-doped) layer is sandwiched. The structure of
PIN diode is shown Fig.2.16.

50
 Fig 2.16 PIN diode cross section and its circuit equivalents

PIN diode shows a large difference between forward bias and reverse bias
states, it shows small impedance while in forward bias and shows large impedance
in reverse bias, this effect has been used for switching purpose. PIN diode
switching circuit almost like filter designing type, a band pass filter with pass band
and stop band. Figures 2.17, 2.18 and 2.19 show the typical PIN diode as SPST &
SPDT switch configurations for both series and shunt orientations.

(a) PIN diode switch circuit (b) Ideal equivalent RF circuit representation
Figure 2.17 Series SPST PIN diode RF Switch model

51
(b) PIN diode switch circuit (b) Ideal equivalent RF circuit representation
Figure 2.18 Shunt SPST PIN diode RF Switch model

(a) Series SPDT switch (b) Shunt SPDT switch

Figure 2.19 PIN diode as SPDT switch

2.7.2. 2 Field Effect Transistor (FET) Switches

FET is a semiconductor device where the output current is controlled with
help of applied field i.e voltage. Normally, PIN diode switch is used as the
predominant switch in antenna switching applications. But recent innovation of
new semiconductor materials like GaAs technology are proved to be more
attractive compared to the other semiconductor switches due to the following

52
reasons. First it provides very good isolation between the RF path and biasing
circuit. Secondly low power consumption as they consume almost zero DC power
while operating. Third important characteristics of the switch is switching speed,
FET switching time is only a few nanoseconds. FET switch is a three terminal
device, the bias voltage at the FET gate terminal provides the switch control.
Switching the gate voltage between zero and greater than the device pinch-off
voltage toggles the switch between it’s on and off states. Figures 2.20 and 2.21
show the typical FET as SPST & SPDT switch configurations for both series and
shunt orientations.

(a) FET switch circuit (b) Ideal equivalent RF circuit representation

Figure 2.20 FET switch configuration (series switch)

(a) switch circuit (b) Ideal equivalent RF circuit representation

Figure 2.21 FET switch configuration (shunt switch)

53
RF FET switches tend to operate over a broader bandwidth than PIN diode
switches but the associated insertions losses for FET switches are comparatively
higher than PIN diode implementations. FET switch tend to suffer from increased
insertion losses at frequencies over 1 GHz and reduced isolation in the off state.
Typically 1-2 dB of insertion loss and 20 to 25 dB of isolation in the off state is
seen at these higher frequencies. The Table 2.2 summarizes the performance
comparison of different solid state switches such as standard FET switches and
PIN diodes.

Parameter PIN FET

Insertion loss at 1 GHz (dB) 0.5-1.0 0.5-1.0
Isolation at 1 GHz (dB) 20-40 40
Switching speed (s) 650X10-9 10 -10-8
-9

Bandwidth (MHz) 20-2000 -

Actuation voltage (V) 3-5 5-50
Bias current (µA) 104 <10

TABLE 2.2 Comparison of performance of FET and PIN switches [27]

By comparing overall performance characteristics of solid state switches such as

FET transistors and PIN diodes, it can be concluded that the PIN diode switches
can offer promising characteristics for reconfigurable antennas.

2.8 RECONFIGURABLE ANTENNA CAD SIMULATOR

The tasks of accurately modeling microwave circuits containing switches are
critical for predicting antenna behavior. In the past 15 years, EM field simulators
have become the most common type of tool for designing and simulating antennas
[73]. A wide variety of field solver techniques exist including moment
method(MoM), finite element method (FEM), finite difference time domain
(FDTD), finite integration technique (FIT) and transmission line modeling (TLM).
Though the specific details of each approach are different, all field solvers solve
Maxwell's equations to determine the antenna's electrical properties.
54
Fundamentally, field solvers take a microscopic approach to calculating the
antenna design problem and work by subdividing the problem space into smaller
pieces referred to as cells. Cell size is typically based on many conditions and is
highly dependent on the particular solver formulation used, but in all cases, the
guided wavelength is critical. Several other cell discretization parameters include
direction of field propagation, material properties, and geometrical discontinuities.
Consequently, the numerical size of the total field problem is directly related to the
resolution of the geometry discretization. Field solvers are an excellent choice for
antenna design because it is possible to include all electromagnetic effects from
first principles without having to include compensation terms which are often
required in circuit theory or other model approximations methods. It is often
impractical to model both the PIN device and the antenna in the same simulation.
As a result, the antenna is simulated separately in microwave mode and PIN
diodes are simulated in circuit mode, then, co-simulation will be carried out to
calculate the overall response. The modeling of the PIN diode should be more
accurate to get the optimum result.
All the reconfigurable antenna elements reported in this dissertation has been
simulated using Agilent Advanced System Design (ADS) software package. It has
been carried out in two stages. First, the antenna layout is simulated in ADS
Momentum window, then the simulated file has been used in the schematic
window, i.e co-simulation, for adding the effect of PIN diodes and other bias and
matching circuits, Post-processing has been carried out after S-Parameters
simulation to know the radiation characteristics. This software has the feature of
co-simulation where we can incorporate the effect of biasing circuits and PIN
diodes embedded in the antenna.

2.8.1 Agilent ADS Momentum Formulation [29]

Momentum is based on a numerical discretization technique called the Method of
Moments. This technique is used to solve Maxwell's electromagnetic equations
for planar structures embedded in a multilayered dielectric substrate. Momentum

55
has two modes of operation, microwave or full-wave mode and the RF or quasi-
static mode. The main difference between these two modes lies within the Green
functions formulations that are used. The full-wave mode uses full-wave Green
functions, these are general frequency dependent Green functions that fully
characterize the substrate without making any simplification to the Maxwell
equations. This results in L and C elements that are complex and frequency
dependent. The quasi-static mode uses frequency independent Green functions
resulting in L and C elements that are real and frequency independent. Because of
the approximation made in the quasi-static mode, the RF simulations run a lot
faster since the matrix L and C elements only have to be calculated for the first
frequency simulation point. The approximation also implies that the quasi-static
mode typically should be used for structures that are smaller than half the
wavelength. Both engine modes are using the so-called star-loop basis function,
ensuring a stable solution at all frequencies. Both engines also make use of a mesh
reduction algorithm which reduces the number of unknowns in the simulation by
generating a polygonal mesh. This mesh reduction algorithm can be turned on or
off, with a toggle switch.
The sources applied at the ports of the circuit yield the excitations in the
equivalent network model. The currents in the equivalent network are the
unknown amplitudes of the rooftop expansion functions. Solving the equivalent
network for a number of independent excitation states yields the unknown current
amplitudes. A port calibration process is used to calculate the S-parameter data of
the circuit from the current solution, when calibration is requested.
The following sections contain more information about:
• The method of moments technology
• The Momentum solution process
2.8.1.1 The Method of Moments Technology
The method of moments (MoM) technique is based upon the work of R.F.
Harrington, an electrical engineer who worked extensively on the method and
applied it to electromagnetic field problems, in the beginning of the 1960's. It is
56
based on older theory which uses weighted residuals and variational calculus. In
the method of moments, prior to the discretization, Maxwell's electromagnetic
equations are transformed into integral equations. These follow from the definition
of suitable electric and magnetic Green's functions in the multilayered substrate.
In Momentum, a mixed potential integral equation (MPIE) formulation is used.
This formulation expresses the electric and magnetic field as a combination of a
vector and a scalar potential. The unknowns are the electric and magnetic surface
currents flowing in the planar circuit.
Using notations from linear algebra, we can write the mixed potential integral
equation in very general form as a linear integral operator equation:
³ œ´µ¶ #m, m = $. 9#m$  7#m$ (2.40)
Here, J(r) represents the unknown surface currents and E(r) the known excitation
of the problem. The Green's dyadic of the layered medium acts as the integral
kernel. The unknown surface currents are discretized by meshing the planar
metalization patterns and applying an expansion in a finite number of sub-
sectional basis functions B1(r), ...,BN(r):
J(r) ¸ ∑¼
Gr ºG »G #m$ (2.41)
The standard basis functions used in planar EM simulators are the sub sectional
rooftop functions defined over the rectangular, triangular, and polygonal cells in
the mesh. Each rooftop is associated with one edge of the mesh and represents a
current with constant density flowing through that edge as shown in the Fig.2.22.
The unknown amplitudes Ij, j=1,..,N of the basis function expansion determine the
currents flowing through all edges of the mesh.

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Figure 2.22 Discretization of the surface currents using rooftop basis
functions

The integral Eq.2.40 is discretized by inserting the rooftop expansion Eq. 2.41 of
the currents. By applying the Galerkin testing procedure, that is, by testing the
integral equation using test functions identical to the basis functions, the
continuous integral Eq.2.40 is transformed into a discrete matrix equation for
i=1,...,N
∑¼
¾r ½¾,G ºG  ¿¾ or [or [Z] . [I] = [V] (2.42)
With

½¾.G  ³À œ´»¾ #m$. ³ÀÁ œ´ = µ¶ #m, m = $ . »G #m$ (2.43)

¿¾  ³À œ´»¾ #m$. 7#m$ (2.44)

The left hand side matrix [Z] is called the interaction matrix, as each element in
this matrix describes the electromagnetic interaction between two rooftop basis
functions. The dimension N of [Z] is equal to the number of basis functions. The
right-hand side vector [V] represents the discretized contribution of the excitations
applied at the ports of the circuit.
The surface currents contribute to the electromagnetic field in the circuit by means
of the Green's dyadic of the layer stack. In the MPIE formulation, this Green's

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dyadic is decomposed into a contribution from the vector potential A(r) and a
contribution from the scalar potential V(r):
µ¶ #m, m = $  ˜Âµ à #m, m = $º ¶ ?

Ä)µ Å #m, m = $Ä= 0 (2.45)
GH

The scalar potential originates from the dynamic surface charge distribution
derived from the surface currents and is related to the vector potential through the
Lorentz gauge. By substituting the Eq.2.45 for the Green's dyadic in the Eq.2.43
for the interaction matrix elements, yields the following form:

½¾,G  ˜Âƾ,G  (2.46)
GHÇÈ,É

With
ƾ,G  ³À œ´»¾ #m$. ³ÀÁ œ´ = µ à #m, m = $»G #m = $ (2.47)


 ³À œ´Ä. »¾ #m$ ³ÀÁ œ´ = µ Å #m, m = $Ä. »G #m = $ (2.48)
ÇÈ,É

This allows the interaction matrix equation to be given a physical interpretation by

constructing an equivalent network model shown in the Fig.2.23 In this network,
the nodes correspond to the cells in the mesh and hold the cell charges. Each cell
corresponds to a capacitor to the ground. All nodes are connected with branches
which carry the current flowing through the edges of the cells. Each branch has in
inductor representing the magnetic self coupling of the associated current basis
function. All capacitors and inductors in the network are complex, frequency
dependent and mutually coupled, as all basis functions interact electrically and
magnetically as shown Fig.2.24. The ground in this equivalent network
corresponds with the potential at the infinite metallization layers taken up in the
layer stack. In the absence of infinite metallization layers, the ground corresponds
with the sphere at infinity. The method of moments interaction matrix equation
follows from applying the Kirchoff voltage laws in the equivalent network. The
currents in the network follow from the solution of the matrix equation and
represent the amplitudes of the basis functions.

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Figure 2.23 The equivalent circuit is built by replacing each cell in the
mesh with a capacitor to the ground reference and inductors to the
neighboring cells

Figure.2.24 Equivalent network representation of the discretized

MoM problem

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2.8.1.2 The Momentum Solution Process
The following are the different steps and technologies enable the Momentum
solution process:
• Calculation of the substrate Green's functions
• Meshing of the planar signal layer patterns
• Loading and solving of the MoM interaction matrix equation
• Calibration and de-embedding of the S-parameters
• Reduced Order Modeling by Adaptive Frequency Sampling

2.8.2 PIN Diode Switch Modeling and Simulation in ADS

A considerable amount of effort and research has gone into accurately predicting
the electrical behavior of PIN diode switches. One of the most compelling reasons
for using PIN diode switches in antenna applications are that they have shown to
approximate, to a very good degree, ideal switches. This allows us to forego the
nearly impossible task of a complete field simulation of an entire antenna structure
including all the minute details of the PIN diode switches. Thus, reconfigurable
antenna modeling can be performed using a less complex approach with simplified
equivalent switch circuit in place of the actual PIN diode structures.

Figure 2.25 Comparison of ideal and non-ideal transmission line circuit model
Switches

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Two options are examined in this dissertation to model reconfigurable antennas in
a simplified manner. The first approach taken is called the reactive switch model
and treats the RF switch as a non-ideal component. Electrically the switch is
modeled with lumped elements. The on-state consists of a small series resistance,
Rs, in the switch transmission line path. Rs is the switch contact resistance and is
normally depends on the actual switch to be used. The off-state is modeled as a
large series resistance, in parallel with a small capacitance. Incorporating the
reactive switch model can be bulky if large numbers of switches are to be used.
Placing a discrete component within the model requires the insertion of a port at
the physical switch location in the geometry definition. The task of adding the
switch properties now becomes solving a circuit based model. The switch
electrical properties are added to the S-parameter data and the final solution to the
problem is obtained during co-simulation after post-processing of the antenna is
completed. This model takes into account the well understood behavior of the
reactive properties of PIN diode switches.
Complete Model Reduced Models

Reactive Ideal
Full
Electromagnetic Electromagnetic Electromagnetic
analysis of analysis of antenna analysis of
antenna with structure with antenna structure
detailed RF circuit model with ideal model
Switch models switches switches

Figure 2.26 Reconfigurable antenna modeling comparison

The second approach will model the PIN diode switches as ideal elements and will
only include the reactive characteristics intrinsic to the discontinuities caused by
the presence of the switch itself. Fig.2.25 shows the two models in terms of
equivalent transmission lines. Fig.2.26 summarizes the methods available for
simulating reconfigurable in the presence of RF switches. The complete model

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which performs a full electromagnetic analysis on both the antenna structure and
the RF switch structure is currently considered impractical due to the large
problem size required to model the switches. This leaves the reduced models
which represent the switches in a more manageable manner. The non-ideal model
treats the switches as reactive elements requires additional port structures in the
model. It also requires the additional step of post processing to include switch the
effects within the model and is practical for reconfigurable antennas with only a
small number of switches (less than 10). The ideal model is the only method
currently practical for antennas with a relatively large number (greater than 10) of
switches. There is no post processing needed to include the switch effects and
toggling between switch states is performed simply by adding or removing metal
patches.

2.9 SUMMARY
In this chapter detailed study on reconfigurable methodologies using
microstrip antennas and the design procedures of different microstrip antenna
geometries used in the thesis which form the basis for the reconfigurable antenna
and also modeling of different feed types used in this dissertation. The detailed
description of reconfigurable antenna technology including various methodologies
for achieving frequency, pattern and polarization reconfiguration along with the
principle behind reconfiguration and mechanisms to achieve them. Brief overview
of the RF switches available for use in reconfigurable antenna systems has been
discussed and formulation & technology of the CAD simulator used to design
various antennas in this dissertation.

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